Laboratoire Ecologie, Systématique et Evolution, Université Paris XI, Orsay Cedex, France
![]() |
Abstract |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Key Words: Oryza sativa genome evolution LTR retrotransposon solo-LTR
![]() |
Introduction |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
The Poaceae family is a good model in which to study such processes. In this family, genomes are conserved in terms of gene content and gene order (Ahn and Tanksley 1993; Barakat, Carels, and Bernardi 1997), whereas they greatly vary in size (from 0.5 pg/2C for Oropetium thomaeum to 27.6 pg/2C for Lygeum spartum). Such variations cannot be explained solely by differences in terms of ploidy level or large duplications (Bennett 1998). In addition, several microcolinearity analyses of large contiguous genomic sequences have shown that, whereas genes and gene order are well conserved, there is no correspondence between the TEs that make most of the intergenic regions (SanMiguel et al. 1996; Bennetzen et al. 1998; Tikhonov et al. 1999).
Several recent studies have shown that long terminal repeat (LTR) retrotransposons make a large part of Poaceae genomes (for a review, see Feschotte, Jiang, and Wessler 2002). Because of their copy-and-paste transposition mechanism, active retrotransposons can potentially induce large increases in genome size. For example, in the barley genome (Hordeum vulgare), the BARE-1 family represents on average 16.6 x 103 copies, which corresponds to about 3% of the nuclear genome (Vicient et al. 1999). Observations such as these have lead some authors to propose an increase-only model for the evolution of genome size in the Poaceae family (Bennetzen and Kellogg 1997), where genomes undergo large amplification events that cannot be reversed, thus increasing their size. It has also been proposed that genome size could be reduced through recombination mechanisms, that is, the formation of solo-LTRs through unequal recombination in barley (Shirasu et al. 2000), and/or the formation of deletions through illegitimate recombination in Drosophila (Petrov, Lozovskaya, and Hartl 1996; Petrov et al. 2000) and Arabidopsis thaliana (Devos, Brown, and Bennetzen 2002). These results suggest that such decreasing forces may have to be taken into account in a model of genomic evolution, leading to an increase/decrease model instead of the increase-only model proposed earlier (Bennetzen and Kellogg 1997). However, as large amplification events have been reported (SanMiguel et al. 1998), it is not yet clear whether these mechanisms could be efficient enough to reverse massive genomic increases. In order to build a model for plant genomic evolution, we thus need to determine the relative extent of these two counteracting mechanisms (retroelement amplification and LTR recombination).
The timing of both retroelement amplification and LTR recombination might also be a parameter that should be taken into account. SanMiguel et al. (1998) have shown that the maize genome has undergone successive massive amplifications, each one being relatively limited through time, corresponding to bursts of retrotransposons amplifications. As for the elimination of the numerous copies produced by such rapid and extensive bursts, it is not yet clear whether recombination occurs continuously through time, thus slowly and regularly decreasing large amounts of DNA, or if there is any mechanism that would activate large recombination events following bursts of amplification, as proposed by some authors (Rabinowicz 2000).
Rice is a Poaceae with a small genome (about 450 Mb) that contains several LTR retrotransposons (Hirochika, Fukuchi, and Kikuchi 1992; Hirochika et al. 1996; Noma et al. 1997; Kumekawa et al. 1999; Ohtsubo, Kumekawa, and Ohtsubo 1999; Tarchini et al. 2000; Kumekawa et al. 2001; Panaud et al. 2002). In addition, the availability of the genomic sequence of the Nipponbare cultivar makes the species a good model for the characterization of TEs and provides a good opportunity to test the increase/decrease model.
The use of representational difference analysis (Lisitsyn, Lisitsyn, and Wigler 1993) as a tool to study genomic differentiations allowed us to isolate 11 rice clones corresponding to seven transposable elements, among which six were LTR retrotransposons (Panaud et al. 2002). The results show that these elements might derive from recent amplification events and could explain part of the genomic differentiations between several Oryza species. They are thus good candidates for testing the dynamics of retroelement amplification and LTR recombination.
