Ashworth Laboratories, Institute of Cell, Animal and Population Biology, University of Edinburgh
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Abstract |
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Introduction |
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Population surveys in Drosophila melanogaster have shown that TEs are usually present at very low frequencies at the sites where they are inserted and that the overall rate of transposition is of the order of 10-4 transpositions per element copy per generation (Nuzhdin and Mackay 1995
; Maside, Assimacopoulos, and Charlesworth 2000
; Maside et al. 2001
). These results are broadly compatible with theoretical models that propose that selection is a key force in element number containment (Charlesworth, Sniegowski, and Stephan 1994
). Under these models, selection counteracts element spread by transposition by acting against (1) deleterious mutations caused by insertions into or nearby genes (Charlesworth B and Charlesworth D 1983
; Kaplan and Brookfield 1983
), (2) deleterious chromosome rearrangements induced by ectopic exchange between TEs of the same family inserted in nonhomologous locations (Langley et al. 1988
; Montgomery et al. 1991
), and (3) direct deleterious effects of transposition on fitness (Brookfield 1991
, 1996
). However, despite the large body of theoretical and experimental results, the relative importance of these factors is still a matter for debate (Biémont et al. 1994
; Hoogland and Biémont 1996
; Biémont et al. 1997a;
Charlesworth, Langley, and Sniegowski 1997
; Duret, Marais, and Biémont 2000
; Maside et al. 2001
).
A third finding of most population surveys is that TEs are not distributed at random within the genomes of the organisms which have been most intensively studied, such as D. melanogaster (Charlesworth, Lapid, and Canada 1992
; Biémont et al. 1994
; Vieira and Biémont 1996
; Maside et al. 2001
), Caenorhabditis elegans (Duret, Marais, and Biémont 2000
), humans (Boissinot, Entezam, and Furano 2001
; Lander et al. 2001
), and plants like Arabidopsis thaliana (S. I. Wright, N. Agrawal, and T. E. Bureau, personal communication). Some interesting patterns have been described, and given the different predictions of the models, these may shed some light on the nature of the selective mechanisms involved in the control of element abundance. Under the ectopic exchange model, elements are expected to be more abundant in regions of reduced recombination, where they are less likely to be involved in unequal recombination events (Langley et al. 1988
). Under the insertional mutation model, element abundance is expected to be negatively associated with two main factors: gene density and the rate of recombination. In regions of high gene density, TEs are more likely to insert into genes or regulatory sequences and hence to be targets of selection. In addition, interference between sites under selection in regions with low recombination rates is expected to weaken the efficiency of selection in eliminating slightly deleterious mutations, such as those induced by TEs (the Hill-Robertson effect, Hill and Robertson 1966
; Gordo and Charlesworth 2001
; see also Duret, Marais, and Biémont 2000
for a discussion in relation to TE distribution). The transposition-selection model has been developed in relation to DNA-based elements and proposes that the mode of selection is the deleterious effect of tranposase activity (Brookfield 1991
, 1996
). No specific predictions of this model with regard to element distribution have been made. However, given that it assumes that only element insertions in "safe" locations (where they do not cause harmful mutations) will persist in populations (Brookfield 1991
) and that selection may be weaker in regions of reduced recombination, it is reasonable to assume that the predictions of this model are similar to those of the insertional mutation model. We therefore only consider the predictions of the insertional mutation model in what follows.
In Drosophila, in situ hybridization data have provided evidence for TE accumulation in regions of reduced recombination, such as chromosomal inversions (Eanes, Wesley, and Charlesworth 1992
; Sniegowski and Charlesworth 1994
) and the tips and bases of the major autosomes (Langley et al. 1988
; Charlesworth, Lapid, and Canada 1992
; Maside et al. 2001
, but see Hoogland and Biémont 1996
for a different view). Furthermore, recent studies of the genome sequences of two different species have revealed different patterns. In C. elegans, a weak positive correlation between TE abundance and recombination rate has been described (Duret, Marais, and Biémont 2000
); in A. thaliana, element abundance has been found to be more intensively associated with gene density than with recombination rate (S. I. Wright, N. Agrawal, and T. E. Bureau, personal communication).
Here, we report a study of the abundance and distribution of all known TE families in the genomic DNA sequence of chromosomes X, 4, and 2R (chosen at random as representative of the major autosomal arms) of D. melanogaster released by the Drosophila Genome Project (Adams et al. 2000
). Taking advantage of the high level of resolution of this data set, we have analyzed the associations between TE abundance, gene density, and recombination rate. The implications of the results in relation to the different population genetic models of element dynamics are discussed.
