* Laboratory of Cytokinetics, Institute of Biophysics, 612 65 Brno, Czech Republic; Department of Chemistry and Toxicology, Veterinary Research Institute, 621 32 Brno, Czech Republic;
Center of Cell Therapy and Tissue Repair, Charles University, 150 06 Prague, Czech Republic;
Department of Molecular Embryology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic; ¶ Institute of Toxicology, Johannes Gutenberg-University, 55131 Mainz, Germany; and || Laboratory of Molecular Embryology, Mendel University Brno, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
1 To whom correspondence should be addressed at Laboratory of Cytokinetics, Institute of Biophysics, Královopolská 135, 612 65 Brno, Czech Republic. E-mail: vondracek{at}ibp.cz
Received August 13, 2004; accepted October 7, 2004
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ABSTRACT |
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Key Words: cell proliferation; tumor promotion; contact inhibition; PCBs; liver epithelial cells.
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INTRODUCTION |
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The tumor-promoting activity of PCBs has been suggested to be associated with their capacity to either directly or indirectly activate signal transduction pathways leading to increased cell proliferation, inhibition of negative growth control and programmed cell death, or inhibition of gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) (Glauert et al., 2001). The effects of dioxin-like PCBs are considered to be related predominantly to their capacity to activate genes regulated by AhR (Safe, 1994
); however, the exact mechanisms of their action still remain elusive. Several studies have demonstrated the capability of AhR ligands to stimulate cell proliferation and to inhibit apoptosis in liver; however, opposite effects have also been reported (Puga et al., 2002
; Schwarz et al., 2000
; Tharappel et al., 2002
; Wölfle et al., 1993
). Activation of AhR might also play a role in inhibition of GJIC that is observed in hepatoma cells or in hepatocytes (De Haan et al., 1994
; Hemming et al., 1991
). However, neither dioxins, known as efficient liver tumor promoters, nor dioxin-like PCBs are able to suppress GJIC in rat liver epithelial "stem-like" WB-F344 cells (Hemming et al., 1991
; Machala et al., 2003
). This cell line, isolated from the liver of an adult male Fischer 344 rat (Tsao et al., 1984
), is an in vitro model of oval cells, small oval-shaped epithelial cells that are considered to be liver progenitor cells. The oval cells can give rise to both hepatocytes and biliary epithelial cells, and they might play a significant role in hepatocarcinogenesis (Alison, 2003
; Dumble et al., 2002
; Roskams et al., 2003
). In humans, both dedifferentiation of mature hepatocytes and maturation arrest of progenitor cells have been suggested to lead to hepatocellular carcinomas (Roskams et al., 2003
). Therefore, the liver progenitor cells might represent a potential target for tumor-promoting chemicals.
The rate of proliferation of most non-transformed adherent cells decreases with increased cell density as they become arrested in G1 phase of the cell cycle, which is a phenomenon known as contact inhibition (Dietrich et al., 1997; Levenberg et al., 1999
). The loss of contact inhibition can lead to deregulated growth and is often associated with malignant transformation (Tsukita et al., 1993
). A release from contact inhibition is a mechanism suggested to be an important part of effects of tumor promoters, such as 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (Oesch et al., 1988
). Interestingly, both 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and AhR-activating polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons have been found to interfere with mechanisms of contact inhibition in rat liver epithelial cells (Chramostová et al., 2004
; Dietrich et al., 2002
; Köhle et al., 1999
). Contact inhibition usually leads to decreased expression of cyclins involved in regulation of G1-S phase transition and early S phase, which in turn decreases the activities of the cyclin-dependent kinases (cdks) in rat liver epithelial cells (Dietrich et al., 2002
). Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, a powerful liver tumor promoter, has been reported to upregulate cyclin A expression in confluent WB-F344 cells, and that upregulation has been associated with increased cdk2 activity. Therefore, the cyclin A/cdk2 complex activity could play a pivotal role in the TCDD-induced release of confluent cells from contact inhibition (Dietrich et al., 2002
). The increased activity of cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1), one of the AhR-regulated genes, has been reported to correlate with induction of cell proliferation by dioxins in WB-F344 cells (Köhle et al., 1999
).