In this paper, we analyze in detail three gypsy-like LTR retrotransposons from the six above-mentioned elements. For each element, we use the rice genomic sequence available in the public database to extract complete copies and solo-LTRs. Through the analysis of both clustering and insertion time of the copies, we study the dynamics of the LTR retrotransposons amplification process, the extent of the LTR unequal homologous recombination process, and the relative timing of these two processes.
![]() |
Materials and Methods |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
In addition, because this first database was constructed using the reference copy of each element as query for the BlastN search, we anticipated that the results might be biased towards the paralogs most closely related to this reference copy and therefore incomplete. We thus used the first sample to build a preliminary Neighbor-Joining dendrogram and ran additional BlastN searches using paralogs that were distantly related to the reference copy as queries. Reiteration of such BlastN searches was done until no new group was coming out. The copies with truncated ends were not included in the analysis.
The flanking regions of the copies were analyzed in order to determine their duplicated target site. When the two flanking sequences were different, we analyzed the copy sequence and flanking sequences further in order to identify eventual conversion or recombination events. This allowed us to detect copies of our database that had undergone conversion and/or recombination (which could lead to a misestimation of the timing results) and to estimate the proportion of solo-LTRs that may have formed through interelement recombination.
LTR Sequences Alignment and Phenetic Analysis
LTRs from the final sample file were aligned using the Clustal_X multiple alignment mode program (Thompson et al. 1997). Both solo-LTRs and LTRs from complete elements were included in the alignment. For the latter category, the two LTRs of each copy were represented. In order to avoid artifactual clustering due to bad alignment, each alignment was corrected by hand using the SEAVIEW software (Galtier, Gouy, and Gautier 1996). Microsatellite regions were removed, as were unstable regions such as CT-rich regions and very divergent regions that could not be properly aligned. We thus eliminated 707 bp over 1441 bp for the hopi LTR alignment, 172 bp over 629 bp for the Retrosat1 LTR alignment, and 286 bp over 3284 bp for the RIRE3 LTR alignment. In addition, when a transposable element was found inserted within a sequence, the corresponding indel was considered as a simple insertion event and replaced by an "X" in the sequence of the copy within which it was found, together with the duplicated target site. Final LTR alignments were used to construct a Neighbor-Joining dendrogram using the PHYLO_WYN software (Galtier, Gouy, and Gautier 1996), using the "observed divergence" distance and performing 500 bootstrap replicates.
Reverse-Transcriptase, Integrase, and RNaseH Sequences Alignments and Phenetic Analysis
The sequence of the gag/pol polyprotein gene of each copy was identified on a BlastX2 analysis (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/blast/bl2seq/bl2.html) comparing the nucleotide sequence of the copy to the gag/pol polyprotein sequence of the gypsy retrovirus of Drosophila (GenBank accession number AAC82604). Final alignment of gag/pol nucleic sequences was performed using the Clustal_X multiple mode alignment program (Thompson et al. 1997). The Clustal_X profile alignment mode was then used to align the reverse-transcriptase (RT) nucleic sequence of the reference copy (described in Panaud et al. 2002) with the preceding gag/pol sequences alignment. The same procedure was performed for Integrase (Int) and RNaseH domains.
For each element, final RT, Int, and RNaseH alignments were independently used to construct Neighbor-Joining dendrograms using the PHYLO_WYN software (Galtier, Gouy, and Gautier 1996), using the observed divergence distance and 500 bootstrap replicates.
Determination of Phenetic Groups Within the Three Families
For each family, we independently analyzed the topology of the four dendrograms (LTRs, RT, Int, and RNaseH). The three dendrograms obtained from the coding-domain sequences showed similar topologies, although minor differences could be observed. Groups were therefore defined by compiling the data of the three dendrograms, although only the RT dendrogram is presented in the results. The topology of the LTR-based dendrogram only differs from the other three by the fact that subgroups can be defined within a given group, resulting in a more complex topology, which may come from the fact that LTR sequences evolve more rapidly than coding sequences.
