Josephine Bay Paul Center for Comparative Molecular Biology and Evolution, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts
Correspondence: E-mail: herbeck{at}u.washington.edu.
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Abstract |
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Key Words: nucleotide composition Buchnera insect endosymbionts Enterobacteriales phylogeny
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Introduction |
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Several approaches have been proposed to account for variable base content among taxa. Hasegawa (Hasegawa and Hashimoto 1993; Hasegawa et al. 1993) found that nucleotide heterogeneity in 16S rRNA biased the phylogeny of deep diverging eukaryotes and suggested that amino acid sequences are more reliable. However, amino acid composition is also affected by nucleotide compositional bias (Foster, Jermiin, and Hickey 1997; Singer and Hickey 2000). Attempts to correct for this bias include LogDet (Lockhart et al. 1994), a distance method that transforms the substitution matrix to produce additive distances. The LogDet method does not consider rate variation among sites, and, similar to other distance methods, it performs poorly in analyses of taxa with moderate amounts of substitution saturation (Mooers and Holmes 2000). Galtier and Gouy (1995, 1998) have developed a nonhomogeneous Markov model of nucleotide substitution that allows equilibrium base composition to vary among lineages. This method modifies Tamura's (1992) substitution model of unequal transition and transversion rates and unequal nucleotide content (GC and AT), to include variable substitution rates among sites and variable GC content among branches. This model has been used in a maximum likelihood framework to estimate ancestral GC content of thermophilic organisms (Galtier, Tourasse, and Gouy 1999), and to infer phylogenies of Drosophilidae taxa (Tarrio, Rodriguez-Trelles, and Ayala 2001) and weevil endosymbiotic bacteria (Lefèvre et al. 2004).
Such nonhomogeneous models may be particularly important in inferring phylogenies for bacteria, which show an exceptionally wide range of base compositional biases (ranging from 25% to 75% GC content; Sueoka 1962). Intracellular bacterial mutualists and pathogens have the lowest known genomic GC contents, and they represent several phylogenetically independent lineages (Moran and Wernegreen 2000; Shigenobu et al. 2000; Charles, Heddi, and Rahbe 2001; Moran 2002). Their AT-richness is most extreme at third codon positions and intergenic spacers, suggesting a strong effect of directional mutational pressure, or biased changes between GC and AT pairs (Muto and Osawa 1987; Sueoka 1988; Sueoka 1992). The Enterobacteriales includes free-living or gut-associated species (Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, and Yersinia pestis) with moderate base compositions, as well as endosymbionts that form primary (obligate) and secondary (facultative, transient) associations with insects and that are relatively AT-biased (Moran and Telang 1998; Baumann, Moran, and Baumann 2000). The AT-bias of several primary endosymbionts within the Enterobacteriales is quite severe, at
26% GC (Shigenobu et al. 2000) in the aphid endosymbiont Buchnera,
22% GC in the tsetse fly endosymbiont Wigglesworthia (Akman et al. 2002), and 27% GC in the ant endosymbiont Blochmannia (Gil et al. 2003).
In addition to their extreme AT-bias, primary endosymbionts are characterized by severe genome reduction. Among Buchnera, Blochmannia, and Wigglesworthia, genome sizes range from 450 kb (Gil et al. 2002) to 800 kb (Wernegreen, Lazarus, and Degnan 2002) compared to the 6 to 5.3 Mb for Escherichia coli genomes (Bergthorsson and Ochman 1995). Like other intracellular bacteria, these endosymbionts also experience fast rates of sequence evolution (Moran 1996; Woolfit and Bromham 2003), especially at nonsynonymous sites (Clark, Moran, and Baumann 1999; Wernegreen and Moran 1999), deleterious changes at the 16S rRNA gene (Lambert and Moran 1998), and AT-biased amino acid changes (Moran 1996; Clark, Moran, and Baumann 1999; Palacios and Wernegreen 2002; Herbeck, Wall, and Wernegreen 2003; Rispe et al. 2004). Mechanisms driving these shared features of endosymbiont genomes may include a combination of relaxed selection in the host intracellular environment, strong genetic drift resulting in part from the repeated vertical transmission through insect host generations and decreased effective population sizes (Moran 1996; Funk, Wernegreen, and Moran 2001; Abbot and Moran 2002; Mira and Moran 2002; Herbeck et al. 2003), and increased background mutation rates resulting from the loss of DNA repair loci during genome reduction (Mira, Ochman, and Moran 2001).