Taken together, AhR might be involved in the TCDD-induced release from contact inhibition. Because dioxin-like PCBs are potent AhR ligands, with PCB 126 being considered only 10 times less effective than TCDD itself (van den Berg et al., 1998), the AhR-activating PCB congeners might disrupt contact inhibition in rat liver stem-like cells, and thus contribute to tumor promotion. The present study aimed to verify the hypothesis that dioxin-like PCBs and their hydroxylated PCB derivatives could stimulate a release of rat liver stem-like cells from contact inhibition by a mechanism that would involve modulation of expression and/or activity of proteins involved in the control of G1-S phase transition and early S phase progression.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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Western blot analyses and detection of cdk2 activity. Confluent WB-F344 cells grown on 60-mm-diameter cell culture dishes were exposed for 48 h to tested compounds or 0.1% DMSO (vehicle). Proteins were extracted for 30 min in ice-cold lysis buffer (50 mM Tris/HCl [pH 7.4], 150 mM sodium chloride, 0.5% Nonidet P-40, 1 mM EDTA, 0.1 mM dithiothreitol, 50 mM sodium fluoride, 8 mM ß-glycerolphosphate, 100 mM phenylmethylsulfonylfluoride, 1 µg/ml leupeptin, 1 µg/ml aprotinin, 10 µg/ml soybean trypsin inhibitor, 10 µg/ml tosylphenylalanine chloromethane). The extracts were cleared by centrifugation at 15,000 g for 15 min at 4°C and stored at 80°C until use. Concentrations of total protein were determined using a DC Protein Assay Kit (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Prague, Czech Republic). For kinase assays, the extracts (150 µg of total protein per reaction) were first subjected to initial absorption with protein G agarose beads and then incubated with appropriate antibodies (sc-163 for cdk2, sc-751 for cyclin A, and sc-601-G for cdk4) for 1 h in an ice bath. Immunoprecipitates were collected on protein G agarose beads by overnight rotation, washed three times with lysis buffer, and twice with kinase assay buffer (50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5; 10 mM MgCl2; 10 mM MnCl2; 8 mM ß-glycerolphosphate; 1 mM dithiothreitol). The cdk2 kinase reactions were carried out for 30 min at 37°C in a total volume of 25 µl in kinase assay buffer supplemented with 100 µg/ml histone H1 (type III-S) and 40 µCi/ml [32P] ATP. Cdk4 kinase assay was performed with 80 µg/ml GST-pRb (a gift from Dr. J. Lukas) and 40 µCi/ml 32P-ATP. Reactions were terminated by mixing with 2x Laemmli sample buffer, and each total reaction mix was subjected to sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and autoradiography. Densitometry was performed using AIDA Image Analyzer software (raytest Isotopenmeßgeräte, Starubenhardt, Germany).
For Western blotting, equal amounts of total protein were subjected to 10% SDS PAGE, electrotransferred onto a PVDF membrane, immunodetected using appropriate primary and secondary antibodies, and visualized by ECLPlus reagent (Amersham, Little Chalfont, UK) according to the manufacturer's instructions. When required, membranes were stripped in 62.5 mM Tris/HCl pH 6.8, 2% SDS, and 100 mM ß-mercaptoethanol, washed, and reblotted with another antibody. After immunodetection, each membrane was stained by amidoblack to confirm equal protein loading.
Real-time RT-PCR for quantification of CYP1A mRNA. Total RNA was isolated from cells using the RNeasy mini kit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA) including treatment with DNase I (Qiagen). The amplifications of the samples were carried out in a final volume of 20 µl in a reaction mixture containing 10 µL of QuantiTect Probe RT-PCR Master Mix, 0.2 µl of QuantiTect RT Mix (Qiagen), 2 µl of solution of primers and probe, 5.8 µl of water, and 2 µl of sample. The final concentrations of primers and probe were 1.0 µM and 0.2 µM, respectively. The probes were labeled with a 5' FAM reporter and a 3' BHQ 1 quencher. The amplifications were run on the LightCycler (Roche Diagnostics GmbH, Mannheim, Germany) using the following program: reverse transcription at 50°C for 20 min and initial activation step at 95°C for 15 min, followed by 45 cycles at 95°C for 0 s and 60°C for 60 s. The primers and probe for rat CYP1A1 (Lake et al., 2003) were: forward 5'-TGAGTTTGGGGAGGTTACTGGTT-3', reverse 5'-TGAAGGCATC CAGGGAAGAGT-3', probe 5'-ATACCCAGCTGACTTCATTCCTATCCTCCGTT-3'. The primers and probe for the reference gene porphobilinogen deaminase (EC 4.3.1.8) were: forward 5'-CCCAACCTGGAATTCAAGAGTATTCG-3, reverse 5'-TTCCTCTGGG TGCAAAATCT-GGCC-3', probe 5'-CCTCAACACCCGCCTTCGGAAGCT-3'.
