Hormone-Induced Proliferation and Differentiation of Granulosa Cells: A Coordinated Balance of the Cell Cycle Regulators Cyclin D2 and p27Kip1
Rebecca L. Robker and
JoAnne S. Richards
Department of Cell Biology Baylor College of Medicine
Houston, Texas 77030
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ABSTRACT
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The proliferation and terminal differentiation of
granulosa cells are critical for normal follicular growth, ovulation,
and luteinization. Therefore, the in situ localization and
hormonal regulation of cell cycle activators (cyclin D1, D2, and D3)
and cell cycle inhibitors (p27Kip1 and
p21Cip1) were analyzed in ovaries of mice and
rats at defined stages of follicular growth and differentiation. Cyclin
D2 mRNA was specifically localized to granulosa cells of growing
follicles, while cyclin D1 and cyclin D3 were restricted to theca
cells. In hypophysectomized (H) rats, cyclin D2 mRNA and protein were
increased in granulosa cells by treatment with estradiol or FSH and
were increased maximally by treatment with both hormones. In serum-free
cultures of rat granulosa cells, cyclin D2 mRNA was rapidly elevated in
response to FSH, forskolin, and estradiol, indicating that estradiol as
well as cAMP can act directly and independently to increase cyclin D2
expression. The levels of p27Kip1 protein were
not increased in response to estradiol or FSH. In contrast, when
ovulatory doses of human CG (LH) were administered to hormonally primed
H rats to stimulate luteinization, cyclin D2 mRNA and protein were
rapidly decreased and undetectable within 4 h, specifically in
granulosa cells of large follicles. Also in response to LH, the
expression of the cell cycle inhibitor p27Kip1
was induced between 12 and 24 h (p21Cip1
was induced within 4 h) and remained elevated specifically in
luteal tissue. A critical role for cyclin D2 in the hormone-dependent
phase of follicular growth is illustrated by the ovarian follicles of
cyclin D2-/- mice, which do not undergo rapid
growth in response to hormones, but do express markers of FSH/LH
action, cell cycle exit, and terminal differentiation. Collectively,
these data indicate that FSH and estradiol regulate granulosa cell
proliferation during the development of preovulatory follicles by
increasing levels of cyclin D2 relative to
p27Kip1 and that LH terminates follicular
growth by down-regulating cyclin D2 concurrent with up-regulation of
p27Kip1 and p21Cip1.
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INTRODUCTION
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Cellular proliferation and differentiation are fundamental
biological processes controlled by extracellular signals that impinge
upon cell cycle regulatory machinery and modulate gene expression. In
the ovary, hormones control the development of individual follicles by
triggering sequential, dynamic changes in granulosa cell proliferation
and gene expression (1, 2, 3). In nongrowing, primordial follicles, a
single layer of granulosa cells arrested in G0 surrounds
the oocyte. In response to unknown signals primordial follicles leave
the resting pool, and granulosa cells initiate a phase of growth in
which proliferation is exceedingly slow. Studies measuring uptake of
[3H]thymidine have shown that granulosa cell
proliferation at this time proceeds at a "glacial" rate, requiring
an estimated 50 days for a multilayer preantral follicle to develop
(1). The granulosa cells of these small growing follicles acquire FSH
and estrogen responsiveness (4, 5) and when exposed to these hormones
begin to proliferate rapidly (6). The resulting phase of exponential
growth enables the development of large preovulatory follicles to occur
within an additional 3 days (1). In the hypophysectomized rat (4, 7) as
well as in mutant mice lacking either gonadotropins (8, 9), FSH (10),
or estrogen receptor-
(11), follicular development is arrested at
the preantral stage. These models illustrate that although the
early/slow stages of granulosa cell proliferation and follicle growth
occur in the absence of gonadotropins and estradiol, these hormones are
required for normal growth, including the final rapid stages of
development that form preovulatory follicles.
In response to the surge of LH that triggers ovulation, granulosa cells
of preovulatory follicles cease dividing (1, 6) and initiate a program
of terminal differentiation (12, 13). Whereas proliferation occurs over
days, the cessation of granulosa cell division is rapid and within
7 h of exposure to LH, these cells are irreversibly committed to
become luteal cells (14). These dramatic events indicate that hormones
such as FSH, estradiol, and LH control both the rate of granulosa cell
proliferation, as well as exit from the cell cycle during
differentiation. With the recent explosion of information concerning
cell cycle-regulatory molecules, the mechanisms involved in controlling
successive stages of granulosa cell proliferation and terminal
differentiation can begin to be elucidated.
Cellular proliferation is controlled by molecules positively or
negatively affecting the kinase cascades that regulate transitions
through the checkpoints of the cell cycle. Briefly summarized (for
reviews, see Refs. 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21), entry into the cell cycle is positively
regulated by D-cyclins, D1, D2, or D3 (22, 23). The D-cyclins bind
cyclin-dependent kinase (cdk) 4 or cdk6, which allows phosphorylation
by cdk-activating kinase (CAK), thereby forming an active complex. The
cyclin-cdk complex phosphorylates cellular substrates, including the
retinoblastoma protein RB and related proteins, leading to activation
of the E2F family of transcription factors. This results in the
activation of numerous genes involved in DNA synthesis and ultimately
enables cells to begin the transition from G1 to S phase.
Further progression depends on activation of cyclin E-cdk2 complexes
and the sequential activation of additional cdks. In contrast to
cyclins, cdk inhibitors (or CKIs) are negative regulators that arrest
the cell cycle in G1 by binding and inhibiting the activity
of cyclin-cdk complexes. The Cip/Kip family of CKIs,
p21Cip1 (24, 25, 26, 27, 28), p27Kip1 (29, 30), and
p57Kip2 (31, 32), bind cyclinD-cdk4/6 as well as
cyclinE-cdk2 complexes and prevent their activation.
These regulatory molecules, D cyclins and Cip/Kips, although widely
expressed in overlapping as well as tissue-specific patterns (28, 32, 33, 34), can exert dramatic effects on cell cycle progression when
their relative amounts are altered by external signals. For instance,
when overexpressed in fibroblasts, cyclin D2 stimulated a shortened
G1 phase and reduced cell generation time, and reduced
cellular dependence on serum for growth (35). When proliferating
macrophages were treated with cAMP, it caused p27 expression to
increase and triggered cell cycle arrest (36). Expression of p27 was
also increased when glial cell precursors were induced to differentiate
into astrocytes (37). Of particular interest, the targeted deletion of
cyclin D2 and p27 genes indicated that they are essential for normal
ovarian function. In mice null for cyclin D2 (cyclin
D2-/-), granulosa cell proliferation is impaired, the
ovarian follicles remain small, and ovulation fails to occur (38). In
mice null for p27 (p27-/-), follicular growth is not
compromised but granulosa cells do not luteinize properly in response
to LH leading to female infertility (39, 40, 41).