The phylogenies of the -Proteobacteria and Enterobacteriales specifically have received considerable attention, owing in part to their ecological importance, the medical relevance of several species, and the diverse lifestyles this group represents (Lawrence, Ochman, and Hartl 1991; Sproer et al. 1999; Wertz et al. 2003; Canbäck, Tamas, and Andersson 2004). Of particular interest for comparative genomic studies is the relative position of Buchnera, Blochmannia, and Wigglesworthia, as the full genome sequences of these taxa are now available (Shigenobu et al. 2000; Akman et al. 2002; Tamas et al. 2002; Van Ham et al. 2003; Gil et al. 2003). However, the phylogenetic position of these and other AT-rich endosymbionts has proved difficult to recover and often varies among studies. Published phylogenies that include Buchnera, Wigglesworthia, and/or Blochmannia often group them as sister taxa or within a clade that includes only endosymbionts (e.g., Schröder et al. 1996; Heddi et al. 1998; Spaulding and von Dohlen 1998; Gil et al. 2003; Lerat, Daubin, and Moran 2003; Woolfit and Bromham 2003; Canbäck, Tamas, and Andersson 2004). One exception is a phylogenetic study that considered heterogeneity in nucleotide biases in this group and that suggested a paraphyletic relationship among several primary endosymbionts, grouping Buchnera apart from Blochmannia and Wigglesworthia (Charles, Heddi, and Rahbe 2001). In addition, a tree estimated under a nonhomogeneous model (NJ-nh) in Lerat, Daubin, and Moran (2003; fig. 2) positioned Buchnera and Wigglesworthia in separate clades, prompting these authors to consider alternative topologies in which the two endosymbionts were not sister taxa. However, these candidate topologies were rejected as significantly less likely than topologies in which the two endosymbionts are sister taxa, based on an SH test (Shimodaira and Hasegawa 1999) implemented with a homogeneous model.
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Our results consistently support topologies that group Buchnera with gut-associated enteric species, separate from a clade that includes Wigglesworthia, Blochmannia, and many secondary (transient) endosymbionts of insects. Although the two genes considered here (groEL and 16S rRNA) produce slightly different topologies of the Enterobacteriales, the phylogenetic independence of Buchnera is well supported. We suggest the combination of homogeneous models to identify candidate trees and nonhomogeneous models to evaluate those topologies offers a robust method to test phylogenetic hypotheses for groups that vary dramatically in base composition.
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Materials and Methods |
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Maximum likelihood analyses of both groEL and 16S rRNA were performed in PAUP* 4.0b10 (Swofford 2002) based on a general time reversible (GTR) model with a distribution and a portion of invariable sites estimated from the data, as selected using ModelTest version 3.06 (Posada and Crandall 1998) by the Akaike Information Criterion. Bootstrap support was calculated using 500 replicates, each using 10 random taxon addition replicates with tree bisection and reconnection (TBR) branch swapping. All maximum likelihood heuristic searches and bootstrap analyses were implemented in parallel on a Beowulf cluster utilizing the clusterpaup program (A. G. McArthur, jbpc.mbl.edu/computing). We conducted Bayesian analysis with Mr. Bayes v.3.0 (Ronquist and Huelsenbeck 2003) using the GTR substitution model with base frequencies and substitution rate matrix estimated from the data. For groEL analysis we used 3 million Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) generations with four parallel chains (one cold, three heated), with trees sampled every 50 generations and a 10,000 tree burn-in period. For 16S rRNA analysis, we included 10 million MCMC generations of four chains, with trees sampled every 50 generations, with a 50,000 tree burn-in. Heuristic parsimony analyses included TBR branch-swapping and all characters unordered and equally weighted.
We obtained a NJ-nh topology from a distance matrix estimated using Galtier and Gouy's (1995) T92++varGC nonhomogeneous model, implemented in the software Phylo_Win (Galtier, Gouy, and Gautier 1996). Using PAUP* 4.0b10 (Swofford 2002), we also estimated NJ trees based on the LogDet transformation (Lockhart et al. 1994), a method designed to be robust to variable mutational tendencies among lineages, and the Kimura 2-parameter model (NJ-k2p). Bootstrap support was calculated using 500 replications for all distance methods.