Dating of Insertion Events
In order to date insertion events of the copies from our database, we analyzed the LTR nucleotide divergence rate of the copies. This method was first used to date the insertion events of LTR retrotransposons in maize (SanMiguel et al. 1998) and subsequently extended to other species (Jordan and McDonald 1998; Promislow, Jordan, and McDonald 1999; Bowen and McDonald 2001; Jiang et al. 2002) and to human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) (Tristem 2000).
For each complete copy, the two LTRs were aligned using the Clustal_X algorithm (Thompson et al. 1997). The alignments were checked and eventually corrected by hand using the SEAVIEW software (Galtier, Gouy, and Gautier 1996). The nucleotide divergence rate between the two LTRs was determined using the PAUP software (Swofford 1999). Note that indels and microsatellites were not taken into account to estimate these divergence rates. LTR divergence rate were converted into dates using the average substitution rate of the Adh1 and Adh2 loci of grasses, which has been estimated at 6.5 x 10-9 substitutions per synonymous site per year (Gaut et al. 1996). In order to estimate the timing of insertion of retroelements that have undergone recombination and became solo-LTRs, we first analyzed the insertion date of complete retroelements, and then used clustering of the solo-LTRs to specific groups in order to estimate their date of insertion.
Age of the Phenetic Groups
For each group previously defined, mean and standard error were calculated for the LTR divergence and subsequently for the date of insertion. As conversion and recombination processes may influence the divergence rate between the two LTRs of a copy, and thus the estimation of the age of the corresponding copy, copies for which signature of conversion or recombination events were detected (hopi copies AP001129 and AC079021A and RIRE3 copy AC022352C [see fig. 3 for details]) were not taken into account for these computations. For hopi copy AP003204 and RIRE3 copies AC080019E and AC080019F, corresponding values were also not included, because such processes were suspected even if no traces could be detected (see Discussion). In order to determine whether LTR divergence rate differed significantly within a retroelement family (i.e., comparing groups of the same element), we performed a Mann-Whitney test using Statistica software (Statsoft 1997).
|
![]() |
Results |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
|
|
|
Families of hopi, Retrosat1, and RIRE3 Are Structured in Distinct Phenetic Groups That Are Significantly Different in Terms of LTR Nucleotide Divergence
Figures 4A, 5A, and 6A show the three Neighbor-Joining trees that were constructed using RT domain alignments of hopi, Retrosat1, and RIRE3. Figures 4B, 5B, and 6B show the three Neighbor-Joining trees that were built using LTR alignments of hopi, Retrosat1, and RIRE3, respectively. Mean and variance of LTR divergence rate were calculated for each group and for subgroups 1A and 1B of hopi (see figs. 4B, 5B, and 6B). Results of the Mann-Withney test, presented in table 2, show a significant difference between every pair of each group (P < 0.05), except for subgroup 1B and group 2 of the hopi family and for the two groups of the RIRE3 family (P > 0.05). In this last case, the lack of significance of the test may be due to the small sample size.
|
|
|
|
![]() |
Discussion |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Timing of Insertion Events and the History of Rice
In order to convert LTR nucleotide divergence into dates of insertion events, a substitution rate is needed for each retroelement. However, as copies have inserted at different time and different genomic locations, a global rate is difficult to estimate, and such data were not available for these three retrotransposon families. In addition, no synonymous substitution rate is known for any rice sequence. Hence, in order to estimate the insertion time of each copy from our database, we used the average substitution rate of the Adh1 and Adh2 loci of grasses, which has been estimated to be 6.5 x 10-9 substitutions per synonymous site per year (Gaut et al. 1996) and had been used previously to date LTR retroelements insertions in maize (SanMiguel et al. 1998). There is a concern that our timing results might be misestimated because we use this rate. LTRs show both very well conserved regions, which might be involved in the replication cycle and thus under selective pressure, and very dynamic regions, which might not be under selective constraint. Hence, retrotransposon LTRs sequences and genic synonymous sites may not evolve identically, and the use of this rate gives a very rough estimate of the insertion time of the copies that has to be reinforced by other data.