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Materials and Methods |
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Gadfly (http://flybase.bio.indiana.edu/annot/bands.html) provided a complete list of genes by cytological map position and an estimate of the mRNA length for each gene. When two or more predicted genes overlapped, we always selected the largest annotation, discarding the rest. The annotated sequence of each chromosome arm was divided into sections of 50 kb where genes and TEs were located. The data available covered regions 1A520B1, 41A160F3, and 101F102F8 of chromosomes X, 2R, and 4, respectively.
To assess the accuracy of the TE annotation, we reviewed the insertions of all TE families present in one megabase of each chromosome. These evaluations were done by Blasting (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gorf/bl2.html) the Drosophila transposable element sequences (http://www.fruitfly.org/sequence/dlMisc.shtml) with the sequence scaffolds that cover the megabase under analysis (Flybase). All the annotations were consistently accurate in size, location, and family attribution, except for TartB1 and roo. A fraction of the annotations for these two families corresponded to tandem repeats of trinucleotide motifs (CAG and CAA) present in a particular region of the elements as well as at several other sites in the genomic sequence. These two motifs are glutamine codons, which have been found to be widespread as similar reiterative arrangements in the genomes of many eukaryotes (Green and Wang 1994
). As a precaution, we reanalyzed the insertions attributed to these two families by Blasting the sequences of the two elements (the reference sequences for roo and Tart-B1 are FBgn0000155 and FBgn0004904, respectively) against the corresponding genomic scaffolds. All predicted insertions, which were exclusively caused by homology between the polyglutamine motifs and did not involve any other part of the elements, were considered spurious and eliminated from our data.
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Results |
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We have identified 613 insertions of elements from 39 different families (table 1
). Retrotransposons are the most abundant class and account for 64% of the total number of TE insertions. The most represented family is 1360, with 87 copies. Overall, 17% of them corresponded to complete copies. This fraction is significantly higher among transposons (22%) than retroelements (12%) and among those inserted on the X and 4 than on the 2R. Given the problems associated with the annotation of TE sequences referred to above, these estimates should be viewed with caution. This low proportion of full-length insertions is in agreement with previous observations on a short intergenic sequence of maize (SanMiguel et al. 1998
) and the genome of C. elegans (Duret, Marais, and Biémont 2000
).
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Elements Accumulate in Regions of Low Recombination
In D. melanogaster the rate of recombination is strongly reduced near the centromere and at the tips of the major chromosomes as well as along the whole fourth chromosome (Hochman 1976
; Lindsley and Sandler 1977
; Ashburner 1989, pp. 451496
). In order to determine if there is any association between the TE distribution and the local recombination rate, we compared TE abundances in regions with different rates of recombination. On the basis of the gradient of recombination frequency with respect to physical position along the chromosomes described by Charlesworth (1996)
, we divided the annotated sequence from chromosomes X, 2R, and 4 into three different categories. They are (1) high recombination rate regions: where recombination map distances and physical separation are related by a linear function with a constant of proportionality greater than or equal to 0.6 (chromosomal regions 3 and 4 from X and 8 from 2R in the notation of Charlesworth 1996
), (2) null recombination regions: virtually nonrecombining regions, usually at the extreme tip and bases of the major chromosomes (chromosomal regions 1 and 6 from X and 6 from 2R according to Charlesworth 1996
, and the whole fourth chromosome), and (3) reduced recombination rate regions: chromosomal regions where the recombination rate is reduced compared with the high recombination rate regions but is still detectable (regions 2 and 5 from X and 6, 7, and 9 from 2R, Charlesworth 1996
). The cytological and genetic boundaries, sequence intervals, and length (in kb) of the different regions are given in table 3
. The first genes mapped to each of the chromosomal bands used as cytological landmarks were arbitrarily designated as the boundaries between regions in the annotated sequence. The null, reduced, and high regions represented 5%, 16%, and 79% of the DNA sequences analyzed, respectively.
