1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Increases Nuclear Vitamin D3 Receptors by Blocking Ubiquitin/Proteasome-Mediated Degradation in Human Skin
Xiao-Yan Li1,
Mohamed Boudjelal1,
Jia-Hao Xiao,
Zhen-Hui Peng,
Agatha Asuru,
Sewon Kang,
Gary J. Fisher and
John J. Voorhees
Department of Dermatology University of Michigan Medical
School Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
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ABSTRACT
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1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3
(D3) exerts its effects by binding to and
activating nuclear vitamin D3 receptors (VDRs)
that regulate transcription of target genes. We have investigated
regulation of VDR levels in human skin in vivo and in
cultured human keratinocytes. Quantitative ligand-binding analysis
revealed that human skin expressed approximately 220 VDRs per cell,
which bound D3 with high affinity
[(dissociation constant (Kd) = 0.22
nM]. In human skin nuclear extracts, VDR
exclusively bound to DNA containing vitamin D3
response elements as heterodimers with retinoid X receptors.
Topical application of D3 to human skin
elevated VDR protein levels 2-fold, as measured by both ligand-binding
and DNA-binding assays. In contrast, the D3
analog calcipotriene had no effect on VDR levels. Topical
D3 had no effect on VDR mRNA, indicating that
D3 either stimulated synthesis and/or inhibited
degradation of VDRs. To investigate this latter possibility,
recombinant VDRs were incubated with skin lysates in the presence or
absence of D3. The presence of
D3 substantially protected VDRs against
degradation by human skin lysates. VDR degradation was inhibited by
proteasome inhibitors, but not lysosome or serine protease inhibitors.
In cultured keratinocytes, D3 or proteasome
inhibitors increased VDR protein without affecting VDR mRNA levels. In
cells, VDR was ubiquitinated and this ubiquitination was inhibited by
D3. Proteasome inhibitors in combination with
D3 enhanced VDR-mediated gene expression, as
measured by induction of vitamin D3
24-hydroxylase mRNA in cultured keratinocytes. Taken together, our
findings indicate that low VDR levels are maintained, in part, through
ubiquitin/proteasome-mediated degradation and that low VDR levels limit
D3 signaling. D3 exerts
dual positive influences on its nuclear receptor, simultaneously
stimulating VDR transactivation activity and retarding VDR degradation.
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INTRODUCTION
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Nuclear vitamin D3 receptors (VDRs) mediate the
effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (D3)
through cis-acting vitamin D3 response elements
(VDREs) present in the transcriptional regulatory region of target
genes (1, 2). VDR and retinoid X receptors (RXRs) bind as heterodimers
(VDR/RXR) to natural VDREs of types DR3 and DR6, which consist of two
directly repeated half-sites with a consensus sequence 5'-AGGTCA-3',
separated by 3 or 6 bp, respectively. Upon binding D3, the
VDR/RXR heterodimers act to stimulate transcription of target genes (3, 4).
Expression of VDR may be positively controlled by D3
(5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10). Previous studies have shown that D3 up-regulates
levels of VDR mRNA in intestinal tissue and osteosarcoma cell lines (8, 9, 11). Alternatively, D3 may increase VDR protein levels
posttranslationally by reducing proteolytic degradation of VDR.
Although it has been shown that VDR protein is susceptible to
proteolysis in vitro (10, 12, 13), the mechanism of VDR
degradation in vivo is not well understood.
Skin is a major target tissue for D3 (14). Growth and
differentiation of the predominant cell type in skin, the keratinocyte,
are regulated by D3 (15, 16, 17). We have previously shown that
VDRs are expressed and functionally active in human skin in
vivo and cultured human keratinocytes (4, 18). Topical application
of D3 to human skin induces expression of the vitamin
D3 24-hydroxylase gene, which contains a VDRE within its
promoter (3, 19, 20).
In the current study, we have quantified VDR levels in human skin, and
investigated regulation of VDR expression and degradation by
D3. We find that VDR protein is degraded by the
ubiquitin/proteasome pathway, and that D3 binding to VDR
inhibits ubiquitination and retards degradation resulting in elevated
VDR levels. Inhibition of VDR degradation by D3 or
proteasome inhibitors increases VDR-mediated gene expression. Thus,
D3 regulates target gene expression through two distinct
effects on VDR: stimulation of transactivation activity, and inhibition
of proteasome-mediated breakdown.
