Institut de Génétique et Microbiologie, Université Paris-Sud
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Abstract |
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Introduction |
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Among these, Fot1 is the most abundant in a variety of strains in terms of copy number and the best characterized for its effect on target gene expression (Daboussi and Langin 1994
; Deschamps et al. 1999
). Fot1 is related to pogo transposons, which are, together with Tc1 and mariner elements, grouped in a large superfamily of transposable elements, the Tc1-mariner superfamily (Smit and Riggs 1996
; Plasterk, Izsvak, and Ivics 1999). Fot1 is 1,928 bp in length and contains a single gene encoding a transposase enzyme that is flanked by terminal inverted repeats. Like all Tc1-mariner elements, Fot1 transposes by an excision-reinsertion mechanism and specifically inserts into a TA site (Daboussi and Langin 1994
).
Fot1 is widely distributed in the FO complex. It is present essentially as full-length copies, with a variable copy number ranging from zero to more than one hundred (Daboussi and Langin 1994
). This family is very homogeneous in size and exhibits a very low level (<2%) of polymorphism within the FO complex (Langin et al. 2002
). The presence of Fot1 in most of the 12 formae speciales analyzed suggests that it is an ancient component of the FO complex, which has been vertically transmitted during the evolution of host specialization. Analysis of the pattern of Fot1 in a large sample of strains suggests that its distribution is the result of a combination of different evolutionary processes: vertical inactivation, stochastic loss, burst of amplification, and horizontal transmission (Langin et al. 2002
).
The recent identification of Fot1-like elements in different ascomycetes (for a review, see Daboussi 1996
; Kempken and Kuck 1998
) suggests that they are ancient components of this phylum. At present, information on the origin of these elements is lacking, and questions dealing with the mechanisms by which they spread through different organisms need to be addressed. Are they ancient components of the genus Fusarium? In this case, they might be distributed throughout the genus. Alternatively, are they restricted to the FO complex, with the possibility of transferring laterally to other species? In order to evaluate the evolutionary forces that determine the distribution of Fot1, we carried out hybridization experiments to detect their presence in representative species of Fusarium.
Fusarium is a large genus of hyphomycetes whose classification has been controversial and often confusing (Nelson 1991
; O'Donnell, Cigelnik, and Nirenberg 1998
). Taxa recognized within this genus include sections, species, and varieties. This classification is essentially based on the microanatomy of the anamorph. Teleomorphs described for fusaria in 9 of 11 sections (Windels 1991
) all belong to the Hypocreales either in Gibberella, Nectria, or Neocosmospora (O'Donnell 2000
). Within some sections, the teleomorph has been found for some, but not all, species. In the past 10 years, the use of molecular tools has brought a degree of uniformity to the systematics of the fusaria, and the evolutionary relationships of some species have been investigated through rDNA sequence analysis (Guadet et al. 1989
; Bruns, White, and Taylor 1991
; O'Donnell 1992
) and sequence analysis of portions of single-copy nuclear genes (Donaldson et al. 1995
; O'Donnell, Cigelnik, and Nirenberg 1998
; O'Donnell et al. 2000
).
In this paper, we report on the distribution of sequences homologous to Fot1 in Fusarium and on the divergence of the Fot1 elements with that of the host gene. In the course of this investigation, we found degenerate Fot1 elements characterized by numerous CG-to-TA transitions. Comparison with the RIP (repeat-induced point mutation) process described in Neurospora crassa (Selker et al. 1987
), in which duplicated sequences are inactivated, is presented.