The genetic relationships within Oryza genus have been well characterized by several authors over the past decades (Wang, Second, and Tanksley 1992; Ge et al. 1999; Bautista et al. 2001). The two cultivated species O. sativa (Asia) and O. glaberrima (Africa) and their closest wild relatives (O. rufipogon and O. breviligulata, respectively) have been classified as AA-genome species, based on the chromosomal behavior of their hybrids (i.e., showing a normal pairing of the chromosomes during meiosis; Katayama 1967, 1982). Figure 7 shows their genetic relationships and history: the age of the radiation of the African gene pool from the Asian gene pool is estimated at 2 to 3 Myr (Second 1985). We thus examined the dates of insertion that we found for hopi, Retrosat1, and RIRE3 families in the view of both these paleontological data (fig. 7) and the Southern hybridizationbased data on the dynamics of these elements in Oryza genus that we recently published (Panaud et al. 2002). The three phenetic groups of hopi have amplified within the past Myr, that is, after the radiation of the African gene pool (see fig. 7). Retrosat1 has amplified mainly within the last 2 Myr, although three copies appear to have inserted around 4 Myr, that is, before the radiation of the African species. These results are thus in accordance with the result obtained by Panaud et al. (2002), as no hybridization signal was obtained when hopi was probed on O. glaberrima genomic DNA and O. glaberrima showed a fainter hybridization signal than the one obtained with O. sativa when hybridized with the Retrosat1 probe. All the copies of RIRE3 that we have analyzed have inserted within the past Myr. This result is incongruent with the results of Panaud et al. (2002) who clearly showed that RIRE3 present a hybridization signal with O. glaberrima genomic DNA, although fainter than in the case of O. sativa. However, among the three elements studied here, RIRE3 presents the highest intraelement recombination rate, particularly for group1 (composed of 25 solo-LTRs and only four complete elements, three of them harboring traces of conversion). Our dating data are therefore based on a much smaller sample than in the case of the other two elements. We thus need to extend this study to more copies of RIRE3 to reinforce our dating estimation.
|
Nature of the Amplification Process in Rice
The analysis of the estimated average group insertion times shows that all groups have inserted during the past 5 Myr, but most inserted within the past 1 Myr (figs. 4B, 5B, and 6B). One might however argue that since the method used to retrieve retroelement sequences is based on a BlastN search, which depends on threshold parameters, sequences that have undergone extensive rearrangements or that are too divergent from the query sequence could not be retrieved. Hence, if one supposes that old sequences may have undergone more alterations than newer ones, and under a constant evolution rate model, our database may be biased towards recent copies. In addition, we have only considered sequences that could be assigned as retroelements or solo-LTRs, but did not take into account the ones that showed only a partial region of homology with the reference copy and that may correspond to remnant retroelements, which further increases the bias towards recent copies. We therefore consider our analysis as a study of the recent history of the rice genome.
Even in the case of such recent amplification events, if the amplification process has occurred continuously, we should observe for each family a continuous decrease of copy number with time. For the hopi family, the global distribution (fig. 8) shows at least two peaks, which suggests that gain of retroelements sequences in the rice genome did not act continuously through time, but rather by distinct amplification events, as it has been shown in maize (SanMiguel et al. 1998), even if they seem to be of less important extent. In the case of rice, it is yet difficult to clearly assess whether these amplification events can be considered as bursts because our sampling was based on 30% of the total rice genomic sequence.
|
Results of the Mann-Whitney test for the hopi family suggest that groups 1B and 2 may have amplified concomitantly, whereas they have amplified at independent times compared with subgroup 1A and group 3, which also have amplified independently one from the other.