These advances in our understanding of hormonal control of ovarian
function and of the roles of cell cycle regulatory molecules have
proceeded independently. Therefore, we sought to determine when cyclin
D2 and p27 are expressed in the ovary and whether they are regulated by
hormones at specific stages of follicular growth and luteinization.
Since cyclin D2 is a rate-limiting activator of cell cycle progression
and essential for granulosa cell proliferation, we have investigated
whether the hormones, FSH and estradiol, known to trigger rapid
granulosa cell proliferation during the formation of preovulatory
follicles, also regulate cyclin D2. Since p27 is known to be involved
in exit from the cell cycle and, in particular, in the differentiation
of granulosa cells to luteal cells, we analyzed its regulation by the
surge of LH. Our results demonstrate that gonadotropins and steroids,
acting via cAMP and estrogen receptor-mediated mechanisms, impinge upon
the cell cycle regulatory machinery to control the function and fate of
granulosa cells.
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RESULTS
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Expression of Cyclin D2, p27Kip1, and
Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen (PCNA) Is Cell Specific
The cellular localization of cyclin D2 and p27 expression in
ovaries of normal mice was analyzed by in situ hybridization
and related to cellular proliferation status by immunolocalization of
PCNA, a cofactor of DNA polymerase
and cyclin-cdk complexes (42).
PCNA is expressed in proliferating cells (43) and has been shown in the
rat ovary to be a sensitive marker of granulosa cell proliferation
(44). In mice treated with PMSG to stimulate the growth of preovulatory
follicles, cyclin D2 mRNA was localized specifically to the granulosa
cells (Fig. 1
). The abundance of PCNA in
these cells indicates that they are proliferating. This pattern of
expression was specific to cyclin D2. In situ hybridization
using antisense probes for cyclin D1 and cyclin D3 showed their mRNA
predominantly in the theca and interstitial cells. Therefore, the
proliferating granulosa cells in the ovary specifically express cyclin
D2.

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Figure 1. Localization of D-type Cyclins and PCNA in the
Preovulatory Mouse Ovary
Immature mice were treated with 5 IU PMSG to stimulate follicular
growth, and ovaries were isolated 48 h later. Cyclin D2, cyclin
D1, and cyclin D3 mRNA were analyzed by in situ
hybridization using specific cDNA antisense probes. Hybridization
signal is visualized in dark field illumination. Magnification is
100x. PCNA immunodetection of proliferating cells (intense black
nuclear staining) was analyzed using anti-PCNA (Novacastra) and
anti-IgG peroxidase-linked antibodies. Magnification is 200x.
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When the expression of p27Kip1 was analyzed in mouse
ovaries, it was localized to the corpora lutea (Fig. 2
) in ovaries from mice treated with PMSG
followed by hCG to trigger ovulation and luteinization. PCNA was absent
in the luteal cells that are no longer dividing and have terminally
differentiated. Interestingly, mRNA for p21Cip1, another
member of the Cip/Kip family of cdk inhibitors, was also selectively
localized to luteal cells (Fig. 2
), indicating that these cdk
inhibitors are specifically expressed in these terminally
differentiated cells.

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Figure 2. Localization of p27Kip1,
p21Cip1, and PCNA in the Luteinized Ovary
Immature mice were treated with 5 IU hCG 46 h after PMSG to
trigger ovulation and luteinization, and ovaries were isolated 48
h later. Expression of p27 and p21 was analyzed by in
situ hybridization using cDNA antisense probes. Magnification
is 100x. PCNA was analyzed by immunodetection as in Fig. 1 .
Magnification is 200x.
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Cyclin D2 Is Expressed during Early Follicular Growth
To determine whether cyclin D2 and p27 were expressed during the
early stages of follicular development, in situ
hybridization experiments were performed on ovaries from mouse pups on
days 5 and 10 of age as well as ovaries from mutant mice in which
follicular growth is arrested at early stages in development (Fig. 3
). Ovaries from mice at day 5 (D5) and
10 (D10) of age contain growing follicles that consist of only one or
two layers of granulosa cells. Although serum FSH increases between day
5 and 10, the follicles of these prepubertal mice do not mature and do
not synthesize appreciable amounts of estradiol (45). Despite the small
size of these follicles and the slow proliferative rate (1, 2, 46),
cyclin D2 mRNA is expressed in the granulosa cells.

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Figure 3. Expression of Cyclin D2 in Small Follicles
In situ hybridization of cyclin D2 in ovaries from 5-
(D5) and 10- (D10) day-old mouse pups and adult gdf-9-/-
mice and FSHß-/- mice using a cDNA antisense probe.
Magnification of D5 and D10 is 200x; gdf-9-/- and
FSHß-/- are 100x.
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Recently, the transforming growth factor-ß-related growth
differentiation factor-9 (GDF-9), was shown to be essential for normal
follicular development (47, 48). In mice null for gdf-9
(gdf-9-/-), the ovaries appear abnormal but do contain
follicles at an early/primary stage of development. Although the
follicles contain only a single layer of granulosa cells, cyclin D2
mRNA is present (Fig. 3
). FSH has long been known to be important for
follicular growth (4). In mice null for the FSHß subunit
(FSHß-/-), follicular growth progresses until follicles
are comprised of several layers of granulosa cells, but arrests before
antral formation indicating that only early stages of follicular growth
are gonadotropin independent (10). Cyclin D2 is also expressed in
the granulosa cells of the small follicles in the
FSHß-/- mice (Fig. 3
). In situ hybridization
performed on ovarian sections from these same mice using a p27
antisense probe showed that p27 mRNA is expressed at low levels and not
localized to any particular cell type (data not shown). Collectively,
these results demonstrate that cyclin D2 is expressed very early during
the course of follicular growth, i.e. in all follicles that
have initiated growth from the primordial stage. Second, the expression
of cyclin D2 mRNA in granulosa cells of small follicles is gonadotropin
independent and can occur in the absence of FSH, estradiol, and GDF-9.
Third, in these early stages of proliferation and follicular growth,
granulosa cells lack appreciable levels of p27.
In the mice analyzed above, the follicles are in a
gonadotropin-independent phase of growth, and granulosa cell
proliferation is slow (1, 2). In contrast, the most rapid phase of
granulosa cell proliferation occurs when small follicles become
responsive to gonadotropins and begin to synthesize estradiol (1, 6).