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Materials and Methods |
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Polymerase Chain Reaction
PCR experiments were conducted in a Biomed 60 Thermal Cycler (Braun). Three hundred nanograms of genomic DNA (see table 1
) was used as a template. A primer deduced from the ITRs (positions 129) was used to amplify putative Fot1 sequences. Amplification of the D1 and D2 domains located at the 5'-end of the 28S rDNA was conducted by using two primers: PN4 (5'-CCTTGGTCCGTGTTTCAAGACGGG-3') and PN9 (5'-CTTAAGCATATCAATAAGCGGAGG-3'). Cycling parameters were 95°C for 1 min, 60°C for 1 min, and 72°C for 1 min for 30 cycles. Amplification of a portion of the nia gene was performed using two degenerate primers designed to amplify the region of the intronprimer 541 (positions 14081427 as numbered in Diolez et al. 1993
): 5'-ATGATGAATCAATCCCITGGTT-3' and primer 680 (positions 18661884): 5'-TTTCIGCAGTTTTCGCTGTCT-3'. The following cycling parameters were used: three cycles of denaturation (1 min at 94°C), annealing of primers (1 min at 42°C), and extension (1 min at 72°C), followed by 30 cycles of denaturation (1 min at 94°C), annealing of primers (1 min at 50°C), and extension (1 min at 72°C). The Taq DNA polymerase (Appligene) was used according to the supplier's specifications. Amplified products were separated on a 0.8% agarose gel, purified by using the Jetsorb kit (Bioprobe), and subcloned into the pGEM-T vector (Promega).
Cloning
Cloning of the Neo2 copy in Neocosmospora sp. Southern blotting of genomic DNA from Neocosmospora sp. was carried out using different restriction enzymes, and hybridization with Fot1 as a probe was performed at low stringency (50°C) (data not shown). A SacI digest was conducted to obtain a second copy of Fot1. Genomic DNA was separated on a 0.8% agarose gel, and the region of the gel containing the 1.4-kb Fot1 fragment was excised and cloned in pUC19.
Sequence Alignments and Phylogenetic Analysis
Sequences were determined using commercially available primers and Taq cycle sequencing with fluorescent-labeled dideoxynucleotide terminators. All sequencing reactions were run on a 373 ABI sequencer. Nucleotide sequence data reported in this paper are deposited in the EMBL/GenBank databases under the following accession numbers: AF403139, nitrate reductase Nectria haematococca; AF403143, nitrate reductase Fusarium solani f. sp. pisi; AF403144, nitrate reductase F. coeruleum; AF403140, nitrate reductase Gibberella fujikuroi; AF403141, nitrate reductase F. solani var. minus; AF403142, nitrate reductase Neocosmospora; AF434909, Fot1, Neocosmospora, Neo1 copy; AF434910, Fot1, Neocosmospora, Neo2 copy; AF443562, Fot1, F. solani var. minus; AF443563, Fot1, F. solani sp.
Sequences were analyzed using the DNA strider package. Sequence alignments were obtained using the Pileup program (GCG package). Maximum parsimony phylogenetic analyses were performed with PAUP, version 3.1.1 (Swofford 1991
). Analysis of nucleotidic environment of RIP was performed on a Microsoft Excel 2000 worksheet, developed by S. Graziani, containing generic formulas for sequence comparison.
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Results |
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The points to be made from the data presented in table 1 and figure 1A are as follows:
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Nucleotidic Polymorphism of Fot1 Elements
To examine the Fot1 elements further, we amplified Fot1 by using a primer deduced from the ITRs. PCR products of the size expected for full-length elements (1.9 kb) were cloned, and three clones from three strains were sequenced. The aligned Fot1 sequences from F. solani var. minus (Min1), Neocosmospora spp. (Neo1), and F. solani (Fus1) compared with the Fot1-37 sequence from F. oxysporum (Fox) are presented in figure 2A
.
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For F. caucasicum (Cau) and F. javanicum var. radicicola (Rad), partial sequencing of one Fot1 product from each strain (9001440) revealed a low level of nucleotide-sequence divergence relative to Fox, in the same range (1%3%) as that reported for Min. The differences presented in figure 2B showed that the Fot1 product from the three distant species shared the same substitutions at different sites (1004, 1227, 1344, and 1353). This finding suggests a common evolutionary origin.