Our data suggest a strong negative association between element abundance and the local recombination rate. In regions of null recombination, TEs make up to 8.8 ± 1.2% of the DNA, a fraction significantly higher than in regions where recombination is reduced (3.3 ± 0.6%) or is high (1.4 ± 0.1%) (t-test, P < 0.05 in all comparisons) (fig. 2a ). Table 4 shows the relative contribution of TEs to genomic DNA in the three regions of each major chromosome. The fraction of TE-derived DNA is significantly higher in the null recombination regions (pooled data), although this effect seems to be weaker on the X. However, it should be noted that the null recombination region for this chromosome is only 200 kb long (table 3 ), which allowed for only four estimates to be taken (one in each 50 kb interval, see Materials and Methods), causing the high variance in their mean.
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Gene Density and Recombination Rate
One possible explanation for the observed accumulation of TEs in regions of reduced recombination could be that there are fewer genes in these regions, and elements are therefore less likely to cause deleterious effects by inserting into genes or regulatory sequences. To test this hypothesis, we studied the fractions of coding, intronic, and intergenic DNA in the different chromosomal regions.
On chromosomes 2R and X, gene density is positively correlated with recombination rate. As shown in table 6 , in regions where recombination is not suppressed (reduced and high recombination regions), the fraction of coding and intronic DNA is much larger than that in the null regions. This increase is caused by greater number of genes per unit length of genomic DNA, rather than changes in the average size of genes (coding plus intronic DNA), which does not vary significantly among regions. This implies that the fraction of intergenic DNA in these regions is significantly smaller than in those where recombination is suppressed, and so there are fewer places for elements to insert without causing a detectable deleterious effect on the host.
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TE Contribution to Coding and Noncoding DNA
The vast majority of TEs are inserted into noncoding sequences. As expected, given the known strong deleterious effects of insertions into coding sequences, the TE contribution to this fraction of the genomic DNA is negligible. In fact, only one insertion out of the 613 detected occurred into a coding sequencea D element in the 3' end of BcDNA: GH06193 (Flybase ID: FBgn0027581), a gene of unknown function located on band 50B of 2R.
This implies that the observed accumulation of elements takes place exclusively in the noncoding DNA. But noncoding DNA can be divided into two classes (1) introns, which are transcribed but spliced out before translation, and (2) intergenic DNA, much of which may be devoid of any functional sequences other than regulatory motifs related to gene expression. To check if they are subject to different functional constraints that may affect the accumulation of TEs, we have analyzed separately the relative contributions of element insertions. Our results suggest that the overall fraction of TE-derived DNA in intergenic sequences is about twice as large as in introns (table 7 ) and that this difference is smaller in the null recombination regions (in the null recombination region of 2R, elements are as abundant in introns as in the intergenic DNA).
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Discussion |
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The two aspects that most strongly influence the utility of the released sequence with regard to the study reported here concern the assembly of the genomic sequence. First, as explained at length by Myers et al. (2000)
, repetitive DNA increases the difficulty of obtaining a consensus sequence. Thus, genomic regions rich in this type of sequences, such as the pericentric heterochromatin, have not been resolved yet. In fact, the two releases made available up to now essentially cover only the euchromatin (Adams et al. 2000
; see Materials and Methods for a detailed description of the genomic regions included in this analysis).
In addition, the presence of some islands of complex DNA, which are difficult to assemble, has left some gaps in the euchromatic sequence. This question has been addressed by Benos et al. (2001)
, who found that some of these gaps correspond to TE insertions. At least 2 out of the 10 gaps detected in the 2.6-Mb surveyed by Benos et al. (2001)
were indeed TE insertions (the results for four others were ambiguous, and the remaining four gaps did not involve TEs). In order to determine the consequences of not including the gaps in our study, we performed additional analyses treating them as a separate TE family and compared the results with those obtained from the true TE insertions only (see earlier). This is a very conservative procedure because at least 40% of the gaps studied by Benos et al. (2001)
are not TEs and could distort the overall distribution pattern. However, our comparisons revealed that the gaps are distributed over different genomic regions in a pattern similar to that of the rest of the TE families, so that their inclusion in the data set would not cause any significant change in the results reported here (table 8
).
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This new lower estimate suggests that TEs are even more abundant in the heterochromatin than previously suspected (Charlesworth, Jarne, and Assimacopoulos 1994
). Assuming that the overall content of TE-derived DNA in the fly genome is close to 7.5% (Manning, Schmid, and Davidson 1975
; Young 1979
) and that two-thirds of the genome correspond to the euchromatin (Adams et al. 2000
), it follows that over 18% of the heterochromatin may be composed of TEs. This reinforces the view that TEs accumulate intensively in this fraction of the genome (Charlesworth, Jarne, and Assimacopoulos 1994
; Pimpinelli et al. 1995
; Junakovic et al. 1998
; Maside et al. 2001
). If the sequence gaps were considered as TEs, and included in this calculation, the fraction of TE-derived DNA would be 3.7% and 15.1% for the euchromatin and heterochromatin, respectively.
