Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Biosciences West, University of Arizona
Correspondence: E-mail: storz{at}sfsu.edu.
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Abstract |
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Key Words: adaptation positive selection genetic hitchhiking human genome microsatellite DNA natural selection
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Introduction |
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Adaptive explanations have been offered for many physiological and morphological differences among human populations (Diamond 1992), although compelling empirical support is generally lacking. In recent years, some progress has been made by analyzing DNA sequence variation underlying phenotypes that distinguish human populations in different continental regions. For example, the incidence of infectious disease is known to vary among different geographic regions, and selection has probably played a significant role in shaping patterns of variation at disease-resistance genes in different human populations (Cavalli-Sforza, Menozzi, and Piazza 1994). Consistent with this idea, geographically localized selection for disease resistance appears to have driven the frequency of the CCR5-32 allele to unusually high frequencies only in northern Europe (Stephens et al. 1998). Another physiological trait that is thought to have been subject to positive selection in populations outside of sub-Saharan Africa is lactase persistence (the persistence of intestinal lactase activity into adulthood; Bodmer and Cavalli-Sforza 1976). Consistent with this idea, positive selection appears to have driven a recently derived lactase-persistence haplotype to high frequency only in northern Europe (Hollox et al. 2001). One of the most obvious phenotypic differences among human populations from different continental regions is skin pigmentation. Some form of natural and/or sexual selection is probably responsible for shaping global patterns of variation in human skin color, as differentiation in the level of skin pigmentation among continental populations vastly exceeds the level of differentiation observed at neutral genetic markers (Relethford 2002).
Although locus-specific surveys of DNA sequence variation can potentially elucidate the role of past selection in driving the differentiation of specific traits among human populations, individual case studies cannot provide an answer to the more general question of whether recent positive selection has been more prevalent in colonizing populations outside of sub-Saharan Africa. In principle, this hypothesis could be tested by conducting genomic scans of DNA variability in samples from different continental populations of humans. If recent positive selection has been more prevalent outside of Africa, multilocus neutrality tests based on DNA polymorphism or haplotype structure should identify a disproportionate number of candidate genes for selective sweeps in non-African populations. The underlying premise of multilocus neutrality tests is that demographic processes have relatively uniform effects across the entire genome, whereas the effects of selection are generally locus-specific and can be inferred from patterns of variation at linked sites (Cavalli-Sforza 1966; Lewontin and Krakauer 1973). For example, the spread and fixation of adaptive mutations results in the joint fixation of linked neutral variants (genetic hitchhiking; Maynard Smith and Haigh 1974). The strength of this hitchhiking effect is a function of the selection coefficient and recombinational distance from the selected site (Maynard Smith and Haigh 1974; Kaplan, Hudson, and Langley 1989; Stephan, Wiehe, and Lenz 1992; Wiehe and Stephan 1993). In general, genetic hitchhiking results in a reduced level of variability and a skewed distribution of allele frequencies at linked neutral loci (Tajima 1989; Fu and Li 1993; Braverman et al. 1995; Simonsen, Churchill, and Aquadro 1995).
In the case of geographically subdivided populations, hitchhiking with a locally adaptive mutation is expected to greatly increase the level of differentiation at linked neutral loci (Stephan and Mitchell 1992; Begun and Aquadro 1993; Stephan 1994; Stephan et al. 1998). Thus, loci that have undergone geographically restricted selective sweeps should be characterized by levels of differentiation that greatly exceed the genome-wide average.
Here we test the hypothesis that local adaptation in humans has been more prevalent in colonizing populations outside of sub-Saharan Africa. Using publicly available data, we conducted multilocus scans of microsatellite variability to identify regions of the human genome that may have been subject to continent-specific hitchhiking events. A previous genome scan of microsatellite variability in humans identified a number of candidate regions for divergent selection between African and European populations (Kayser, Brauer, and Stoneking 2003). Intriguingly, the authors reported an excess of loci that exhibited reduced variability in Europe relative to sub-Saharan Africa. Here we use a model-based approach to investigate this pattern in more detail using independent samples from European, Asian, and African populations and a much larger sample of marker loci. To the extent that our sample of marker loci is representative of the genome as a whole, results of the analysis provide further evidence that recent selective sweeps have been more prevalent in Europe and Asia than in sub-Saharan Africa.