For Neocosmospora sp. and F. solani, in which only two Fot1-hybridizing bands were observed, sequence divergence of Fot1 copies (Neo1) and (Fus1) relative to Fox ranged from 7.5% to 23% (15% average), depending on the region examined (figs. 2A and 3A ). There are no gaps in the alignment, but there was a remarkable frequency of C-to-T and G-to-A transitions. In Neo1, 259 out of the 313 modifications (83%) observed among the 1,856 nucleotides correspond to CG-to-TA transitions. Without considering these, nucleotide divergence is around 3%. Partial sequencing (14651900) of a second Fot1 copy (Neo2) revealed 98% nucleotide identity with Neo1 (9 differences out of 435 nucleotides; see fig. 3B ). The high rate of transitions results in the inactivation of the transposase because no ORF can be detected in the three frames (fig. 3C ). In Fus1, CG-to-TA transitions also represent 82% of the modifications, with a dense distribution in the middle of Fot1 similar to that observed in Neo1. We also observed that Neo1 and Fus1 elements share many substitutions with Fox, as observed for Min1, Rad, and Cau elements, which supports their close relationships.
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Comparisons based on 340 bp of exon 1 (table 2 ) show that the nia regions of G. fujikuroi and F. oxysporum are 95% and 98% identical, respectively, at the DNA and amino acid level. In contrast, the nia regions of F. solani and Neocosmospora are only 73% and 69% identical, respectively, at the DNA and amino acid level, with that of F. oxysporum. These results confirm that F. solani and Neocosmospora are not closely related to F. oxysporum because the divergence between these species is roughly in the same range as that observed with N. crassa, a species from a different genus. Maximum parsimony analysis of the aligned nia DNA sequences yielded a tree (fig. 4) concordant with partial 28S rDNA sequences, but the evolution rate of these two genes appeared different. Examination of nucleotide substitutions along different branches of the tree revealed that most of them are in the third codon position. (F. solani and Neocosmospora differ by 30 nucleotide changes, but there are differences only in 2 amino acids; F. oxysporum and G. fujikuroi differ by 22 nucleotide changes, and there are differences in only 3 amino acids.)
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In order to determine if the polarized transition mutations in Neo1 and Fus1 have the characteristics of RIP, the pattern and distribution of mutations were examined (table 3 ). In Neo1, 136 out of 476 cytosine residues (28%) and 123 out of 474 guanine residues (26%) were replaced by thymine or adenine residues, respectively. In Fus1, the frequency of transitions appears lower (18%) because of the fact that 700 bp of the central region in which the density of transitions is higher (see fig. 3A ) has not been sequenced. Among the 259 CG-to-TA transitions in Neo1, there are 136 G-to-A changes and 123 C-to-T changes. We observed the same proportion in Fus1. The distribution of these changes along the sequence is indicated, respectively, as bars below and above the central horizontal line (fig. 3A ). Mutations are concentrated in the middle of the Fot1 element. For example, 27 CG-to-TA transitions, corresponding to 56% of the changes, occurred in the first 300 nucleotides, 14 (63% of the changes) in the 300 last nucleotides, whereas 87 (97% of the changes) were observed within the 300 bp internal region (between positions 700 and 1000).
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Because RIP affects both copies of a duplication in N. crassa, we determined the pattern of transitions in the other copy, Neo2. This copy was cloned by screening a Neocosmospora genomic library and identified as different from Neo1 by analyzing the flanking regions. Partial sequencing of Neo2 revealed that most CG-to-TA mutations were at the same position as in Neo1. However, nine differences were detected with a different pattern of RIP at four positions (fig. 3C ).
Sequences mutated by RIP are also typically methylated at most of the remaining cytosine residues (Selker et al. 1987
; Cambareri et al. 1989
; Grayburn and Selker 1989
). In order to analyze the methylation status of Neo1 in genomic DNA, we carried out Southern hybridization using two pairs of isoschizomers that show differential sensitivity to cytosine methylationHpaII and MspI or Sau3AI and NdeII (data not shown). No difference was detected in hybridization patterns between the isoschizomers, indicating that cytosine residues were not selectively methylated.