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RESULTS
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D3 Increases Nuclear VDR Protein
Levels in Human Skin in Vivo
Direct ligand-binding assays revealed that nuclear extracts from
human skin specifically bound D3 with high affinity (Fig. 1a
). The calculated dissociation constant
(Kd) was 0.22 ± 0.04 nM, and the level of
VDR was 47.8 ± 3.7 fmol/mg protein (n = 6). Assuming equal
expression of VDR among all cells in the skin, the number of VDRs per
cell was 221. Treatment of human skin topically for 4 days with 0.05%
D3 increased VDR levels by nearly 100% (Fig. 1b
), compared
with vehicle-treated skin.

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Figure 1. D3 Binds with High Affinity to VDR in
Human Skin in Vivo
a, Nuclear extracts prepared from human skin cells were incubated with
the indicated concentrations of [3H]D3, and
specific binding was measured by the charcoal absorption method. The
insert shows Scatchard analysis. The calculated dissociation constant
and concentration of VDR were 0.22 ± 0.04 nM (n
= 6) and 47.8 ± 3.7 fmol/mg protein (n = 6), respectively.
b, VDR protein levels in skin treated for 4 days with vehicle
(open bar) or 0.05% D3 (hatched
bar). VDR levels were measured by ligand-binding, using a
single saturating dose (10 nM) of
[3H]D3. Data are presented as fold change of
D3-treated skin values relative to vehicle-treated skin for
each paired sample, and expressed as means ± SEM
(n = 11 for paired samples of vehicle-treated and
D3-treated skin). *, P < 0.05.
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We have previously demonstrated that VDR in human skin binds to a VDRE
(DR-3) DNA probe exclusively as a heterodimer with RXR in
electrophoretic mobility shift assays (4). This conclusion is supported
by the following observations: 1) with nuclear extracts from human
skin, unlabeled DR-3 probe, but not mutant DR-3 probe, competes for
formation of specific VDRE (DR-3)-bound complexes (4); 2) Specific
retarded complexes are completely supershifted with an anti-RXR
antibody; and 3) an anti-VDR antibody that prevents DNA binding
abolishes formation of specific retarded complexes and complexes
supershifted with anti-RXR antibody (4). Therefore, we used
electrophoretic mobility supershift assays to examine the effect of
D3 treatment on VDR/RXR levels in human skin. Topical
treatment of human skin with D3 increased the level of
VDR/RXR heterodimers nearly 100%, compared with vehicle-treated skin
(Fig. 2
). In contrast, treatment of skin
with a synthetic D3 analog, calcipotriene, which binds with
high affinity to VDR and stimulates VDR-mediated transcription (21),
did not elevate VDR levels (Fig. 2
). Thus, two independent methods of
measurement, ligand-binding and DNA-binding assays, demonstrate that
D3 causes a 100% increase in VDR levels in human skin
in vivo.

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Figure 2. Topical Treatment with D3, but not
Calcipotriene, Increases VDR/RXR Heterodimers in Human Skin in
Vivo
Human skin was treated for 4 days with vehicle (open
bar), 0.002% calcipotriene (hatched bar), or
0.002% D3 (solid bar). VDR/RXR complexes in
nuclear extracts were quantified by gel retardation assays, as
described in Materials and Methods.
Insert shows representative VDR/RXR retarded complexes
from two subjects. Data are presented as fold change relative to
vehicle-treated skin, and expressed as means ± SEM
(n = 78). *, P < 0.01.
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D3 Does Not Up-Regulate VDR mRNA in
Human Skin in Vivo
To determine whether increased VDR levels seen after
D3 treatment resulted from increased VDR gene expression,
we measured VDR mRNA levels in vehicle and D3-treated human
skin. VDR mRNA levels in both vehicle-treated and
D3-treated skin were below the limit of detection for
Northern blot analysis. Therefore, skin RNA samples were
reverse-transcribed, and VDR mRNA was measured by semiquantitative PCR.