These results suggest that for a given retroelement family, several master copies may have amplified at different times, each one leading to concomitant insertions of phenetically close copies (corresponding to the groups observed) at distinct periods of time (corresponding to the mean LTR divergence observed for each group), although with rare exceptions (subgroup 1B).
Extent of the LTR Recombination Process
For the three retroelement families studied in this paper, we found solo-LTRs. This shows that unequal homologous recombination between two LTRs does occur in rice genome, as was shown in barley (Shirasu et al. 2000) and Arabidopsis (Devos, Brown, and Bennetzen 2002), and thus reinforces the existence of a genome-decreasing force driven by solo-LTRs formation. Whereas solo-LTRs appear to be rare in maize (SanMiguel et al. 1996; Devos, Brown, and Bennetzen 2002), it has been shown that Arabidopsis has an approximately 1:1 solo-LTR to intact elements ratio (Devos, Brown, and Bennetzen 2002) and that the BARE-1 retroelement of the barley genome shows 16-fold more LTRs than internal domains. The excess is mainly due to solo-LTRs (Vicient et al. 1999; Shirasu et al. 2000). In rice, Vicient and Schulman (2002) showed an approximately 1.6:1 ratio of global solo-LTRs to complete copies for copia-like elements and an approximately 6.3:1 ratio for the RIRE1 copia-like family, and an approximately 0.3:1 ratio for the RIRE2 family (corresponding to the Retrosat1 family). Here, considering the three gypsy-like retroelement families, we found 114 complete copies and 75 solo-LTRs, leading to an approximately 0.7:1 ratio solo-LTRs to complete copies. Considering each family separately, we found approximately 0.6:1, approximately 0.1:1 (which is close to the 0.3:1 ratio found for RIRE2 by Vicient and Schulman [2002]) and approximately 2.5:1 ratios, for the hopi, Retrosat1, and RIRE3 families, respectively. Thus, the ratio between solo-LTRs and complete elements varies considerably among the gypsy-like retroelement families. Considering the results of Vicient and Schulman (2002), this feature also seems to be true for copia-like elements, as the ratio for the RIRE1 family is distinct from the one obtained for the copia elements all together. These differences may be due to specific characteristics of the retroelements, such as preferential insertion regions or LTR size. Here, we show that the RIRE3 family inserts preferentially in the centromeric regions of chromosome 1, whereas the two other families seem to be dispersed on this chromosome. This feature could have an impact on the unequal homologous recombination process and could lead to a different ratio between the RIRE3 family and the two others.
Occurrence of recombination between LTRs may also be influenced by LTR size. If one considers that recombination occurs randomly along LTRs, then it could be hypothesized that retroelements with large LTRs would tend to recombine more than smaller ones. Here, we compared three elements with different LTR sizes (i.e., about 400 bp for Retrosat1, 1200 bp for hopi, and 3200 bp for RIRE3). Although our sample size is small, our data suggest that, globally, the proportion of solo-LTRs may increase with LTR size. Since we do not know yet how the recombination process takes place through time (see Relative Timing of Amplification and Reduction), the evaluation of the impact of LTR size on LTR recombination is nevertheless difficult to directly assess from the ratio of solo-LTRs to complete copies from retroelements that have not inserted at the same time. These results nevertheless clearly show that, in order to estimate the extent of the decreasing process, we have to take into account the specific features of each retroelement family that a genome contains, instead of analyzing globally the occurrence of solo-LTRs. For this reason, we cannot yet make comparisons between the ratios of solo-LTRs to complete copies for the two retroelement gypsy and copia types within the rice genome or for one retroelement family in different genomes, because we lack data concerning both timing of the copies and the ratios of LTR to complete copies for individual families.