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Discussion |
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To account for the discontinuous distribution of Fot1 within Fusarium, there are two possible explanations, which are not mutually exclusive (fig. 5
). The first postulates that these elements are ancient transposons present in the common ancestor of most of the species and retained in some lineages but eliminated by stochastic loss or RIP in others (fig. 5A
). This hypothesis requires several independent stochastic losses and suggests a low rate of Fot1 evolution relative to cellular genes. The alternative is to consider that Fot1 elements have been transferred horizontally from one species into others in the recent past (fig. 5B
). Several results support the recent invasion hypothesis: (1) mainly, the remarkably high level of identity between Fot1 sequences present in distant species illustrated by F. oxysporum and F. solani (98% identity) compared with those of nontransposable sequences from the same genomes, 75% for the nia gene and 81% for the rDNA; (2) the fact that four out of the five strains containing Fot1 are representative of the same lineage supports the recent introduction of Fot1 from F. oxysporum into the most recent common ancestor of this lineage; and (3) the comparison of Fot1 sequences present in strains from the section Martiella revealed many shared nucleotide changes and a shared deletion, indicating that these elements have a common origin. If horizontal transmission of Fot1 elements appears to be the most likely explanation for our data, screening of a larger number of strains in the different lineages using PCR assays with degenerate primers could help reinforce the horizontal transfer hypothesis. In addition, it would be interesting to eliminate the hypothesis that Fot1 has a restricted host range in Fusarium because of the host factors required for transposition. The fact that Fot1 elements are able to function in A. nidulans (Li Destri Nicosia et al. 2001) and Magnaporthe grisea (Villalba et al. 2001
) suggests that transposition of this element is not highly dependent on host factors. However, confirmation could be obtained by determining the ability of an autonomous element (Migheli et al. 1999
) to transpose in species of Fusarium in which Fot1was absent.
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In two strains collected from nature, a homothallic Neocosmospora sp. and an asexual or heterothallic F. solani, Fot1 elements were present in two copies, which are heavily mutated with multiple CG-to-TA transitions. The consequence of these mutations, which represent 82% of the changes, is the inactivation of the transposase. In fungi, mechanisms that inactivate transposable elements or duplicated sequences have been studied intensively in two species. RIP in N. crassa (Selker et al. 1987
) and for methylation-induced premeiotically (MIP) in Ascobolus immersus (Goyon and Faugeron 1989
) are closely related processes: both occur during the sexual cycle during the time between fertilization and karyogamy, both involve homologous DNA segments larger than a few hundred base pairs, and both lead to the simultaneous alteration of the two duplicated elements. One significant difference between the two processes resides in the nature of the alteration: only C-methylation occurs in MIP, whereas point mutations and C-methylation take place in RIP. Mutations by RIP are essentially C-to-T and G-to-A transitions. The most probable explanation for transition mutations is that deamination of 5-methylcytosines generate thymine, subsequently leading to a base change from guanine to adenine in the complementary strand during replication. Mutations by RIP do not occur randomly; C-to-T mutations occur principally (75%) at CpA/TpA sites (Cambareri et al. 1989
; Selker 1990
). These processes have been envisioned as mechanisms ensuring genome stability and serving as genome-defense mechanisms that guard against the deleterious effects of multicopy transposable elements and aberrant gene duplications. Firstly, they might control the mobility of transposons by inactivating them and hence limiting the number of repeats. Secondly, the rapid divergence of DNA repeats, in the case of RIP, or methylation, in the case of MIP, prevents homologous recombination, hence preventing chromosomal rearrangements by ectopic recombination (Kricker Drake, and Radman 1992
; Rossignol and Faugeron 1994
; Selker 1997
; Maloisel and Rossignol 1998
; Colot and Rossignol 1999
). Consistent with this interpretation, different types of transposable elements found in N. crassa (Tad, DAB1, and Punt) show hallmarks of RIP (Kinsey et al. 1994
; Bibbins, Cummings, and Connerton 1
998; Margolin et al. 1998
), and in A. immersus, the only mobile element identified, Ascot, escapes MIP most likely because of its short size (Colot et al. 1995
). Studies on transposable elements in other fungi such as M. grisea (Nakayashiki et al. 1999
), Aspergillus fumigatus (Neuvéglise et al. 1996
), F. oxysporum (Julien, Poirier-Hamon, and Brygoo 1992
; Hua-Van et al. 1998
; Hua-Van, Langin, and Daboussi 2001
), and Podospora anserina (Hamann, Feller, and Osiewacz 2000a, 2000b;
Graïa et al. 2001
) revealed degenerate elements characterized by numerous CG-to-TA transitions. Their presence in fungal species in which sexual reproduction has not been found may reflect the operation of an RIP-like process at a time when they had a sexual cycle or the existence of an RIP-like process in vegetative cells.