To determine whether these hormones regulate the expression of cyclin
D2 or p27, we used the hypophysectomized rat model, which enables
precise hormonal treatments, provides sufficient material for
quantitative studies, and allows for comparison with the mouse. Most
importantly, it is a physiological model in which the effects of
estradiol, FSH, and LH on ovarian cell proliferation and function have
been well characterized (4, 5, 7).
Cyclin D2 and p27Kip1 Are Hormonally
Regulated during Follicular Development
In the hypophysectomized (H) rat, follicular growth is initiated
but not sustained due to lack of gonadotropins and steroids (4).
Treatment of H rats with estradiol for 3 days (HE) promotes the
proliferation of granulosa cells (6) and growth of large preantral
follicles (4, 5, 6). Subsequent treatment of HE rats with FSH for 2 days
(HEF) stimulates further proliferation and promotes the growth of large
antral follicles that exhibit characteristics of normal preovulatory
follicles (4, 5, 6). Finally, an ovulatory dose of hCG triggers ovulation
and luteinization. The expression of cyclin D2 and p27 mRNA in the
ovaries of these rats was analyzed by in situ hybridization
(Fig. 4A
). In H rats, cyclin D2 mRNA is
expressed at low levels and is localized to the granulosa cells of the
small growing follicles, a pattern similar to that observed in the
follicles of FSHß-/- or prepubertal mice (Fig. 3
). In
ovaries of HEF rats, cyclin D2 mRNA expression was increased and
specifically localized to the rapidly proliferating granulosa cells of
large preovulatory follicles. In response to hCG, cyclin D2 mRNA was
rapidly down-regulated within 4 h (HEF hCG4 h) in the large
follicles that are committed to ovulate and luteinize and remained low
in the terminally differentiated corpora lutea (HEF hCG48 h). In these
same ovaries, cyclin D2 expression was not down-regulated in the small
follicles; these lack LH receptor and therefore are not exposed to
elevated levels of intracellular cAMP (3, 4, 49, 50, 51).

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Figure 4. Regulated Expression of Cyclin D2 and
p27Kip1 in the Rat Ovary
Hypophysectomized rats (H) were treated with estradiol (HE), estradiol
followed by FSH (HEF), or HEF treatment followed by an ovulatory dose
of hCG for 4 h (HEF hCG4 h) or 48 h (HEF hCG48 h), as
described in Materials and Methods. Expression of cyclin
D2 (A) or p27 (B) was analyzed by in situ hybridization
of ovarian sections from the same animal using antisense probes.
Similar results were observed in ovaries of other rats.
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In situ hybridization of sections from these same animals
using an antisense probe for p27 revealed a distinctly different
pattern of expression (Fig. 4B
). p27 mRNA was expressed at low levels
throughout the ovary in H rats, but appeared to be preferentially
localized to granulosa cells of the preovulatory follicles in HEF rats.
Treatment with hCG resulted in decreased expression of p27 within
4 h but this effect was transient. Highest levels of p27 mRNA were
observed 48 h after hCG specifically in the terminally
differentiated luteal cells.
To provide a more detailed and quantitative analysis of the effects of
estradiol, FSH, and LH on cyclin D2 and p27 expression, RNA and protein
were obtained from granulosa cells and corpora lutea isolated from the
ovaries of hormone-treated H rats. Northern analysis (Fig. 5A
) using the cyclin D2 cDNA as probe
showed that cyclin D2 transcripts of approximately 6 kb and 2.5 kb (34, 52) were present at low levels in granulosa cells of H rats. Cyclin D2
mRNA levels were greatly increased by estradiol treatment alone (HE)
and subsequent treatment with FSH (HEF) sustained the elevated
expression of the 6-kb transcript and increased the 2.5-kb transcript.
Consistent with the in situ hybridization results, cyclin D2
mRNA decreased rapidly within 2 h following treatment with hCG and
further by 8 h. Cyclin D2 mRNA levels remained low in corpora
lutea isolated 24 and 48 h after hCG. Western analysis of cellular
extracts showed that cyclin D2 protein is regulated in a similar
manner: major increases occurred with E alone, were sustained by
subsequent treatment with FSH, and were down-regulated in response
to hCG (Fig. 5A
, lower panel).

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Figure 5. Hormonal Regulation of Cyclin D2 and
p27Kip1 mRNA and Protein
Expression of mRNA and protein for cyclin D2 (A) and p27 (B) using
Northern (upper panels) and Western (lower
panels) analysis, respectively. RNA and protein were isolated
from granulosa cells and corpora lutea at the indicated times of
hormone treatment. The Northern blot was initially probed with labeled
cyclin D2 cDNA, allowed to decay, and subsequently reprobed with
labeled p27 cDNA without stripping. Equal loading of total RNA was
confirmed by acridine orange staining. For the Western blots,
anti-cyclin D2 (Neomarkers) and anti-p27 (Santa Cruz) antibodies were
used and the immunoreactive proteins detected by ECL. Levels of cyclin
D2 and p27 protein in response to FSH or E by Western blotting (C). A
single blot was sequentially probed with cyclin D2 and then p27. Data
from densitometric analysis are included in the text.
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When the same Northern blot was probed with p27 cDNA (Fig. 5B
), a
transcript of approximately 2.4 kb (53) was present in granulosa cells
of H and HE rats and increased in response to FSH. Consistent with
results from in situ hybridization, p27 mRNA levels were
transiently decreased in HEF rats 2 and 8 h after treatment with
hCG, but increased in corpora lutea isolated at 24 and 48 h. (The
additional band at 4 kb hybridizing to the p27 cDNA appears to be
nonspecific and is not hormonally regulated.) Western analysis of
cellular extracts showed that changes in levels of p27 protein were
quite similar to those of its mRNA: p27 protein was present in
granulosa cells of small and preovulatory follicles of H rats,
exhibited a transient decrease in response to ovulatory hCG, but then
increased to highest levels in corpora lutea. However, unlike its mRNA,
p27 protein was lower in granulosa cells of HE rats compared with H
rats and did not exhibit a marked increase in granulosa cells of HEF
rats, indicating that the half-life of p27 protein and mRNA in response
to estradiol and FSH may differ.
To dissect the effects of FSH vs. estradiol, and to
determine whether FSH can independently regulate the expression of
cyclin D2 expression, H rats were treated for short periods with either
FSH or estradiol, granulosa cells were isolated at selected timepoints,
and cellular protein was prepared. To stimulate a rapid response
in vivo (i.e. at 2 and 12 h) rats were
injected iv with 5.0 µg FSH, a dose previously shown to mimic the FSH
surge by markedly elevating intracellular levels of cAMP (50).