Permutation of Starting Trees by Varying Position of Buchnera
The five homogeneous analyses and NJ-nh generated alternative phylogenetic hypotheses that we used as starting trees. To focus on the relationship between Buchnera and other AT-rich primary endosymbionts, we created permutations of these starting trees for all possible placements of the Buchnera clade (lineages of Buchnera from the following aphids: A. pisum, B. pistaciae, and S. graminum). We focused on Buchnera because it is a relatively well characterized primary endosymbiont, and its placement was the most labile in the starting phylogenies. These permutations were produced in PAUP* by "generating all trees" constrained to the best tree for a given reconstruction method, altered so that the Buchnera clade was a basal polytomy (and thus free to vary in location across the constraint tree). All possible placements of Buchnera generated 234 candidate trees for the groEL data set (39 possible placements of Buchnera on the six starting trees) and 342 candidate trees for the 16S data set (57 possible placements of Buchnera on each of six starting trees).
Evaluation of Alternative Phylogenies under a Nonhomogeneous Model of Nucleotide Substitution
For each starting tree and all permutations of those trees, we used the eval_nh program from the NHML 3.0 package (Galtier, Tourasse, and Gouy 1999) to evaluate the likelihood under Galtier and Gouy's (1995) T92++varGC nonhomogeneous model (ML-nh). We then ranked all topologies based on the resulting likelihood scores. We noted the placement of Buchnera relative to the other (AT-rich) primary endosymbionts, particularly Blochmannia and Wigglesworthia, and categorized trees as "polyphyletic" (if Buchnera grouped apart from Blochmannia and Wigglesworthia) or "monophyletic" (if Buchnera grouped with Blochmannia and Wigglesworthia).
Essentially, this approach was an approximate tree-searching method to create phylogenetic hypotheses of interest for subsequent evaluation under the nonhomogeneous model. We chose this approach rather than the tree-searching algorithm available in the NHML program (star_nh) for three reasons: (1) tree-searching under star_nh was prohibitively computationally intensive, given the parameter-rich model and the number of taxa we considered; (2) initial phylogenies based on MP, ML-gtr, Bayesian, and NJ approaches, and permutations of those trees, offered a more comprehensive and stable set of possible topologies than did the branch-swapping method implemented by star_nh (unpublished data); (3) because our primary interest was the evolution of AT-rich primary endosymbionts within the Enterobacteriales, we wished to consider all possible placements of Buchnera across reasonable starting trees.
We evaluated the statistical significance of differences in likelihood values among competing phylogenies with Kishino and Hasegawa's (1989) resampling estimated log likelihood (RELL) procedure implemented by PAUP* 4.0b10. This test entails the bootstrapping of site-specific log-likelihood values estimated under a particular substitution model, in this case Galtier and Gouy's (1995) nonhomogeneous model (ML-nh). We also performed Mann-Whitney U-tests to identify significant differences in ln(L)nh distributions between trees in which primary endosymbionts are polyphyletic versus monophyletic (as defined above). This allowed us to test whether trees that position Buchnera apart from other primary endosymbionts have consistently and significantly better likelihood scores than trees that group primary endosymbionts together. We tested the suitability of the ML-nh model for the groEL and 16S rRNA data sets using likelihood ratio tests (Felsenstein 1981) on nested substitution models, using maximum parsimony topologies.
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Results |
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We used eval_nh to calculate ln(L)nh of the data set across 234 candidate groEL phylogenies (table 4). The original MB topology had the highest ln(L)nh, and permutations of this tree had generally high scores compared to permutations of other starting trees. Permutations of the MP, ML-gtr, and NJ-nh trees have nearly equal distributions of ln(L)nh scores. The starting trees under LogDet and NJ-k2p, and all permutations of these, have very low ln(L)nh scores (all 5180) (see figures in the Supplementary Material online).