Statistical analysis. Data were expressed as means ± S.D. and analyzed by Student's t-test, or by analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Dunnett's test. A p value of less than 0.05 was considered to be significant.
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RESULTS |
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As reported previously, WB-F344 cells seeded at 30,000 cells per cm2 show a significant drop in proliferation after 72 h of incubation, which corresponds with a marked decrease in percentage of S phase cells (Chramostová et al., 2004). However, when cultivated in the presence of PCB 126, PCB 105, and 4'-OH-PCB 79 for an additional 72 h, a significant concentration-dependent increase in percentage of cells in S phase was observed in confluent WB-F344 cells, with PCB 126 being effective at a concentration as low as 100 pM (Fig. 2). These results corresponded with significantly increased cell numbers that were found for all three compounds (Fig. 3). PCB 126 did not exert a general proliferative stimulus because it had no effect on proliferation of WB-F344 cells cultivated at subconfluent densities (data not shown), and this suggested that its effects on confluent cells are due to the release from contact inhibition. Contrary to the above results, none of the other three compounds, carrying two or more chlorines at ortho positions, had any effect either on cell numbers or on cell cycle (Figs. 2 and 3).
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DISCUSSION |
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As shown in Figures 2 and 3, PCB 126, which is considered to be the most potent AhR agonist among coplanar PCBs (Glauert et al., 2001; van den Berg et al. 1998
), was found to increase both cell numbers and percentage of S phase cells within the concentration range of 100 pM to 10 µM. These concentrations corresponded well with the levels of PCB 126 that were found to induce CYP1A1 mRNA expression in WB-F344 cells (Fig. 4). Similarly, the mono-ortho-substituted congener PCB 105 was found to increase CYP1A1 mRNA levels, as well as to increase the percentage of S phase cells and/or cell numbers in this cell model. Both PCB 126 and PCB 105 have been reported to induce promotion of altered hepatic foci (Dean et al., 2002
; Haag-Grönlund et al., 1998
; Hemming et al., 1995
). In contrast, PCB 47 and PCB 153 had no effect on cell proliferation at concentrations up to 10 µM, nor did either compound induce CYP1A1 mRNA expression. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence that AhR-activating PCB congeners can increase cell proliferation of contact-inhibited liver epithelial cells. Such a mode of action could participate in the tumor-promoting effects of these PCBs. The concentrations of dioxin-like PCBs that induced cell proliferation in the present study correspond with the levels of PCBs used for various in vivo tumor-promotion studies in rats (Glauert et al., 2001
; van den Berg et al., 1998
). Polychlorinated biphenyls are known to be present at nanomolar levels in human blood (Kimbrough 1995
); however, their concentrations can be significantly higher in other tissues. Significantly higher concentrations have also been found in individuals living in PCB-contaminated regions (Pavúk et al., 2004
).
The effects of PCBs within an organism can be further modified by formation of active hydroxylated metabolites. Hydroxylated PCBs (OH-PCBs) have been reported to disrupt estrogen and thyroid hormone signaling, or vitamin A transport (Connor et al., 1997; Kramer et al., 1997
; Moore et al., 1997
). Several highly chlorinated OH-PCBs have been reported to persist and accumulate in animal tissues at high concentrations (Fangström et al., 2002
). However, besides the fact that OH-PCBs can inhibit GJIC in vitro, little is known about their role in tumor promotion (Machala et al., 2004
; Satoh et al., 2003
). In the present study we found that the hydroxylated derivative of non-ortho-substituted PCB 77 and 4'-OH-PCB 79 can induce both the AhR-mediated induction of CYP1A1 mRNA expression and a release from contact inhibition in WB-F344 cells. In contrast, the noncoplanar hydroxylated PCB metabolite 4-OH-PCB 187 did not affect either CYP1A1 mRNA expression or cell proliferation.