TE Distributions and Selection
We have found a strong negative correlation between the local rate of recombination and TE abundance (fig. 2
). Elements accumulate in genomic regions where recombination is rare or absent: chromosome 4 and the null and low recombination regions of the X and 2R (tables 4
and 5
and fig. 2
). This is consistent with other evidence that natural selection against the deleterious effects of TE insertions is the main force checking element spread (Charlesworth, Lapid, and Canada 1992
; Vieira and Biémont 1996
; Biémont et al. 1997b;
Nuzhdin, Pasyukova, and Mackay 1997
; Maside, Assimacopoulos, and Charlesworth 2000
; Boissinot, Entezam, and Furano 2001
; Guerreiro and Fontdevila 2001
; Maside et al. 2001
).
This relationship between TE abundance and recombination rate can be explained either by a lower efficiency of selection against deleterious mutational effects of TE insertion in genomic regions where recombination is infrequent (the Hill-Robertson effect, see references above) or by a reduction in the rate of elimination of elements by ectopic exchange in such regions (Langley et al. 1988
; Charlesworth, Lapid, and Canada 1992
). In addition, most of the elements are inserted into intergenic sequences; of those found in genes, the vast majority are in the introns, where they are expected to have only weak deleterious mutational effects (table 7
). This must reflect removal of elements because of mutational effects and is consistent with the finding from restriction fragment polymorphism studies that TEs in natural populations are rarely found to be inserted into or near coding sequences (Charlesworth and Langley 1991
). There is less discrimination against intronic insertions in the null recombination regions (table 7
), suggesting a reduction in the pressure of selection against TE insertions in these regions (see Results). This could, of course, reflect either the effects of ectopic exchange or of Hill-Robertson effects on insertional mutations.
An alternative way to test the hypothesis of selection against TE insertions is to compare the relative abundance of TEs on the X chromosome versus the autosomes under the assumption that there will be stronger selection against X-linked than autosomal insertions (Montgomery, Charlesworth, and Langley 1987
; Langley et al. 1988
) and hence a deficit of elements on the X with respect to random expectations. This is expected to occur on both the deleterious insertional mutation and ectopic exchange models, although the quantitative predictions of relative equilibrium abundances are model dependent (Langley et al. 1988
; Charlesworth, Lapid, and Canada 1992
). We found a significant deficit of TEs on the X as compared with 2R: the X represents 52% of the DNA in the two chromosomes, but it only contains 42% of the elements (tables 2
and 3
;
2 = 19.3, P < 0.001). This effect was evident for all three TE classes, although it only reached significant levels for non-LTR retroelements (
2 = 18.9, P < 0.001).
The observed proportion of X-linked insertions was also compared with the theoretical expectations generated by four alternative models (Langley et al. 1988
; table 7
, these estimates were corrected by considering the relative size of the X with respect to 2R). Interestingly, the observed 42% of X-linked insertions fits the expectations under the two versions of the ectopic exchange model, particularly that from the less restrictive one (expected value: 41.3%), which assume unequal exchange between TEs located anywhere in the genome. In addition, it is significantly different from the predictions under the insertional mutation and neutral models (33.6% and 51.7%, respectively; P < 0.001 in a chi-square of goodness of fit, in both cases).
Additional evidence for stronger selection on X-linked insertions comes from the observation that the proportion of full-length copies on the X is twice that of those on 2R (table 1
). Because the long-term persistence of an element insertion means that it is subject to processes such as DNA loss (Petrov et al. 2000
), one might expect that the sizes of insertions would be negatively correlated with their age. The longer mean length of X-linked insertions is thus consistent with a higher rate of element turnover on the X because of stronger selection against insertions on this chromosome. However, given the uncertainty concerning the length estimates of some elements, this conclusion should be treated with caution.
TE Distribution and Gene Density
Under the insertional mutation model, TEs are expected to be more abundant in regions with lower gene density because this is where they are less likely to insert into or near a gene. Assuming a positive association between gene density and recombination rate, this would explain the observed accumulation of elements in regions of low recombination.