In order to study the occurrence of solo-LTRs originating from the recombination of two different copies, we analyzed the flanking regions of the 64 solo-LTRs. All solo-LTRs but four showed perfect duplicated target sites. For three among these four, the duplicated target site is imperfect (gcgga/gtgga, ggcgt/ggcat, and ccgca/ctgca, respectively) but still recognizable. For the last copy (AC080019C), no duplicated target site could be revealed, as the flanking regions are different (catta/ctgtc). Hence, this copy might result from the recombination between two different copies, whereas the others might be the result of intracopy recombination events. This suggests that solo-LTRs form preferentially by unequal homologous recombination of two LTRs of the same copy. If such copies have not been the target of other(s) element(s), solo-LTR formation might thus reduce genome size, although not sufficiently to reverse the amplification process.
Relative Timing of Amplification and Reduction
In order to analyze the timing of the decreasing process, we examined the clustering of the solo-LTR sequences with the LTRs of the complete elements. Results presented in figures 4B, 5B, and 6B show that all solo-LTRs cluster with the groups of complete copies described. Hence, solo-LTR formation seems to be concomitant with the amplification of active copies.
Considering each family independently, solo-LTRs seem to be more abundant in old groups than in young ones (figs. 4B, 5B, and 6B). For example, in the hopi family, it appears in fig. 4B that the three oldest groups have more solo-LTRs (ratios of solo-LTR to complete copies are 7:5, 11:9, and 19:14, respectively, for subgroup 1B, group 2, and group 3) than the very recent one (subgroup1A, ratio 1:21). Nevertheless, in absence of a larger sample, we cannot yet determine if these differences are correlated with the age of the groups. It is thus not clear whether the decreasing process is continuous through time or driven by large recombination events as proposed by Rabinowicz (2000).
Finally, the extensive characterization of the retroelements that compose the nongenic compartment of the rice genome will allow to further elaborate our increase/decrease model, by the precise determination of both extent and timing of the amplification and LTR recombination processes.
Conclusion
The analysis of copies from three rice LTR retroelements retrieved from the rice genomic sequence shows that the rice genome has undergone LTR retrotransposon amplification events over the past 5 Myr. During these events, only a few master copies seem to have amplified, leading to the formation of structured groups within each family. Since their insertion, some copies have undergone unequal homologous recombination events that lead to the formation of solo-LTRs. Recombination seem to have occurred preferentially in old groups of copies and could be due to a continuous or to a massive process. We thus propose an increase/decrease model of grass genome evolution, in which both increasing and decreasing mechanisms drive genome size variations. Nevertheless, this evolutionary model has to be completed by the analysis of the extent of both these counteracting mechanisms. This will be possible through the extensive analysis of copies from a large number of retroelements, as soon as the rice genomic sequence is complete.
![]() |
Acknowledgements |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
![]() |
Footnotes |
---|
![]() |
Literature Cited |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Ahn, S., and S. D. Tanksley. 1993. Comparative linkage maps of the rice and the maize genomes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92:7980-7984.
Barakat, A., N. Carels, and G. Bernardi. 1997. The distribution of genes in the genomes of Gramineae. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:6857-6861.
Bautista, N., R. Solis, O. Kamijima, and T. Ishii. 2001. RAPD, RFLP and SSLP analyses of phylogenetic relationships between cultivated and wild species of rice. Genes Genet. Syst. 76:71-79.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
Bennett, M. D. 1998. Plant genome values: how much do we know? Proc Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:2011-2116.
Bennetzen, J. L. 2000. Transposable element contribution to plant gene and genome evolution. Plant Mol. Biol. 42:251-269.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
Bennetzen, J. L., and E. A. Kellogg. 1997. Do plants have a one-way ticket to genomic obesity? Plant Cell 9:1509-1514.
Bennetzen, J. L., P. SanMiguel, M. Chen, A. Tikhonov, M. Francki, and Z. Avramova. 1998. Grass Genomes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:1975-1978.