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Of the 234 groEL topologies considered, those with the top 10 ln(L)nh scores included nine trees based on the initial MB phylogeny and one permutation of the NJ-nh topology. Resampling estimated log likelihood analysis shows no statistical support for the single top tree over the next nine topologies, but any one of the top 10 topologies is statistically supported over every 10th tree of the top 100 sampled. (The 10th tree is not significantly better than the 11th, but is significantly better than the 20th, 30th, etc.). The majority of topologies with the greatest nonhomogeneous likelihood place Buchnera separate from Blochmannia and Wigglesworthia, including 24 of the best-scoring 25 and 47 of the best-scoring 50 topologies. The majority-rule consensus of the top 10 trees under the NH model places the Buchnera clade sister to the free-living Erwinia herbicola, while Wigglesworthia and Blochmannia group with the Sitophilus oryzae primary endosymbiont and Sodalis (fig. 3). Consensus of groEL trees with the top 50ln(L)nh scores does not change the placement of Buchnera relative to Blochmannia and Wigglesworthia, and it differs only in the level of resolution given to the placement of Buchnera within the free-living enteric clade (see figure 3 for consensus of top 10 and top 25 trees).
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The top 10 16S rRNA topologies under nonhomogeneous models place Buchnera polyphyletic relative to the other endosymbionts, and classify it as sister to the E. coli group (table 5). As for groEL, the RELL method does not distinguish among the top 10 16S trees, but any one of the top 10 trees is significantly more likely than any of every 10th lower-ranked topology (as described above). The majority-rule consensus of the 10 16S rRNA trees with the top ln(L)nh scores separates Buchnera from Blochmannia, Wigglesworthia, and the other endosymbionts (fig. 5). Also similar to the groEL analysis, the majority of trees with greatest ln(L)nh scores separate Buchnera from the other endosymbionts. These include 25 of the highest 25 trees and 45 of the highest 50.
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Discussion |
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The results of this study also shed light on which standard phylogenetic methods may be most robust for data sets with base composition variation. The consensus trees under the nonhomogeneous model are most similar to the original phylogenies estimated by MB (for 16S) and ML-gtr (for groEL). This observed robustness of MB and ML-gtr is consistent with a recent simulation study showing that a maximum-likelihood approach is best able to handle heterogeneity (Rosenberg and Kumar 2003). Interestingly, NJ-nh separated Buchnera from Blochmannia and Wigglesworthia at both groEL and 16S rRNA, suggesting that this method successfully accounts for base compositional variation. However, other aspects of this tree were apparently quite poor, as the NJ-nh tree (and permutations thereof) had lower ln(L)nh than phylogenies based on most other methods. This result suggests that implementation of a nonhomogeneous model should not be limited to only an NJ approach.
Comparison with Previously Published Phylogenies
Our results do not provide a single best Enterobacteriales phylogeny, as the groEL and 16S rRNA consensus trees show slight differences (e.g., in the placement of Erwinia spp.) that may reflect the different taxon sets. The lability of Buchnera observed across our original phylogenies (figs. 2 and 4) is also reflected by the varying placements of Buchnera across published trees (Schröder et al. 1996; Charles, Heddi, and Rahbe 2001; Gil et al. 2003; Canbäck, Tamas, and Andersson 2004). Despite the variable position of Buchnera in our starting trees, evaluation of these placements (and many more, in permutations of these trees) under the nonhomogeneous models supports the grouping of Buchnera with a clade of enteric bacteria, apart from an endosymbiont clade that includes Blochmannia and Wigglesworthia.
The fact that our results conflict with those of several previous studies warrants a comparison of the phylogenetic models and taxon sampling employed. First, previous studies suggesting monophyly of Buchnera, Wigglesworthia, and/or Blochmannia often employ homogeneous models. Similarly, we also found that the best trees of some homogeneous models group these endosymbionts closely together (e.g., ML-gtr and MP for 16S rRNA, and MP and MB for groEL). Previous studies that implemented nonhomogeneous models have typically used NJ-nh, and they either produced trees that separated Buchnera and Wigglesworthia but were statistically rejected by other methods (Lerat, Daubin, and Moran 2003), or they produced a tree in which these two endosymbionts were sister taxa (Canbäck, Tamas, and Andersson 2004). In contrast, our use of nonhomogeneous model is likelihood-based rather than exclusively NJ-based.