In contrast to this prediction, we have found that TEs accumulate in the fourth chromosome as well as in the reduced recombination regions of 2R and X, but gene density in these regions is not reduced as compared with that for the highly recombining segments (table 6 ). This observation suggests that, although gene density is associated with recombination rate, the build up in TE numbers in regions of low recombination is not necessarily related to gene density. This is in good agreement with the ectopic exchange model, which proposes that TEs accumulate where recombination is greatly reduced but does not predict any effect of gene density.
However, there is one piece of evidence from the in situ data (Charlesworth, Lapid, and Canada 1992
) that does not fit the predictions of the ectopic exchange model: the observed lack of accumulation of elements at the tip of the X, a region of greatly reduced crossing-over (Lefevre 1971
; Padilla and Nash 1977
; Kliman and Hey 1993
; Sniegowski, Pringle, and Hughes 1994
; see also Charlesworth 1996
for a summary of recombination rate data in this region). To investigate if this pattern was also detected in our data set, we analyzed separately the distribution of elements in the reduced recombination regions at the bases and tips of 2R and X. As shown in table 9
, the observed accumulation of elements in the reduced recombination region of the X is exclusively caused by a significant build up in TE numbers in the basal portion, whereas the reduced recombination region at the tip contains 22 out of the 218 X-linked insertions, precisely the expected number under the hypothesis of a random distribution, considering the fraction of the chromosome it represents (0.12, table 3
). This lack of accumulation at the tip also affects the short null recombination region between bands 1A51B4 (table 5
). Interestingly, data from the tip of 2R suggests that this effect cannot be directly attributed to the high gene density detected in this region, given that the tip of 2R displays a comparatively high gene density and that this is not an obstacle to the significant accumulation of TEs. The most plausible explanation for this is that the rate of ectopic exchange is not reduced in the tip of the X, as has been found to be the case in yeast subtelomeric regions (Haber et al. 1991
). At present, there is no independent support for this interpretation as far as Drosophila is concerned. The lack of accumulation of TEs is, of course, inconsistent with the interpretation of element accumulation in low recombination regions in terms of Hill-Robertson effects.
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The reasons for this are obscure. Comerón and Kreitman (2000) suggest that it may reflect selection for an increase in recombination frequencies in regions where the rate of recombination per nucleotide is low by increasing the size of the genes in these regions. This seems unlikely to apply to chromosome 4 and the Y chromosome, where crossing-over is thought to be absent under normal conditions, although recent data on DNA sequence polymorphism suggest the occurrence of some recombinational exchange on chromosome 4 (Jensen, Charlesworth, and Kreitman 2002
; Wang et al. 2002
). Another possibility is that forces which lead to the accumulation of repetitive sequences are more effective in regions of low recombination (Charlesworth, Jarne, and Assimacopoulos 1994
) so that these can accumulate within introns more easily. Similarly, the Hill-Robertson effect may mean that selection is less effective in opposing increases in gene length in regions of low recombination. Consistent with this, Akashi (1996)
has shown that mean protein lengths in D. melanogaster are larger than in D. simulans, possibly reflecting the reduced effective population size of D. melanogaster.
In addition, although TEs form a significant proportion of the intergenic DNA (tables 4
and 7
), and the greater proportion of intergenic DNA in regions with low recombination in part reflects the greater abundance of TEs in these regions, the contribution of TEs to intergenic sequences is never a major one. In particular, the build up of TEs on chromosome 4 contrasts with the relative large genic contribution to this chromosome. The picture is very different from that for maize or humans, where TE-derived sequences form a major part of the intergenic regions (SanMiguel et al. 1998
; Lander et al. 2001
) and suggests that selection is much less powerful in removing TE insertions in these species. Again, the reasons for these differences are obscure.
TE Distributions in Other Species
The patterns described previously contrast with the distribution of TEs in the C. elegans genome, where transposons are preferentially located in regions of high recombination (which correspond to regions of relatively low gene density), whereas the distribution of retroelements is independent of the local recombination rate (Duret, Marais, and Biémont 2000
). This has been interpreted as evidence against the ectopic exchange model (Duret, Marais, and Biémont 2000
). However, some population genetic considerations should be taken into account before definite conclusions can be drawn. C. elegans is an hermaphrodite species, which is likely to be highly self-fertilizing in nature, so that its evolutionarily effective recombination rate is effectively nearly zero (Nordborg 2000
). This means that low recombination genomic regions will not be more subject to Hill-Robertson effects than the rest of the genome, although the genome as a whole may experience a reduced efficacy of selection because of its reduced effective recombination rate, compared with an otherwise similar outbreeding species (Charlesworth and Wright 2001
). In addition, if ectopic exchange occurs primarily among heterozygous elements, as indicated by some experimental evidence (Montgomery et al. 1991
), there will be no differences in its rate among regions with different recombination rates in a selfing species.