RT-PCR was also performed for retinoic acid receptor-
(RAR
) mRNA,
which is not affected by topical D3 treatment (X.
Y. Li, unpublished observation), as an internal control. As
shown in Fig. 3
, low levels of VDR mRNA
were detected in vehicle-treated and D3-treated skin from
five human subjects. The level of VDR mRNA was not significantly
altered by topical D3 treatment in any of these subjects,
indicating that increased levels of VDR protein after D3
treatment resulted from either increased VDR translation, and/or
decreased VDR degradation.
D3 and Proteasome Inhibitors Protect against VDR
Protein Degradation by Extracts from Human Skin
To examine the effect of D3 on VDR breakdown, we
measured the capacity of human skin lysates to degrade
[35S]VDR in the presence or absence of D3. In
the absence of D3, VDR underwent rapid degradation, with a
half-life of approximately 2 h (Fig. 4a
). Addition of D3 reduced
VDR degradation by skin lysates by approximately 70% (Fig. 4b
). To
characterize the proteolytic activity in skin lysates responsible for
VDR breakdown, we tested the effect of several protease inhibitors. The
proteasome inhibitors MG132 and lactacystin (22) significantly blocked
VDR degradation, whereas the serine protease inhibitor
phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) and the lysosome protease
inhibitor E64 had no effect (Fig. 4b
). The combination of MG132 and
D3 was not significantly better at protecting against VDR
degradation by skin extracts than either compound alone (Fig. 4b
).
These results suggest that human skin extracts contain proteasome
activity that degrades VDR, and that D3 protects against
this degradation. To further substantiate this conclusion, we directly
measured proteasome activity in human skin lysates. As shown in Table 1
, human skin lysates contained
proteolytic activity that hydrolyzed proteasome substrates fluorescein
isothiocyanate-casein, Suc-Leu-Leu-Tyr-7-amino-4-methylcoumarin
(AMC), and Boc-Leu-Arg-Arg-AMC (23, 24). Hydrolysis of each of these
substrates was stimulated by ATP and blocked by the specific proteasome
inhibitor MG132, but not by calpain inhibitor (Table 1
). These data
indicate that skin lysates contain characteristic proteasome
activity.

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Figure 4. VDRs Are Rapidly Degraded by Proteasome Activity in
Human Skin
a, In vitro-translated [35S]VDR protein
was incubated with skin extracts (50 µg) for the indicated times. VDR
protein was detected by SDS-PAGE. Inset shows
representative VDR protein bands. The control lane shows in
vitro translated VDR that was not incubated with skin extract.
Triangle indicates position of full-length, nondegraded
VDR protein. Changes in intensity of this band were quantified by
PhosphorImager and are expressed in the bar graph. Data
are presented as fold change relative to control and are means ±
SEM (n = 4). *, P < 0.05. b,
D3, proteasome inhibitors MG132 and lactacystin (lact),
serine protease inhibitor PMSF, and lysosome protease inhibitor E64
were added to the in vitro VDR degradation assay and
incubated for 2 h. Data are presented as percent degradation of
the [35S]VDR added to the skin extracts.
Inset shows representative VDR protein bands.
Triangle indicates position of full-length, nondegraded
VDR protein, which was quantified by PhosphorImager, and is expressed
in the bar graph. Data are means ± SEM
(n = 46). *, P < 0.05.
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VDRs Are a Substrate for Ubiquitination
The above data indicate that VDRs are degraded by proteasome
activity in human skin. Since ubiquitination usually targets protein
for proteasome-mediated breakdown, using a cell culture model, we
examined whether VDRs are a substrate for ubiquitination. HaCaT
keratinocytes were transfected with expression vectors for His-tagged
VDR and Flag-tagged ubiquitin, or with empty Flag expression vector.
After transfection, MG 132 was added to the cultures to prevent
proteasome-mediated VDR degradation. His-VDR expressed in the cells was
purified and analyzed for ubiquitination by Western blot analysis using
anti-Flag antibody (Fig. 5
, upper
panel) or anti-VDR antibody (Fig. 5
, lower panel).