Additional rats were injected subcutaneously with FSH (1.0 µg) twice
daily, a regimen that closely mimics basal levels of FSH and maintains
granulosa cell function (5), and granulosa cells were isolated at
24 h. Estradiol treatments consisted of 1.5 mg estradiol injected
ip (for 2 h) or subcutaneously (for 12 or 24 h). Western
analysis of granulosa cell protein showed that each hormone alone
regulates cyclin D2 protein levels and that each hormone causes a
distinct temporal pattern of expression (Fig. 5C
). Specifically,
exposure of granulosa cells of H rats to elevated (surge)
concentrations of FSH resulted in a marked 7.2-fold induction of cyclin
D2 protein within 2 h compared to untreated H animals.
Interestingly, the induction of cyclin D2 by elevated FSH was
transient; protein levels returned to control levels (or below) after
12 h of FSH. In rats given the lower dose of FSH to mimic basal
hormone secretion, cyclin D2 protein was elevated 2.6-fold by 24 h
compared to untreated H controls. In contrast, the response to
estradiol occurred more gradually, 2.8-fold increase by 2 h, but
was then sustained at an elevated level, 9.7-fold at 24 h. When
the same blot was reprobed using a p27 antibody, the levels of this
protein were not acutely regulated by either FSH or estradiol. The fold
induction in response to estradiol was never greater than 1.5-fold.
Cyclin D2 Is Regulated by FSH in Vivo
To further analyze the oscillating temporal expression pattern of
cyclin D2 in response to FSH, H rats were injected iv with 5.0 µg FSH
and granulosa cells were isolated at 2, 4, 8, and 12 h. Additional
rats were injected subcutaneously with 1.0 µg FSH and granulosa cells
were isolated at 24 and 48 h. Western analyses of granulosa cell
extracts were analyzed using ECL (Fig. 6A
, upper) and densitometric
quantification (lower). As shown in Fig. 5C
above and in
additional experiments, the levels of cyclin D2 protein respond to
acute as well as tonic treatment with FSH. High levels of FSH given iv
stimulated a rapid increase (6.6 ± 1.7 fold; n = 3) in
cyclin D2 protein at 2 h. This response was transient, and levels
of cyclin D2 returned to near control levels at 4, 8, and 12 h
(1.4 ± 0.5; n = 3) after FSH treatment. In response to the
tonic dose of FSH given subcutaneously, cyclin D2 protein increased
(2.8 ± 0.3; n = 3) at 24 h and 48 h. Analysis of
p27 protein levels in these same extracts (Fig. 6B
) showed that the
increase in cyclin D2 in response to FSH is specific. When compared
with untreated controls, the levels of p27 protein remained relatively
constant at 2 h (1.2 ± 0.1; n = 3), 4 h, 8 h,
12 h (1.5 ± 0.1; n = 3), or 24 h (1.4 ± 0.5;
n = 3) and were even decreased 50% at 48 h.

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Figure 6. Induction of Cyclin D2 but Not p27Kip1
by FSH in Vivo
Western blot analysis of cyclin D2 (A) and p27 (B) protein in granulosa
cell extracts from H rats treated with FSH for the indicated times.
Experiments were analyzed using ECL detection
(autoradioagraph) and densitometry
(graph). Quantification depicts relative changes
compared with untreated (H) rats. Similar results were obtained in
three separate experiments as described in the text.
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Cyclin D2 mRNA Is Induced by FSH, Forskolin, and Estradiol
The oscillatory pattern of cyclin D2 expression observed in
granulosa cells after FSH treatment in vivo is even more
dramatic when primary granulosa cells are cultured in the presence of
FSH. Granulosa cells were isolated from estradiol-primed rats, cultured
overnight in serum-free media to remove hormonal influences and
synchronize the cells in G0, and then treated with FSH (100
ng/ml). Northern analysis (Fig. 7A
)
showed that FSH increased cyclin D2 mRNA expression within 1 and 2
h (9.0 ± 2.4, n = 3), but that expression was decreased to
1.6-fold by 6 and 10 h (not shown). After 24 h of FSH, cyclin
D2 is again elevated to high levels (10.2-fold) compared with cells
cultured 24 h in the absence of hormone (-). The increases in
cyclin D2 mRNA are induced specifically by FSH since the addition of
10% FBS, which contains numerous growth factors, did not affect cyclin
D2 expression at 2 or 6 h.

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Figure 7. Induction of Cyclin D2 by FSH, Forskolin, and
Estradiol in Vitro
A, Granulosa cells isolated from immature E-primed rats were cultured
and treated with FSH (100 ng/ml), FBS (10%), or untreated (-) for the
indicated times and total RNA extracted. B, Granulosa cells isolated
from immature, untreated rats were cultured and treated with forskolin
(Fo, 10 µM), estradiol (E, 10 nM), estradiol
plus 100 nM ICI (E+ICI) or untreated (-) for 1 or 2 h
and total RNA extracted. Northern analysis was performed using labeled
cDNA. Representative of three separate experiments with quantification
provided in the text.
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To determine whether estradiol, as well as stimulation of the
cAMP/protein kinase A pathway, could directly regulate cyclin D2 mRNA,
granulosa cells were isolated from untreated immature rats and cultured
overnight in serum-free medium. The cells were then treated with
forskolin (10 µM), a direct activator of adenylyl cyclase
(54) known to mimic the FSH-mediated activation of protein kinase A or
estradiol (10 nM). Northern analysis of total RNA (Fig. 7B
)
showed that forskolin (Fo) increased cyclin D2 mRNA expression within 1
and 2 h compared to untreated cells (-). Estradiol had only a
minimal effect after 1 h, but increased cyclin D2 mRNA expression
within 2 h. This increase was specific since the estrogen receptor
antagonist ICI 164,384 blocked the estradiol-mediated increase in
cyclin D2 (E+ICI).
LH Regulates Expression of Cyclin D2,
p27Kip1, and
p21Cip1
Follicular growth is terminated by the LH surge. As a consequence
of elevated cAMP, granulosa cells exit the cell cycle (Fig. 2
and Ref.
6), exhibit altered patterns of expression of cyclin D2 and p27 (Fig. 4
), and undergo terminal differentiation (3, 12, 13, 14). To determine more
precisely the time course of changes in cyclin D2 and p27 protein
levels after the LH surge, granulosa cells and corpora lutea were
isolated from hormone-primed H rats 2, 4, 8, 12, and 24 h after an
ovulatory dose of hCG. Western analysis (Fig. 8
) showed that the elevated levels of
cyclin D2 protein present in preovulatory granulosa cells of HEF rats
were decreased within 2 h, even lower at 4 h, and remained
low in corpora lutea (24 and 48 h). In contrast, p27, although
initially decreased by hCG after 2, 4, and 8 h, is elevated to
high levels during the course of luteinization, between 12 and 24
h after hCG.