Theoretical studies also show that the breeding system of the host plays an important role in TE dynamics (Charlesworth D and Charlesworth B 1995
; Wright and Schoen 1999
; Morgan 2001
). In selfing populations, the higher levels of homozygosity are expected to substantially change the selective landscape: ectopic exchange is less likely to be a significant source of selection against insertions, so that elements would be relatively free to accumulate in regions where they do not cause strong deleterious insertional mutations. At the same time, deleterious mutations caused by TE insertions would be more effectively screened by selection because of their expression in the homozygous state, but this would not be affected by differences in the local recombination rate. This effect would be, at least partly, counteracted by the increased Hill-Robertson effects referred to previously. A population survey of two plant species of the genus Arabidopsis is consistent with these theoretical predictions, suggesting a reduction in the efficacy of natural selection against element insertions in the highly selfing A. thaliana compared with its outbreeding relative A. petraea (Wright et al. 2001
). In addition, a genomic analysis of A. thaliana has shown that TEs are more abundant in regions of low gene density, whereas the local rate of recombination plays little role in controlling their distribution (S. I. Wright, N. Agrawal, and T. E. Bureau, personal communication). In the C. elegans genome, gene density is lower in regions of high recombination, providing an explanation for the observed tendency of transposons to accumulate in these regions (Duret, Marais, and Biémont 2000
).
Conclusions
Although our analysis of the genomic data of D. melanogaster is broadly compatible with selection against the deleterious effects of ectopic exchange being a major force in regulating element abundance, we cannot draw firm conclusions as to whether the relation between recombination and TE abundance in D. melanogaster reflects the consequences of differences in the rate of ectopic exchange or differences in the intensity of Hill-Robertson on deleterious insertional mutations. It is worth noting that although the theoretical basis for predicting the effects of ectopic exchange has been well studied (Langley et al. 1988
; Charlesworth, Lapid, and Canada 1992
), little work has been done on the Hill-Robertson model in relation to TEs, so that we currently have no firm knowledge of what to expect. The simulations of Charlesworth and Charlesworth (1983)
showed only very small effects of differences in recombination rate or effective population sizes (or both) on the abundances of TE under the insertional mutation model, but these were very limited in scope.
In any case, it seems unlikely that merely examining the distribution of TEs across a single genome can distinguish between Hill-Robertson effects and ectopic exchange. It is likely that only population surveys offer a prospect of doing this. As pointed out by Charlesworth, Lapid, and Canada (1992)
in the specific context of the effects of hitch-hiking by favorable mutations on TE distributions, Hill-Robertson effects (which are formally similar to a reduction in effective population size) should result in reduction in the proportion of chromosomal sites where TEs are found to be segregating. This is compensated by a higher mean frequency of elements at sites where elements are present, including the likelihood of some fixations of elements (see fig. 4 of Charlesworth and Charlesworth 1983
). The ectopic exchange model predicts the opposite to the first of these effects, and fixation is unlikely unless the effective population size has been greatly reduced by Hill-Robertson effects as well. The in situ data discussed by Charlesworth, Lapid, and Canada (1992)
provided no support for Hill-Robertson effects, but it would clearly be desirable to reexamine this question. One case of fixation of an element (HB) in an intron of chromosome 4 has now been reported (Jensen, Charlesworth, and Kreitman 2002
), so that it would also seem worth examining the sites where elements are found in the genome sequence for evidence of fixations or unusually high frequencies in regions of null or reduced recombination.
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Acknowledgements |
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Footnotes |
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Keywords: population genetics
transposable elements
Drosophila melanogaster
selection
ectopic exchange
Address for correspondence and reprints: Xulio Maside, Ashworth Laboratories, Institute of Cell, Animal and Population Biology, Kings Buildings, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK. xulio.maside{at}ed.ac.uk
All authors contributed equally to this work.
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