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Figure 5. VDR Are Ubiquitinated in Cultured Keratinocytes
Human keratinocyte HaCaT cells were transfected with expression vectors
for Flag, or Flag-ubiquitin, alone and with His-VDR. Thirty-six hours
after transfection, D3 (1 µM,
+D3) or vehicle (0.1% ethanol, -D3) was
added. Two hours later, MG132 (50 µM) was added, and
cells were harvested 8 h later. His-VDR expressed in the cells was
purified by nickel chelate chromatography and analyzed for
ubiquitination by Western blot analysis using anti-Flag antibody
(upper panel) or anti-VDR antibody (lower
panel), as described in Materials and Methods.
Ubiquitinated VDR appears as a broad band that migrates on SDS-PAGE
with apparent molecular masses between 70 kDa and >200 kDa. Results
are representative of three experiments.
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Western analysis with anti-Flag antibody of cells transfected with
empty Flag alone (Fig. 5
, upper panel, lane 1) or with
His-VDR, or Flag-ubiquitin alone (Fig. 5
, upper panel, lane
2) revealed a light diffuse. Ubiquitination of VDR was readily
observable in vehicle-treated cells that had been cotransfected with
His-VDR and Flag-ubiquitin. Ubiquitinated VDR was detected as a broad
band that migrated on SDS-PAGE with apparent molecular masses
between 70 kDa and in excess of 200 kDa (Fig. 5
, upper
panel, lane 4). The level of expression of His-VDR was similar in
cells cotransfected with His-VDR and empty Flag, or with Flag-ubiquitin
(Fig. 5
, lower left panel, lanes 36). With longer
exposures, VDR Western blots revealed additional slower migrating bands
representing ubiquitinated His-VDR in cells cotransfected with His-VDR
and Flag-ubiquitin (Fig. 5
, lower right panel, lane 4).
Treatment of HaCaT keratinocytes with D3 substantially
reduced VDR ubiquitination, as demonstrated by the loss of slower
migrating bands on Flag (Fig. 5
, upper panel, lanes 5 and 6)
and VDR (Fig. 5
, lower panels, lane 6) Western blots (Fig. 5
).
D3 and Proteasome Inhibitors Increase
VDR Protein Levels and Functional Activity in Human Skin
Keratinocytes
Treatment of cultured human keratinocytes, D3, or
proteasome inhibitors, lactacystin or MG132, elevated VDR protein
levels (Fig. 6
). This finding was
observed in the absence of any change in VDR mRNA levels (data not
shown). To investigate the functional consequences of elevating VDR
levels by blocking proteasome-mediated VDR degradation, we examined the
effect of proteasome inhibitors on vitamin D3
24-hydroxylase gene expression. Vitamin D3 24-hydroxylase
is induced by D3, and this induction is mediated by VDR (3, 4, 19, 20, 25). Treatment of keratinocytes with D3 alone
resulted in a 6-fold increase in vitamin D3 24-hydroxylase
mRNA expression, while addition of lactacystin alone had essentially no
effect, relative to control (Fig. 7
).
Addition of lactacystin plus D3 enhanced induction of
vitamin D3 24-hydroxylase mRNA 10-fold relative to control
(Fig. 7
). These data indicate that raising VDR levels by blocking
proteasome-mediated VDR degradation results in increased responsiveness
of keratinocytes to D3.

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Figure 6. D3 and Proteasome Inhibitors Increase
VDR Levels in Cultured Human Keratinocytes
Keratinocytes were treated with 0.1% DMSO (Control), 0.1
µM D3, 20 µM lactacystin, or 20
µM MG132 overnight. VDR levels were determined by Western
blot using an anti-VDR antibody (clone 9A7). Results are representative
of three experiments.
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Figure 7. Proteasome Inhibition Enhances
D3-Induced Vitamin D3 24-Hydroxylase Gene
Expression
Cultured keratinocytes were treated with vehicle (0.1% DMSO,
first and second bars) or 20 µM
lactacystin (LAC, third and fourth bars) overnight, and
then treated with 0.1 µM D3 for 4 h
(second and fourth bars). Total RNA (20 µg) prepared
from treated cells was analyzed by Northern blot for vitamin
D3 24-hydroxylase and 36B4 (internal control) mRNA levels.