Bowen, N. J., and J. F. McDonald. 2001. Drosophila euchromatic LTR retrotransposons are much younger than the host species in which they reside. Genome Res. 11:1527-1540.
Devos, K., J. Brown, and J. Bennetzen. 2002. Genome size reduction through illegitimate recombination counteracts genome expansion in Arabidopsis. Genome Res. 12:1075-1079.
Dong, F., J. T. Miller, S. A. Jackson, G. L. Wang, P. C. Ronald, and J. Jiang. 1998. Rice (Oryza sativa) centromeric regions consist of complex DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:8135-8140.
Feschotte, C., N. Jiang, and S. R. Wessler. 2002. Plant transposable elements: where genetics meets genomics. Nat. Genet. 3:329-341.[CrossRef][ISI]
Galtier, N., M. Gouy, and C. Gautier. 1996. SEAVIEW and PHYLO_WYN: two graphic tools for sequence alignment and molecular phylogeny. Comput. Appl. Biosc. 12:543-548.[ISI]
Gaut, B. S., B. R. Morton, B. C. McCaig, and M. T. Clegg. 1996. Substitution rate comparisons between grasses and palms: synonymous rate differences at the nuclear gene Adh parallel rate differences at the plastid gene rbcL. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:10274-10279.
Ge, S., T. Sang, B. Lu, and D. Hong. 1999. Phylogeny of rice genomes with emphasis on origin of allotetraploid species. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:14400-14405.
Hirochika, H., A. Fukuchi, and F. Kikuchi. 1992. Retrotransposon families in rice. Mol. Gen. Genet. 233:209-216.[ISI][Medline]
Hirochika, H., K. Sugimoto, Y. Otsuki, H. Tsugawa, and M. Kanda. 1996. Retrotransposons of rice involved in mutations induced by tissue culture. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:7783-7788.
Jiang, N., Z. Bao, S. Temnykh, Z. Cheng, J. Jiang, R. A. Wing, S. R. McCouch, and S. R. Wessler. 2002. Dasheng, a recently amplified nonautonomous long terminal repeat element that is a major component of pericentromeric regions in rice. Genetics. 161:1293-1305.
Jordan, I. K., and J. F. McDonald. 1998. Evidence for the role of recombination in the regulatory evolution of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ty elements. J. Mol. Evol. 47:14-20.[ISI][Medline]
Katayama, T. 1967. Cytogenetical studies on the genus Oryza. IV. Cytogenetical studies on the first backcross generation of the (A x BC) x A and (A x CD) x A genomes. Jpn. J. Genet. 42:160-174.
Katayama, T. 1982. Cytogenetical studies on the genus Oryza. XIII. Relationship between the genomes E and D. Jpn. J. Genet. 57:613-621.
Kidwell, M. G., and D. Lisch. 1997. Transposable elements as sources of variation in animal and plants. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:7704-7711.
Kumekawa, N., N. Ohmido, K. Fukui, E. Ohtsubo, and H. Ohtsubo. 2001. A new gypsy-type retrotransposon, RIRE7: preferential insertion into the tandem repeat sequence TrsD in pericentromeric heterochromatin regions of rice chromosomes. Mol. Genet. Genomics 265:480-488.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
Kumekawa, N., H. Ohtsubo, T. Horiuchi, and E. Ohtsubo. 1999. Identification and characterization of novel retrotransposons of the gypsy type in rice. Mol. Gen. Genet. 260:593-602.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
Lisitsyn, N., N. Lisitsyn, and M. Wigler. 1993. Cloning differences between two complex genomes. Science 259:946-951.[ISI][Medline]
Noma, K., R. Nakajima, H. Ohtsubo, and E. Ohtsubo. 1997. RIRE1, a retrotransposon from wild rice Oryza australiensis. Genes Genet. Syst. 72:131-140.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
Ohtsubo, H., N. Kumekawa, and E. Ohtsubo. 1999. RIRE2, a novel gypsy-type retrotransposon from rice. Genes Genet. Syst. 74:83-91.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
Panaud, O., C. Vitte, J. Hivert, S. Muszlak, J. Talag, D. Brar, and A. Sarr. 2002. Characterization of transposable elements in the genome of rice (Oryza sativa L.) using representational difference analysis. Mol. Gen. Genomics 268:113-121.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
Petrov, D., E. Lozovskaya, and D. Hartl. 1996. High intrinsic rate of DNA loss in Drosophila. Nature 384:346-349.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
Petrov, D., T. Sangster, J. Johnston, D. Hartl, and K. Shaw. 2000. Evidence for DNA loss as a determinant of genome size. Science 287:1060-1062.