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Figure 8. Regulation of Both Cyclin D2 and
p27Kip1 by LH
Western analysis of cyclin D2 (upper panel) and p27
(lower panel) protein levels in granulosa cell extracts
prepared from H rats treated with estradiol and FSH (HEF) followed by
an ovulatory dose of hCG for the indicated time. Immunopositive cyclin
D2 and p27 were detected using specific primary antibodies followed by
[125I]protein A. Quantification depicts relative changes
compared with non-hCG-treated HEF rats.
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Because of the apparent delay in the increase of p27 during
luteinization, we examined the expression of p21Cip1 in
ovaries of these same rats using in situ hybridization. In
contrast to p27, p21 is low in preovulatory follicles of HEF rats (Fig. 9
) but is increased rapidly in response
to hCG, within 24 h. Interestingly, at these early times, p21 mRNA
was localized to the granulosa cells surrounding the antrum and oocyte.
As luteinization proceeded, p21 was localized to granulosa cells
throughout the follicle (hCG 12 h) and continued to be expressed
in the luteal cells 24 h after hCG. Therefore, hCG induced rapid
changes in the expression of p21, as well as cyclin D2 and p27, during
the terminal differentiation of granulosa cells to luteal cells.

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Figure 9. LH Induces p21Cip1 in Granulosa Cells
In situ hybridization of p21 in ovarian sections from
hormone-treated H rats using an antisense probe. Rats were treated with
estradiol and FSH (HEF) followed by an ovulatory dose of hCG for the
indicated time.
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Granulosa Cell Differentiation Is Not Dependent On Cellular
Proliferation
Based on our findings that cyclin D2 expression is increased by
estradiol as well as FSH, we turned our attention to the cyclin
D2-/- mice in which granulosa cell proliferation in
response to PMSG (FSH) is impaired and follicles do not ovulate in
response to the LH surge (38). Their phenotype shows that cyclin D2 is
essential for normal gonadotropin-dependent follicular growth, but begs
the question: is granulosa cell proliferation necessary for the
differentiation that occurs in response to LH? Therefore, we analyzed
the expression of PCNA, a marker of cellular proliferation, as well as
a marker of granulosa cell differentiation, P450 aromatase (55), and
markers of ovulation, prostaglandin synthase-2 (PGS-2) (56, 57, 58) and
progesterone receptor (PR) (59, 60), in the ovaries of cyclin
D2-/- mice (Fig. 10
). In
both normal and cyclin D2-/- immature mice, PCNA staining
of granulosa cells was observed in the small follicles that are in the
slow/gonadotropin-independent phase of growth (Fig. 10A
). When normal
mice were treated with PMSG, many more PCNA-immunopositive cells were
present and associated with the rapidly dividing granulosa cells of
large preovulatory follicles. However, when the cyclin
D2-/- mice were treated with PMSG, proliferation did not
occur, and few of the granulosa cells expressed PCNA.

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|
Figure 10. Impaired Proliferation but Normal Differentiation
in Follicles of Cyclin D2-/- Mice
Immunodetection of PCNA (A) in immature, untreated, and PMSG-treated
mice heterozygous (±) or null (-/-) for cyclin D2. RT-PCR analysis
(B) of whole ovarian RNA from hormone-treated mice heterozygous (±) or
null (-/-) for cyclin D2. Rat granulosa cell RNA (rat GC) and
omission of reverse transcriptase (-RT) were used as positive and
negative controls, respectively. Hematoxylin and eosin staining and
PCNA immunodetection (C) of dividing cells from cyclin
D2-/- mice 48 h after hCG treatment. Remnants of
nonovulated oocytes can be seen in the small corpora lutea
(arrowheads).
|
|
Although PMSG did not stimulate proliferation of granulosa cells in
cyclin D2-/- mice, antrum formation occurred as did the
normal induction of markers of granulosa cell differentiation. RT-PCR
of whole ovarian RNA (Fig. 10B
) showed that aromatase was induced by
PMSG in cyclin D2-/- mice, indicating that the FSH
response system in granulosa cells of these mice is intact. Likewise,
in cyclin D2-/- mice, hCG (LH) decreased aromatase mRNA
and rapidly induced PGS-2 and PR mRNA, indicating that these responses
of preovulatory granulosa cells to LH are not impaired. The lower
levels of aromatase, PGS-2, and PR mRNA detected by RT-PCR in cyclin
D2-/- mice most likely reflect the reduced number of
granulosa cells in these ovaries. Lastly, hCG stimulated the formation
of small corpora lutea that do not exhibit PCNA staining (Fig. 10C
),
indicating that the mechanisms mediating complete exit from the cell
cycle are intact. However, despite the ability of cyclin
D2-/- granulosa cells to differentiate in response to LH,
the oocytes are not ovulated and remain trapped in the corpora
lutea.
 |
DISCUSSION
|
---|
Evidence is rapidly accumulating which indicates that cell cycle
progression and proliferation are controlled by altering the balance of
positive and negative regulators that converge on cell cycle kinase
cascades. Our results demonstrate that granulosa cell proliferation is
associated with the regulated expression of both D-type cyclins and cdk
inhibitors. We have shown that cyclin D2, a rate-limiting positive
regulator of cdk activity and cell cycle progression, is the
predominant D-type cyclin in granulosa cells, whereas cyclin D1 and
cyclin D3 are localized to theca cells. In contrast, the cdk
inhibitors, p27Kip1 and p21Cip1, are
selectively elevated in luteal cells. Most importantly, we have shown
that the expression of each regulatory molecule is controlled by
hormone-independent and hormone-dependent mechanisms that are
associated with precise stages of follicular growth, granulosa cell
proliferation, and luteal cell differentiation.
During the earliest stages of follicle growth, granulosa cell
proliferation occurs by mechanisms that are independent of FSH and
estradiol as well as of cyclin D2. Specifically, we have shown that
cyclin D2 mRNA is present in granulosa cells of small follicles in
which follicular growth is restricted by the absence of hormones or
growth factors; FSHß-/- mice, gdf-9-/-
mice, prepubertal mice, and hypophysectomized rats. Conversely, some,
albeit limited, proliferation of granulosa cells occurs in cyclin
D2-/- mice. These observations indicate that in small
follicles, cyclin D2 is one, but not the exclusive, factor regulating
granulosa cell entry into the cell cycle and that its expression occurs
independently of gonadotropins and steroids. The slow rate of growth is
not related to elevated amounts of p27 or p21; expression of both was
low in these small follicles. Therefore, this protracted phase of
granulosa cell proliferation appears to involve a unique set of cell
cycle regulators (or inhibitors)a specific hormone/growth factor
(GDF-9 or one yet to be identified) or the controlled lack of
responsiveness to stimulatory molecules such as FSH and estradiol.