Inset shows a representative Northern blot of vitamin
D3 24-hydroxylase mRNA (24-OHase mRNA) and 36B4. Vitamin
D3 24-hydroxylase hybridization signals were normalized to
those of 36B4. Data are presented as fold change of normalized values
relative to vehicle-treated keratinocytes. Results are representative
of two independent experiments.
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DISCUSSION
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D3 has been shown to increase the level of its nuclear
receptor in a variety of cultured cell types. In some cell types, this
increase in VDR protein is associated with elevated VDR mRNA expression
(8, 9, 11), while in other cell types D3 elevates VDR
protein without altering VDR mRNA levels (10, 12, 26, 27). In
vitro, D3 and synthetic D3 analogs that
bind to VDR alter VDRs susceptibility to degradation by proteases
such as trypsin, chymotrypsin, and proteinase K (27, 28, 29). These results
have led to the conclusion that ligand binding causes conformational
changes in VDR that make it less vulnerable to proteolytic attack.
In vivo studies utilizing D3-deficient animal
models have also demonstrated up-regulation of VDR levels by
D3 (13, 30). The present study demonstrates that, in normal
human skin in vivo and in cultured human keratinocytes,
D3 increases VDR protein without altering VDR mRNA. We
identified in human skin a novel mechanism for controlling VDR protein
levels by ubiquitin/proteasome-mediated VDR degradation. Furthermore,
we demonstrated that inhibition of proteasome activity in cultured
human keratinocytes raises VDR levels, which results in increased
D3-dependent, VDR-mediated target gene expression. In human
skin, RXR levels are 20 times greater than VDR levels (31). Therefore,
changes in VDR levels are rate limiting for VDR/RXR-mediated target
gene expression.
Topical treatment with D3 caused a 100% increase in VDR
levels in human skin in vivo. Interestingly, treatment of
skin with the synthetic D3 analog, calcipotriene, which is
used clinically to treat psoriasis, had no effect on VDR levels.
Although calcipotriene and D3 bind to VDR with similar
affinity (21), their binding sites appear to be qualitatively distinct
(32). In vitro at physiological concentrations,
calcipotriene was much less effective than D3 in protecting
VDRs from limited proteolysis (32). These in vitro data are
consistent with our in vivo results demonstrating that
calcipotriene does not raise VDR levels in human skin. In transient
transfection assays employing reporter gene constructs, D3
and calcipotriene activate VDR-mediated transcription to a similar
extent (33). These data suggest that calcipotriene may stimulate VDR
transactivation activity more efficiently than D3, and
thereby compensate for its inability to raise VDR levels. They also
suggest that D3-mediated increases in VDR levels are not
simply due to increased binding of VDR to DNA.
The ubiquitin/proteasome pathway is the major route of disposal for
many short-lived regulatory proteins (22, 34). Our data demonstrate
that human skin contains proteasome activity that degrades VDR, and
that blocking proteasome activity in cultured keratinocytes increases
VDR levels. Proteasome inhibitors have recently been shown to raise VDR
levels in osteosarcoma cells (35). These data indicate that VDR levels
are regulated in part through continuous proteasome-mediated
breakdown. Proteasome-catalyzed degradation limits the levels of other
proteins, in addition to VDR. For example, the active,
ligand-independent tyrosine kinase receptor ErbB-4 is maintained at low
levels by continuous degradation (36). I
B, the inhibitor of
transcription factor nuclear factor-
B (NF-
B), is also maintained
at a constitutive level by continuous proteasome-mediated breakdown in
certain cell types (37). Control of basal VDR levels by continuous
degradation likely acts to limit D3 action in human skin,
and thereby maintain normal D3 signaling.
In most cases, proteins destined for proteasome-mediated degradation
are polyubiquitinated (38). Ubiquitination serves as a basis for
recognition of proteins by the 26S proteasome complex. We found that
VDR was a substrate for polyubiquitination in HaCaT keratinocytes.
Interestly, D3 reduced VDR polyubquitination. These data
raise the possiblity that D3 increases VDR levels in skin,
in part, by reducing polyubiquitination and consequent
proteasome-mediated breakdown. Ubiquitination involves the sequential
action of three families of enzymes, termed E1, E2, and E3 (39, 40).