Disruption of normal control of the cell cycle is one of the important steps in carcinogenesis (Malumbres and Barbacid, 2001). Progression through the cell cycle is controlled by a sequential activation of cyclin/cdk complexes (Sherr, 2000
). The D-type cyclins associate with cdk4 or cdk6, and they play an important role during both early and late G1 phase of the cell cycle. Cdk2 associates with cyclins E and A, which act at the G1-S phase transition and during S phase entry and progression, respectively (Ekholm and Reed, 2000
; Sherr, 2000
). Inhibition of cdk2 activity is known to be involved in maintenance of contact inhibition, and upregulation of its activity has been linked to the onset of proliferation (Chen et al., 2000
). TCDD has been shown both to upregulate cyclin A levels and to increase cdk2 activity in confluent rat liver epithelial cells (Dietrich et al., 2002
). This suggested that this mechanism might be activated by dioxin-like PCBs as well. We found that PCB 126, a model dioxin-like PCB congener, can increase the expression of cyclin A and the activity of the cyclin A/cdk2 complex. In contrast, PCB 153 had no effect either on cyclin A levels or on cdk2 activity. Neither compound affected cdk4 activity, although PCB 126 increased cyclin D2 expression (Figs. 5 and 6). Although cdk4 activity was not increased, an increase in cyclin A expression and cyclin A/cdk2 activity alone could be sufficient to induce G1-S phase transition. It has been shown that the downregulation of cdk2 activity can be causative for the cell cycle inhibition, while the ectopic expression of cyclin A can restore cell cycle progression into S phase (Strobeck et al., 2000
). The exact mechanism of PCB action in WB-F344 cells, leading to an increase in cdk2 activity, remains unclear. The dioxin-like compounds could activate several early-response genes involved in the regulation of cell proliferation, e.g., c-fos or c-jun, both of which have been shown to be upregulated by AhR ligands, or they could alter cell-signaling pathways stimulating cell proliferation, such as mitogen-activated protein kinases (Puga et al., 2002
; Schwarz et al., 2000
; Tharappel et al., 2002
; Wölfle et al., 1993
). It has been speculated that an increase in c-Src activity is responsible for the proliferative effects of TCDD on contact-inhibited WB-F344 cells (Köhle et al., 1999
). AhR ligands have also been suggested to increase the activity of extracellular signal-regulated kinases (Tan et al., 2002
). However, recent data suggest that neither c-Src nor ERK1/2 is involved in the effects of TCDD on cell proliferation in this in vitro model (Hölper et al., in press
).
Cyclin-dependent kinase 2 activity is controlled not only by its association with cyclin E and A, but also by cdk inhibitors, namely p27Kip1, which is an important regulator of contact inhibition in various cell types (Polyak et al., 1994). This inhibitor has been shown to be upregulated in confluent WB-F344; yet, it is also known to be upregulated by TCDD in rat hepatoma cells in an AhR-dependent manner (Dietrich et al., 2002
; Kolluri et al., 1999
). We found in the present study that release from contact inhibition induced either by TCDD or by PCB 126 is not associated with a decrease in p27Kip1 expression, suggesting that it is not involved in their effects on proliferation of confluent cells. Nevertheless, it cannot be excluded that the high levels of p27Kip1protein in cells released from contact inhibition by TCDD or by PCB 126 are also maintained through AhR-induced expression of this cdk inhibitor.
Taken together, our data show that dioxin-like PCBs can release rat liver epithelial cells from contact inhibition by increasing cyclin A protein levels, which leads to upregulation of cyclin A/cdk2 activity. This effect correlates with induction of CYP1A1 expression, suggesting that AhR activation is involved. Disruption of cell cycle control in liver progenitor cells might play a role in the tumor-promoting effects of individual PCBs or their mixtures. Future studies should aim to describe in more detail the mechanisms responsible for this effect, as well as its in vivo significance.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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