Once the follicles begin to mature, respond to the gonadotropins, and
produce estradiol, the rate of granulosa cell proliferation is
exponentially increased (1). Based on data from the H rat, this period
of rapid proliferation is due, at least in part, to the combined
effects of estradiol and FSH/cAMP (6). Our data indicate that FSH/cAMP
and estradiol increase cyclin D2 expression by specific
receptor-mediated mechanisms in a fashion that mimics the effects of
these hormones on the labeling index/proliferation of granulosa cells
in H rats (6). Previous studies have estimated that the doubling time
of granulosa cells during this time is reduced to 24 h (1).
Consistent with this report, the results presented herein show that
in vivo cyclin D2 expression not only increased rapidly in
response to a surge concentration of FSH, but also increased between 12
and 24 h in response to tonic, basal levels of FSH. Likewise, when
cultured granulosa cells were exposed to FSH in vitro,
cyclin D2 expression showed a transient increase at 2 h followed
by a secondary increase at 24 h. These observations combined with
the markedly impaired proliferation in FSH-stimulated cyclin
D2-/- mice indicate that cyclin D2 is an essential
downstream mediator of hormone- stimulated proliferation at this period
of exponential cell growth. The ability of estradiol and FSH to
increase cyclin D2 is specific. Neither hormone increases the other
D-cyclins or p27. Therefore, our data suggest that FSH and estradiol
stimulate granulosa cell proliferation by increasing the levels of
cyclin D2 relative to those of p27, thereby triggering a burst of
proliferation that results in the development of large preovulatory
follicles.
The individual effects of estradiol and FSH/cAMP indicate that each
hormone may regulate distinct points in the cell cycle and may utilize
parallel mechanisms. For example, the temporal increase in expression
of cyclin D2 expression within 24 h in response to FSH, as well as
estradiol, is consistent with the doubling time of granulosa cells
during the period of exponential growth (1), indicating that cyclin D2
is directly or indirectly involved in timing cell cycle transit. An
oscillatory pattern of cyclin D2 expression has been observed in other
cell types in response to stimulatory factors (18, 52). However, the
apparent oscillatory pattern observed in response to FSH may also
involve an inherent periodicity in the activation of the A-kinase
pathway (61) in granulosa cells, thereby integrating many facets of
granulosa cell function. Additionally, FSH (in the presence of insulin)
has been shown to induce c-myc and c-fos (62),
and cAMP has been shown to regulate the levels of cyclin B (63),
indicating that FSH may act at multiple steps during the cell cycle.
Estradiol, in contrast to FSH, not only stimulates a greater increase
in cyclin D2 mRNA and protein, but may also decrease p27 protein
levels. The apparent down-regulation of the cell cycle inhibitor p27
concurrent with enhanced induction of cyclin D2 may be responsible for
the greater mitogenic activity of estradiol compared with FSH in the H
rat (5, 6). Furthermore, in other cell types, estradiol has been
observed to induce cyclin E (64), whose activation of cdk2 is essential
for cells to enter S phase. Therefore estradiol may also induce cyclin
E in granulosa cells providing another explanation for its greater
effect on granulosa cell proliferation compared with FSH.
In addition to FSH and estradiol, other growth factors are able to
stimulate granulosa cell proliferation implicating a role in follicular
growth. For example, activin has been observed to stimulate DNA
synthesis (65) and maintain proliferation (66) in cultured granulosa
cells, and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) expression in
situ has been correlated with granulosa cell DNA synthesis (67).
However, targeted deletion of the activin ßB subunit in mice (68, 69)
did not result in an ovarian phenotype, indicating that activins alone
are not the essential mediators of granulosa cell proliferation
in vivo. In mice null for IGF-I, although the females are
unable to ovulate, the ovarian follicles develop to the large antral
stage, indicating IGF-I may be involved primarily in granulosa cell
differentiation and responsiveness to ovulatory hormones as opposed to
granulosa cell proliferation, per se (70).
The importance of gonadotropin stimulation for granulosa cell
proliferation during the formation of preovulatory follicles is
highlighted by observations in mice deficient in the inhibin subunit
. In these mice, the appearance of ovarian tumors is coincident with
puberty (71), when the first group of growing, gonadotropin-responsive
follicles reaches the phase of exponential proliferation. However, if
the inhibin
null mice are cross-bred with hypogonadal mice that
lack FSH/LH, no ovarian tumors form (72), suggesting that when
gonadotropin/steroid action is unopposed, such as in the absence of
inhibin, granulosa cell proliferation is uncontrolled. Consistent with
this idea, chronic overexpression of LHß results in elevated levels
of estradiol and occasional ovarian tumors (73). Therefore, granulosa
cell proliferation is tightly regulated, and it appears that
appropriate ratios of estradiol, FSH/LH, and transforming growth
factor-ß family members (activin, inhibin, GDF-9), as well as growth
factors such as IGF-I, determine the progression of proliferative and
antiproliferative events within these cells. Interestingly, the human
granulosa cell tumors that have been studied overexpress cyclin D2 but
not cyclin D1 or D3 (38), supporting the evidence that expression of
cyclin D2 causes rapid granulosa cell proliferation and thereby, may
contribute to enhanced oncogenic potential.