Specificity of ubiquitination appears to be conferred by the large
number of E2 and E3 enzymes, each of which acts on a restricted subset
of substrates (38). The identity of the enzymes that ubiquitinate VDR
must await further study. To our knowledge, our study is the first to
demonstrate that VDRs are subject to polyubiquitination. A recent
report describes ubiquitination of the progesterone receptor (41).
Levels of other members of the nuclear receptor superfamily may also be
regulated, in part, through the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway.
A common feature of short-lived regulatory proteins is the presence of
regions that are rich in proline (P), glutamate (E), serine (S), and
threonine (T) residues (42). These PEST sequences confer enhanced
susceptibility to proteolysis. The manner in which this process occurs
is not entirely clear, but likely involves recognition of PEST
sequences by ubiquitinating enzymes or by a component of the proteasome
complex. Recognition of PEST sequences by the proteolytic machinery may
be direct or may require phosphorylation (42). Interestingly, analysis
of VDR by the PEST-FIND computer program (EMBnet, Vienna,
Austria) (42), which identifies PEST motifs in proteins, revealed a
strongly positive PEST region in the ligand-binding domain of the VDR.
This finding suggests that VDRs are rapidly turned over and raises the
possibility that D3 binding prolongs VDR half-life by
altering the conformation of the PEST sequence. Such an alteration may
affect the phosphorylated state of VDR and/or ubiquitination of VDR,
thus providing other possible mechanisms by which D3
stabilizes VDR. Identification of the ubiquitination sites in VDR, and
better understanding of the role of PEST sequences in VDR proteolysis,
will provide insights into the molecular basis for D3
stabilization of VDR. This information may allow the design of
synthetic ligands whose potencies could be tailored by varying their
ability to protect VDR against degradation by proteasomes.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
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Procurement of Human Skin
Buttock skin from healthy adult human volunteers was treated
with vehicle (70% ethanol, 30% polyethylene glycol, and 0.05%
butylated hydroxytoluene), calcipotriene [MC903, 0.002% (wt/vol);
gift from Dr. Lise Binderup, Leo Pharmaceuticals,
Denmark), or D3 [0.002%, or 0.05% (wt/vol); gift from
Dr. M. Uskokovic, Hoffmann-LaRoche, Inc., Nutley, NJ] for
4 days under occlusion. Skin samples were obtained as previously
described (43). Tissue was placed immediately in ice-cold HBSS for
preparation of nuclear extracts, or snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen for
RNA preparation. All procedures involving human subjects were approved
by the University of Michigan Institutional Review Board, and all
participants provided informed written consent.
Preparation of Skin Cell Suspensions
Skin samples were placed in 0.25% (wt/vol) trypsin, 0.1%
(wt/vol) EDTA for 30 min at 37 C. Trypsinization was halted by adding
0.05% FBS. Keratinocytes were released from the tissue by scraping.
Cell suspensions were passed through a nylon filter to remove residual
tissue and washed twice in serum-free DMEM.
Preparation of Nuclear Extracts and Whole-Cell Extracts
Epidermal cells (
2 x 108) were washed twice
in PBS and resuspended in 1 ml of buffer [20 mM Tris (pH
8), 20 mM NaCl, 6 mM MgCl2, 0.2%
Triton X-100, 1 mM dithiothreitol (DTT), 200 mM
sucrose, 1 mM PMSF, 0.02 mg/ml leupeptin, and 0.02 mg/ml
pepstatin]. Nuclear and whole-cell extracts containing receptors were
prepared as described previously (31, 44).
VDR Ligand-Binding Assays
Measurement of [3H]D3 binding to VDR
in nuclear extracts from human skin was performed using the
dextran-coated charcoal adsorption method, as described previously
(31). [3H]D3 (NEN Life Science Products, Boston, MA) was employed at a saturating concentration
of 10 nM to determine levels of VDR by ligand binding.
Nonspecific binding, determined in the presence of a 100-fold excess of
unlabeled ligand, was subtracted from total binding to give specific
binding. Calculation of receptor levels was based on a stoichiometry of
one for ligand binding by receptors. Binding data were analyzed
according to the method of Scatchard (45).