Promislow, D. E., I. K. Jordan, and J. F. McDonald. 1999. Genomic demography: a life-history analysis of transposable element evolution. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 266:1555-1560.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
Rabinowicz, P. D. 2000. Are obese plant genomes on a diet? Genome Res. 10:893-894.
SanMiguel, P., B. S. Gaut, A. Tikhonov, Y. Nakajima, and J. L. Bennetzen. 1998. The paleontology of intergene retrotransposons of maize. Nat. Genet. 20:43-45.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
SanMiguel, P., A. Tikhonov, Y. K. Jin, N. Motchoulskaia, D. Zakharov, A. Melake-Berhan, P. S. Springer, K. J. Edwards, M. Lee, and Z. Avramova. 1996. Nested retrotransposons in the intergenic regions of the maize genome. Science 274:765-768.
Second, G. 1985. Relations évolutives chez le genre Oryza et processus de domestication des riz. Paris, Paris Sud, Orsay.
Shirasu, K., A. H. Schulman, T. Lahaye, and P. Schulze-Lefert. 2000. A contiguous 66-kb barley DNA sequence provides evidence for reversible genome expansion. Genome Res. 10:908-915.
Statsoft. 1997. Statistica 5.1 software.
Swofford, D. L. 1999. PAUP*: phylogenetic analysis using parsimony (*and other methods). Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass.
Tarchini, R., P. Biddle, R. Wineland, S. Tingey, and A. Rafalski. 2000. The complete sequence of 340 kb of DNA around the rice ADH1-ADH2 regions reveals interrupted colinearity with maize chromosome 4. Plant Cell 12:381-391.
Thomas, C. A. 1971. The genetic organization of chromosomes. Ann. Rev. Genet. 5:237-256.[CrossRef][ISI]
Thompson, J. D., T. J. Gibson, F. Plewniak, F. Jeanmougin, and D. G. Higgins. 1997. The Clustal_X windows interface: flexible strategies for multiple sequence alignment aided by quality analysis tools. Nucleic Acids Res. 25:4876-4882.
Tikhonov, A. P., P. J. SanMiguel, Y. Nakajima, N. D. Gorenstein, J. L. Bennetzen, and Z. Avramova. 1999. Colinearity and its exceptions in orthologous ADH regions of maize and sorghum. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:7409-7414.
Tristem, M. 2000. Identification and characterization of novel human endogenous retrovirus families by phylogenetic screening of the human genome mapping project database. J. Virol. 74:3715-3730.
Vicient, C., and A. H. Schulman. 2002. Copia-like retrotransposons in the rice genome: few and assorted. Genome Lett. 1:35-47.[CrossRef]
Vicient, C. M., A. Suoniemi, K. Anamthawat-Jonsson, J. Tanskanen, A. Beharav, E. Nevo, and A. H. Schulman. 1999. Retrotransposon BARE-1 and its role in genome evolution in the genus Hordeum. Plant Cell 11:1769-1784.
Wang, Z., G. Second, and S. Tanksley. 1992. Polymorphism and phylogenetic relationships among species in the genus Oryza as determined by analysis of nuclear RFLPs. Theor. Appl. Genet. 83:565-581.[ISI]