Second, several previous analyses have taken advantage of the numerous loci available in full genome sequences, but generally they included fewer taxa in the analysis (16 or fewer). The inclusion of numerous genes or entire genomes has obvious benefits for studies of phylogenomics (Canbäck, Tamas, and Andersson 2004) and tests of lateral gene transfer (Daubin, Moran, and Ochman, 2003; Lerat, Daubin, and Moran 2003). However, for phylogenetic reconstruction per se, the trade-off between more genes or more taxa is not always clear, especially when taxa evolve at different rates and exhibit different compositional biases. Increased taxon sampling has been shown to be of greater benefit to phylogenetic accuracy than increased sequence length (Graybeal 1998; Pollock et al. 2002; Hillis et al. 2003). That is, more genes per taxon may actually cause convergence upon, and increased confidence in, the wrong tree. This is particularly true for data sets subject to long branch attraction (Hillis 1998), a potential issue in analyses of rapidly evolving, AT-rich taxa. For this reason, we included many endosymbionts (both primary and secondary) that are closely related to free-living and commensal enterics. Of course, the choice of loci is critical when few genes are considered. Notably, the inclusion of a genome-wide sample allowed Canbäck, Tamas, and Andersson (2004) to examine the correlation of gene conservation to particular tree topologies. They show that relatively conserved (and relatively GC-rich) genes have more reliable phylogenetic signals and support the recent divergence of Buchnera from E. coli and Salmonella (Canbäck, Tamas, and Andersson 2004). This result supports our use of the highly conserved genes groEL and 16S rRNA. Our results further suggest that even highly conserved genes will benefit from the use of nonhomogeneous models in phylogeny reconstruction.
Implications for the Evolution of Endosymbiosis
Our results have two implications for the evolution of endosymbiosis within the Enterobacteriales. First, Blochmannia and Wigglesworthia apparently represent an origin of primary endosymbiosis that is independent from Buchnera. Genome sequence data may also support this independent transition to primary endosymbiosis, as the three fully sequenced endosymbiont genomes share only 50% of their genes, or
70% for any pairwise comparisons between genera (Gil et al. 2003). Because transition to primary endosymbiosis is thought to impose immediate, severe genome reduction through large genome deletion events, such endosymbionts may rapidly become constrained to their particular host association (Moran and Mira 2001; Van Ham et al. 2003). This genome reduction may impose severe constraints on extracellular existence, and it may limit switching among hosts with different nutritional physiologies. The phylogenies presented here cannot distinguish whether Blochmannia and Wigglesworthia acquired the primary endosymbiotic lifestyle independently of each other. However, given that these two genomes share just
70% of their genes and are highly specialized to the nutritional physiology of their respective hosts, independent acquisitions of obligate endosymbiosis is the more likely possibility.
Second, Blochmannia and Wigglesworthia are part of a diverse clade consisting of secondary endosymbionts of insects, suggesting that primary endosymbionts may evolve from secondaries. Koga, Tsuchida, and Fukatsu (2003) provide experimental evidence that secondary endosymbionts may move into the symbiotic niche of primaries. Specifically, they showed that a facultative endosymbiotic -Proteobacterium infected the cytoplasm of bacteriocytes of aphid hosts from which Buchnera had been eliminated, and that it thus compensated for the essential roles of Buchnera. A second example of the potential for primary endosymbionts to evolve from secondary endosymbionts is that of Sodalis glossinidius and the Sitophilus oryzae primary endosymbiont. The close phylogenetic association of this secondary endosymbiont of tsetse flies and this obligate mutualist of weevils shown here (figs. 3 and 5) is further corroborated by their shared maintenance and expression of a type III secretion system, which likely was acquired prior to their divergence (Dale et al. 2002). Although these endosymbionts are associated with distinct insect hosts, Sodalis is still capable of horizontal transmission (Aksoy, Chen, and Hypsa 1997; Dale and Maudlin 1999). Understanding specific routes by which diverse endosymbioses are established will require more extensive taxon sampling of facultative and primary endosymbiont lineages; however, the current study suggests that primary endosymbiosis has originated more often than previously thought, and it may represent the end of an evolutionary spectrum between the facultative and obligate intracellular lifestyles.
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Acknowledgements |
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Footnotes |
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References |
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