Gel Mobility Supershift Assays
Gel mobility supershift assays were performed as previously
described (44). Briefly, double-stranded oligonucleotides containing
consensus VDRE (DR3) were radiolabeled at their 5'-end using
-[32P]ATP (6000 Ci/mmol; NEN Life Science Products) and T4 polynucleotide kinase. The sequence of the VDRE
used was: 5'-tcgact AGGTCA AGG AGGTCA gaga-3'
(consensus hexameric half-sites shown in bold capital
letters and flanking nucleotides designated in lowercase
letters) (46). Radioactive DNA-protein complexes were resolved on
nondenaturing 5% polyacrylamide gels, visualized by autoradiography,
and quantified with a PhosphorImager (Molecular Dynamics, Inc., Sunnyvale, CA).
RT-PCR Assay
Total RNA was extracted from skin by guanidine isothiocyanate
lysis, followed by ultracentrifugation through a CsCl gradient as
previously described (47). RNA was then subjected to RT and subsequent
PCR amplification with primers specific to VDR, or a
D3-insensitive control, RAR-
. The sequences of the PCR
primers were as follows: 5'-AAAAG CACCT GCCGA CCTCG TCCTC-3' and
5'-GCGGC CGATT CCAAA CTCAA GCATT-3' for VDR (48); and 5'-TGCTC CGTGT
GCAAT GACAA GTCCT CTGGC-3' and 5'-CATGC CCACT TCGAA GCACT TCTGT
AGCCG-3' for RAR-
(49). Semiquantitative PCR was performed with 0.5
µg RNA for 25 cycles. The RT-PCR products were resolved on 1.5%
agarose gels. The PCR product corresponding to RAR-
mRNA was
visualized by staining the gels with ethidium bromide. To detect low
levels of VDR PCR product, gels were subjected to Southern blot
analysis using an internal 32P-labeled oligonucleotide
probe. The sequence of this probe was 5'-TGATG TAGGG TAAGG TGCCT-3'
(48).
In Vitro Translation of VDR Protein and Degradation
Assay
VDR protein was translated in vitro using a TNT
T7-coupled rabbit reticulocyte lysate system (Promega Corp., Madison, WI) and a pXJ40-hVDR expression vector (a gift
from Paul MacDonald, St. Louis University, St. Louis, MO) as a
template, in the presence of [35S]methionine. Five
microliters of 35S-labeled in vitro-translated
VDR protein were incubated with 50 µg of human skin lysate in a 50
µl volume of 20 mM Tris, 50 mM NaCl, and 0.2
mM DTT at 37 C for the indicated times. Where indicated,
incubations contained 0.5 µl dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), 2
mM PMSF, 25 µM E64
(trans-epoxysuccinyl-L-leucylamido-[4-guanidino]-butane,
Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO), 50 µM
MG132 (Z-Leu-Leu-Leu-H, BIOMOL Research Laboratories, Inc.
Plymouth Meeting, PA), or 1 µM D3. SDS sample
buffer was added to stop the reaction, and samples were run on 12%
SDS-PAGE. The gel was dried and autoradiography was performed. To
prepare skin lysates, frozen tissue (100 mg wet weight) was powdered
under liquid nitrogen with a mortar and pestel and then homogenized in
a glass homogenizer in 20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, 300
mM NaCl, and 0.2 mM DTT. The resulting
homogenate was centrifuged at 10,000 x g for 30 min
and the supernatant collected.
Proteasome Activity Assay
To measure proteasome activity, skin lysates (50 to 100 µg)
were placed in 200 µl of assay buffer (20 mM HEPES, 0.5
mM EDTA [pH 8.0], 100 nM ATP) with 50
µM of Suc-Leu-Leu-Tyr-AMC, Boc-Leu-Arg-Arg-AMC, or
fluorescein isothiocyanate casein (Sigma Chemical Co.).
These substrates specifically measure the chymotryptic, tryptic, and
protein hydrolysis activities of the proteasomes, respectively (50).
After 2 h of incubation at 37 C, reactions were halted by addition
of 2.5 ml cold ethanol. Proteasome activity was monitored by measuring
the fluorescence of released AMC at excitation wavelength 380 nm and
emission wavelength 460 nm, or of fluorescein isothiocyanate at
excitation wavelength 490 nm and emission wavelength 520 nm (23, 24).