In our study on Neocosmospora sp. and F. solani, several features indicate that Fot1 elements have been subjected to an RIP-like process: (1) the numerous CG-to-TA transitions; (2) the density of mutations which appear lighter at the borders than in the middle portion of Fot1; (3) the alterations in both Fot1 copies (Neo1 and Neo2); and (4) a preference for CpA/TpG dinucleotides (52%). However, some differences relative to RIP in N. crassa can be observed: (1) the second most common target of RIP is CpG in Fusarium (36%) and CpT in N. crassa (18%); (2) no methylation in sequences mutated by RIP has been detected in Fusarium; and (3) sequences altered by an RIP-like process have been found in a homothallic strain. These variations reflect the diversity of situations found in fungal species relative to the ability to detect methylation associated with RIP, the preferred target sites for transitions (CpA or TpA or CpG), and the status of strains in which RIP has been detected (asexual, homothallic, and heterothallic).
The situation described in our study addressed different questions. Is the RIP-like process still active in Neocosmospora sp.? MIP and RIP are active in heterothallic strains. It has been suggested that premeiotic inactivation may reflect a regulatory function related to the expression of the two nuclei of opposite mating type and that this function is required in heterothallic species such as N. crassa and A. immersus but not in a homothallic species such as Sordaria macrospora (Le Chevanton, Leblon, and Lebilcot 1989
). Indeed, although sequences altered by RIP have been identified in homothallic strains of N. crassa, there is no demonstration that this process can operate in such strains. One way to demonstrate this consists in the introduction of autonomous Fot1 copies in Neocosmospora sp. and in the analysis of nucleotide sequence variations after different rounds of meiosis. This could also be tested using the nia gene, whose inactivation can be detected through the resistance to chlorate. Does an RIP-like process operate in other lineages? The discovery of an RIP-like process in strains belonging to two lineages addresses the question of the occurrence of such a mechanism within Fusarium. The apparent discontinuous distribution of Fot1 within Fusarium could be because of the presence of degenerate elements, reflecting the activity of an RIP-like process in other lineages. As observed in Neurospora, most or all the species showed the presence of Tad-related elements, which have been mutated extensively by RIP. These results suggest that a common ancestor hosted Tad and that RIP has inactivated almost all the copies (Kinsey et al. 1994
). Finding relics of Fot1 in different lineages would have significant implications of an RIP-like process throughout Fusarium.
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Acknowledgements |
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Footnotes |
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;thPresent address: Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Bristol, U.K
;thPresent address: Institut de Biotechnologie des plantes, Université Paris-Sud, Orsay, France
Keywords: Fusarium
transposable elements
Fot1
horizontal transmission
evolution rate
RIP-like process
Address for correspondence and reprints: Marie-Josée Daboussi, Institut de Génétique et Microbiologie, Bât 400, Université Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay, France. daboussi{at}igmors.u-psud.fr
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