Most dramatic is the ability of the LH surge to rapidly and completely
halt cell cycle progression as well as initiate the process of
luteinization, potentially utilizing distinct mechanisms for each. Our
results indicate that the LH surge (high cAMP) induces exit from the
cell cycle not only by elevating the levels of cell cycle inhibitors,
such as p27 and p21, but by completely down-regulating the activator,
cyclin D2. Cyclin D2 mRNA and protein are undetectable within 24 h
after the LH surge. The temporal differences in the expression of
cyclin D2, p27, and p21 may be indicative of distinct roles for each of
these regulatory molecules in the control of cell cycle progression and
cellular differentiation. Specifically, granulosa cell exit from the
cell cycle occurs rapidly after the LH surge and is likely due to the
drastic down-regulation of cyclin D2, since its absence would prevent
or markedly reduce progression through G1 phase. The early
induction of p21 in response to hCG may indicate it plays a role in
exit from the cell cycle as well. Since p27 is not elevated until
1224 h after hCG, it may not affect the immediate exit of granulosa
cells from the cell cycle but rather contributes to cell
differentiation and maintenance of cell cycle arrest. These
observations are consistent with those presented by the phenotype of
p27-/- mice (39, 40, 41) as well as evidence that cAMP
increases p27 in glial cells (36). Furthermore, p27 and p21 inhibit
many cdks and may be most important for blocking the activity of cyclin
E (and cyclin A)-cdk2 complexes (15, 18); therefore, the LH-mediated
induction of high levels of these CKIs would inhibit cell cycle
progression at multiple points. Collectively, these (and additional)
mechanisms permit the LH surge (high cAMP) to rapidly reprogram
granulosa cells to enter a nonproliferative luteal state. In contrast,
FSH and low levels of cAMP promote granulosa cell proliferation by
increasing expression of cyclin D2. Such different effects in response
to changes in cAMP levels underscore the diverse roles that the
A-kinase pathway plays in regulating ovarian cell function.
Lastly, our results offer insight into the relationship between cell
number and follicular function. Specifically, we have shown that
although follicles in the cyclin D2-/- mice have a
reduced number of granulosa cells and fail to ovulate, the hormonal
activation of the PGS-2 and PR genes that are essential for ovulation
(74, 75, 76) occurs normally in these follicles. These results implicate
cell number as a critical factor in ovulation, presumably due to the
production by granulosa cells of a critical (as yet unknown) factor
controlling an event in the ovulatory process. In contrast, cell number
is not a factor for differentiation and the formation of the corpus
luteum. In response to the LH surge, granulosa cells of cyclin
D2-/- mice exit the cell cycle (loss of PCNA staining)
and undergo terminal differentiation including hypertrophy and
expression of the luteal-specific gene, P450 side-chain cleavage (14, 38).
In summary, the control of granulosa cell proliferation is complex,
essential for normal follicular growth, and critical for ovulation. It
is dependent on the cell-specific expression of regulators of
G1 progression: the cdk activator cyclin D2 and the cdk
inhibitor p27Kip1. After the initial
gonadotropin-independent phase of growth, the regulation of these
molecules by FSH, LH, and estradiol controls the exponential phase of
granulosa cell proliferation as well as the exit of granulosa cells
from the cell cycle and their terminal differentiation to luteal cells.
Critical to the entry into and exit from the period of rapid
proliferation are the differential responses of the granulosa cells to
estradiol, as well as to the low vs. high levels of cAMP
stimulated by FSH and LH, respectively. Thus, the coordinated
interactions of estradiol and cAMP are able to tightly control the
highly proliferative and nonproliferative events in granulosa
cells.
 |
MATERIALS AND METHODS
|
---|
Hormone Treatments
Mice and rats were maintained in accordance with the NIH Guide
for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Female mice (C57/129) at
approximately 21 days of age were injected ip with 5 IU PMSG (Gestyl,
Professional Compounding Center of America, Houston, TX) to stimulate
follicular growth. They were injected ip 46 h later with 5 IU hCG
(Pregnyl, Organon Special Chemicals, West Orange, NJ) to trigger
ovulation and luteinization. FSHß-/- mice and tissue
from gdf-9-/- mice were generously provided by Dr. Martin
Matzuk, Department of Pathology, Baylor College of Medicine (Houston,
TX). Female Holtzman Sprague Dawley rats were hypophysectomized (H) on
day 26 of age and were purchased from Harlan (Indianapolis, IN).
Untreated (H) rats were given sc injections of 1.5 mg/0.2 ml
17ß-estradiol (Sigma Chemical Co, St. Louis, MO) once daily for 3
days beginning on day 28 of age (HE); estradiol treatment followed by
sc injections of 1.0 µg/0.1 ml ovine FSH (NIH oFSH-16, National
Hormone and Pituitary Agency, Rockville, MD) twice daily for two days
(HEF); or estradiol and FSH treatments followed by a single injection
of 10 IU hCG (Organon Special Chemicals) for the indicated time (HEF
hCG). hCG was administered iv for acute treatments (2, 4, 8, and
12 h) and ip for longer timepoints (24 and 48 h).
In Situ Hybridization
In situ hybridization was done as described by
Wilkensen (77). Briefly, [35S]UTP-labeled antisense and
sense probes of mouse cyclin D1, cyclin D2, and cyclin D3 cDNAs
(provided by Dr. Piotr Sicinski and Dr. Robert Weinberg, Whitehead
Institute, MIT, Boston, MA) and mouse p27Kip1 and
p21Cip1 cDNAs (provided by Dr. Stephen Elledge, Department
of Biochemistry, Baylor College of Medicine) were made using the
Riboprobe In Vitro Transcription Systems kit (Promega,
Madison, WI). Ovaries were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde, embedded in
paraffin, and sectioned at 6 µm onto silane-coated slides (Histology
Control Systems, Glen Head, NY). After rehydration, sections were
pretreated with 20 µg/ml proteinase K and 0.1 M
triethanolamine/acetic anhydride before coating with the labeled probe
and then incubated at 55 C overnight. Slides were washed at high
stringency including two washes of 50% formamide, 2x saline sodium
citrate, 100 mM ß-mercaptoethanol for 30 min each at 65
C, then treated with 20 µg/ml RNase A and dehydrated. After drying,
slides were dipped in photographic NTB-2 emulsion (Kodak, Rochester,
NY) and exposed at 4 C for 25 days. The slides were developed with
D-19 developer and fixer (Kodak) and counter-stained with hematoxylin
for 30 sec. Light field photography shows the tissue histology while
dark field illumination allows visualization of the mRNA probe.
Northern Analysis
Granulosa cells were isolated from ovaries by needle puncturing
(78). Northern analysis was done according to the method of Fitzpatrick
and Richards (79). Briefly, total cellular RNA was obtained by
homogenizing granulosa cells in buffer (140 mM NaCl, 5
mM KCl, 3 mM MgCl2, 25 mM Tris-HCl)
containing 1% NP-40 followed by phenol extraction and ethanol
precipitation. The RNA (20 µg) was separated on formaldehyde-agarose
gels and transferred to 0.2-µm Biotrans nylon membranes (ICN
Biomedicals Inc, Aurora, OH). Probes consisted of isolated cDNA inserts
labeled by random hexanucleotide priming (79) using
[32P]dCTP (ICN Radiochemicals, Los Angeles, CA) and were
incubated with the membrane at 42 C overnight, according to the
specifications of ICN. Membranes were washed for high stringency with
0.5x saline sodium citrate, 0.1% SDS at 55 C for 1 h and exposed
to X-OMAT film (Kodak).