Keratinocyte Cultures and Treatments
Primary cultures of human keratinocytes were prepared as
previously described (44). For determination of the effect of
D3 or proteasome inhibitors on endogenous VDR levels,
keratinocytes were incubated with vehicle (0.1% ethanol),
D3 (0.1 µM), lactacystin (20
µM; Sigma Chemical Co.), or MG132 (20
µM; BIOMOL Research Laboratories, Inc.) for 48 h and
then harvested by scraping. Nuclear extracts were prepared as described
above for Western blot analysis of VDR protein levels.
To determine the effect of lactacystin on D3 induction of
vitamin D3 24-hydroxylase gene expression, cultured
keratinocytes were pretreated for 18 h with DMSO (0.1%) or
lactacystin (20 µM). D3 (0.1
µM) or vehicle (0.1% ethanol) was added for 4 h,
and total RNA was prepared. Northern blot assays for vitamin
D3 24-hydroxylase mRNA levels were performed as previously
described (18). The human vitamin D3 24-hydroxylase cDNA
used as a probe was a gift from Dr. M. Haussler (University of Arizona,
Tucson, AZ).
Western Blot Analysis
Nuclear extract proteins (25 µg) were resolved on 10%
SDS-PAGE and transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane. Blots were
probed with VDR-specific rat monoclonal antibody (clone 9A7,
Affinity BioReagents, Inc. Golden, CO). VDR protein was
detected using a biotin-labeled secondary antibody,
streptavidin-conjugated horseradish peroxidase, and enhanced
chemiluminescent substrates.
VDR Ubiquitination
A NdeI/BglII DNA fragment coding for VDR
was generated by PCR using Vent DNA polymerase and pXJ40-hVDR plasmid
as a template (4). The VDR fragment was sequenced and then ligated into
the NdeI/BglII sites of pSG5-His (gift from Dr.
Pierre Chambon, Institut de Genetique et de Biologie Moleculaire et
Cellulaire, Strasbourg, France) to generate a His-tagged VDR
mammalian expression vector. The pCMV-Flag-ubiquitin expression vector
was constructed by inserting the ubiquitin cDNA, excised from
pCMV-His-myc-Ub (gift from Dr. Ron R. Kopito, Stanford University,
Stanford, CA) (51), into a pCMV-Flag expression vector (Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, NY).
Immortalized human keratinocyte HaCaT cells were transfected with
His-VDR, Flag-ubiquitin, or empty-Flag expression vectors, using
Superfect (Qiagen, Chatsworth, CA). (1.0 µM)
or vehicle (0.1% ethanol) was added to the culture 36 h after
transfection, and cells were incubated for 2 h before addition of
MG132 (50 µM). Eight hours later, cells were lysed in
34 ml of 6 M guanidinium-HCl, 0.1 M
Na2HPO4/NaH2PO4 (pH
8.0) containing 5 mM imidazol per 100-mm dish, and
His-tagged VDR was purified using Ni2+-NTA-agarose
(Qiagen) as previously described (52). Ubiquitination of
purified VDR was determined by Western analysis using anti-Flag
antibody (Sigma Chemical Co.) or anti-VDR antibody.
Statistics
Comparisons among treatment groups were made with the paired
t test. Multiple pairwise comparisons were made with the
Tukey Studentized range test. All P values are two tailed
and significant when
0.05.
 |
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
|
---|
We thank Suzan Rehbine and Carolyn Petersen for tissue
procurement, Li Qin for technical assistance, Ted Hamilton for
statistical analysis, Anne Chapple for editorial assistance, and Laura
VanGoor for graphics preparation.
This work was supported in part by a research grant from Johnson & Johnson (New Brunswick, NJ) and in part by career
development awards awarded to Sewon Kang and J. H. Xiao by the
Dermatology Foundation.
 |
FOOTNOTES
|
---|
Address requests for reprints to: Gary J. Fisher, Ph.D., Department of Dermatology, University of Michigan, Medical Science I, Room 6447, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-0609.
1 These authors contributed equally to this work. 
Received for publication November 16, 1998.
Revision received June 8, 1999.
Accepted for publication July 12, 1999.
 |
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