Western Analysis
Soluble cellular protein was obtained by suspending isolated
granulosa cells in whole cell extract buffer: 10 mM
NaHPO4, pH 7.4, 1 mM Na2EDTA, 1
mM dithiothreitol, 400 mM KCl, 10% glycerol, 5
µg/ml aprotinin, 5 µg/ml leupeptin, 1 µM pepstatin, 1
mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 5 µM NaF,
0.5 µg/ml ocadeic acid; followed by two freeze/thaw cycles and
centrifugation at 4 C. Fifty micrograms of soluble protein were run on
12% acrylamide/SDS gels and transferred to Immobilon-P nylon membranes
(Millipore Co, Bedford, MA). Membranes were blocked with 5% nonfat
milk followed by incubation with the recommended dilution of primary
antibody in 5% milk for 1 h at room temperature. Antibodies used
were mouse monoclonal anticyclin D2 (DCS-3.1, Neomarkers Inc, Fremont,
CA) at 2 µg/ml and rabbit polyclonal anti-p27 (C-19, Santa Cruz
Biotechnology Inc, Santa Cruz, CA) at 1 µg/ml. Blots were then washed
extensively in 10 mM Tris-buffered saline containing 0.5%
Tween-20 (TBS-T) and incubated with 1:10,000 dilution of antimouse IgG
(or antirabbit IgG) peroxidase-linked antibody (Amersham Life Sciences,
Inc., Arlington Heights, IL) in 5% milk for 1 h at room
temperature. After washing in TBS-T, ECL was performed using
Supersignal chemiluminescent detection reagents (Pierce, Rockford, IL).
Western blots were quantitated by densitometry (Molecular Dynamics,
Sunnyvale, CA) of autoradiographic films. For quantification of Western
blots shown in Fig. 8
, proteins were transferred to Protran
nitrocellulose membrane (Schleicher & Schuell, Keene, NH), blocked with
5% milk, and incubated with primary antibody as above but detected
with 125I-labeled protein A (ICN) and exposed to film.
Bands detected by autoradiography were cut from the membrane, dissolved
in scintillation fluid, and counted in a Beckman LS-6500 multipurpose
scintillation counter set for
-detection.
Cell Culture
For in vitro experiments, granulosa cells were
isolated from either immature (day 22 of age) rats (Holtzman, Madison
WI) or immature rats primed with 1.5 mg/0.2 ml 17ß-estradiol (Sigma)
once daily for 3 days, as indicated. The cells were treated with 20
µg/ml trypsin and 160 µg/ml DNaseI as described previously (78).
The cells were then plated on bovine serum-coated dishes in serum-free
DMEM:F12 medium and cultured overnight at 37 C, 95% air/5%
CO2 (79). Hormone treatments included 100 ng/ml FSH (NIH
oFSH-16, National Hormone and Pituitary Agency, Rockville, MD), 10%
FBS (Hyclone Labs., Logan, UT), 10 µM forskolin
(Calbiochem, La Jolla, CA), 10 nM estradiol (Sigma), and
100 nM ICI 164,384 (Zeneca Pharmaceuticals, Macclesfield,
UK).
Immunocytochemistry
Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen (PCNA) was detected by
immunolocalization as described previously (44) with modifications.
Briefly, rehydrated paraffin sections were washed in PBS, blocked with
1% equine serum for 10 min at 37 C followed by overnight incubation at
room temperature with 1:150 dilution monoclonal anti-PCNA antibody
(Novocastra Laboratories Ltd, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK). Slides were
washed with PBS and then incubated with 15 µl/ml mouse IgG
peroxidase-linked antibody (Amersham Life Sciences) at 37 C for 30 min.
After washing with PBS, slides were incubated in 50 ml
NaPO4 buffer containing 25 mg 3,3'-diaminobenzidine
substrate (Amersham) for 10 min, rinsed with H2O, and
counter-stained with eosin.
RT-PCR
RT-PCR was performed as previously described (80). Total
RNA (100 ng for aromatase; 350 ng for PGS-2 and PR) was reverse
transcribed using 500 ng poly dT (Pharmacia Biotech Inc, Piscataway,
NJ) and 0.25 U avian myeloblastosis virus (AMV) reverse transcriptase
(Promega) at 42 C for 75 min. After the addition of 500 ng of each
specific primer, 2 µCi [32P]dCTP (ICN), 2.5 U
Taq Polymerase (Promega) and Thermocycle Buffer (Promega),
the 100 µl reaction completed 20 cycles of PCR at 94 C for 1 min, 55
C (aromatase) or 65 C (PGS-2, PR) for 2 min, and 72 C for 3 min.
Primers for the ribosomal protein L19 were included in each
experiment as an internal control (60). Products were separated on a
5% polyacrylamide gel, which was then dried and exposed to film. PCR
primers are: aromatase for 5'-TGCACAGGCTCGAGTATTTCC-3'; aromatase
rev 5'-ATTTCCACAATGGGGCTGTCC-3' (80); PGS-2 for
5'-TGTACAAGCAGTGGCAAAGG-3'; PGS-2 rev 5'-GCTGTGGATCTTGCACATTG-3';
PR for 5'-CCCACAGGAGTTTGTCAAGCT-3'; PR rev 5'-TAACTTCAGACATATTCCGG-3'
(60); and L19 for 5'-CTGAAGGTCAAAGGGAATGTG-3'; L19 rev
5'-GGACAGAGTCTTGATGATCTC-3' (60), which result in products of 271 bp,
430 bp, 328 bp, and 194 bp, respectively.
 |
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
|
---|
The authors wish to thank Dr. Piotr Sicinski and Dr. Robert A.
Weinberg (Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, MIT, Cambridge,
MA) for the cyclin D2-/- mice and the cDNAs for cyclins
D1, D2, and D3; Dr. Stephen J. Elledge (Department of Biochemistry,
Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX) for the p21 and p27 cDNAs; Dr.
Fred A. Pereira and Dr. Ming J. Tsai for their helpful assistance in
setting up the in situ hybridization; and Dr. Martin M.
Matzuk (Department of Pathology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston,
TX) for providing tissue from the fshß-/- and
gdf9-/- mice.
 |
FOOTNOTES
|
---|
Address requests for reprints to: JoAnne S. Richards, Department of Cell Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030. E-mail:
joanner{at}bcm.tmc.edu
Supported by NIH Grant HD-16272.
Received for publication September 23, 1997.
Revision received March 17, 1998.
Accepted for publication March 19, 1998.
 |
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