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Methods |
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Three-way Population Comparisons
For each three-way population comparison, we obtained single-locus estimates of FST (a standardized measure of genetic differentiation) using the ß statistic of Cockerham and Weir (1993):
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Simulation results of Beaumont and Nichols (1996) indicate that conditional distributions of FST generated under an infinite island model are robust to a range of different nonequilibrium conditions. However, it is not clear whether this apparent robustness holds up in cases involving small numbers of demes. We therefore conducted coalescent simulations under a nonequilibrium model that incorporated population bottlenecks to account for founder effects associated with migrations out of Africa. Specifically, we extended the multi-epoch model of Marth et al. (2004) to consider the case of three populations that diverged at a specified time in the past. Following the initial divergence (going forward in time), one of the populations remained stationary at the ancestral effective population size (N3 = 10,000), whereas the other two populations each underwent an instant reduction in effective size (N2 = 1,000). The duration of the population bottleneck was T2 = 550 generations. The bottleneck was then followed by a stepwise increase of effective size to N1 = 10,000, which occurred T1 = 3100 generations before the present. For T1 and T2, we used the average of maximum-likelihood parameter estimates obtained for Asian and European populations in the study of Marth et al. (2004). Similarly, we used a size expansion ratio (N1/N2 = 10) close to the average of maximum-likelihood parameter estimates obtained for these same samples under the three-epoch model of Marth et al. (2004). To evaluate the effect of gene flow, we included a migration matrix that defined a three-deme island model. We conducted coalescent simulations under this nonequilibrium model of population structure to generate null distributions of FST over a range of migration rates.
Coalescent simulations were conducted under the stepwise mutation model (SMM). The mutation rate varied randomly over the range 1 x 105 to 5 x 104 (to generate a roughly uniform distribution of H values), and allele sizes were constrained to a range of 5 to 20 repeat units. In each set of iterations, sample sizes were set equal to the median of actual sample sizes in the specific data set under consideration. Coalescent simulations were used to generate a total of 50,000 paired values of FST and H, which was then used to compute the 0.95 and 0.50 quantiles of the conditional distribution (Beaumont and Nichols 1996; Storz and Nachman 2003). We used FST as an estimator of differentiation rather than microsatellite-specific statistics such as RST because the former statistic is generally characterized by a lower sampling variance (Slatkin 1995; Gaggiotti et al. 1999; Balloux and Goudet 2002).
We used an iterative fitting procedure to generate the expected neutral distribution for each three-way population comparison. In each set of iterations, values for the migration matrix were varied over the range 1 x 105 to 5 x 104 to produce a null distribution in which equal numbers of loci fell above and below the median quantile. Loci with FST values that exceeded the 0.95 quantile of the resultant distribution were considered as preliminary candidates for continent-specific selective sweeps.
The set of candidate loci identified in each set of simulations may contain loci that are tracking selection at linked sites as well as loci that are false positives. All genome-wide scans for detecting selection face the problem of identifying and excluding false positives when multiple tests are conducted (e.g., Huttley et al. 1999; Akey et al. 2002; Payseur, Cutter, and Nachman 2002; Vigouroux et al. 2002; Luikart et al. 2003; Schlötterer 2003). To minimize this problem, we restricted further consideration to the subset of loci that appeared as outliers in separate comparisons using different reference populations for Africa (Biaka and Mbuti). For the D3 and D4 data sets, we also considered the smaller subset of loci that appeared as outliers in comparisons using all three different reference populations (Biaka, Mbuti, and San).
African Versus Non-African Comparisons
Although higher-than-expected FST values should be indicative of continent-specific selective sweeps, FST values alone cannot identify the populations in which the allele frequency changes took place. Thus, after identifying candidate loci that may have been subject to continent-specific sweeps, we then used pairwise comparisons to assess whether equal numbers of these loci exhibited reduced levels of relative variability in African and non-African populations. If recent selective sweeps have been more prevalent outside of Africa, then a disproportionate number of candidate loci should exhibit reduced levels of relative variability in non-African populations alone.
Under the SMM at mutation-drift equilibrium, expected heterozygosity (or gene diversity, H; Nei 1978) can be used to estimate the neutral parameter = 4Neµ, where Ne = effective population size and µ = mutation rate (Ohta and Kimura 1973; Moran 1975). For two populations, the expected ratio of heterozygosity-based estimators of
is:
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By considering ratios of values, we are able to control for interlocus differences in levels of variability that are attributable to differences in mutation rate and/or recombinational environment. For the ratios of
values, we used estimators based on gene diversity (lnRH) rather than variance in allele size (lnRV; Schlötterer 2002), because lnRH is characterized by a much lower variance and is less sensitive to departures from the SMM (Kauer, Dieringer, and Schlötterer 2003).
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Results |
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Discussion |
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Of the 11 outlier loci identified as candidates for selection by Kayser, Brauer, and Stoneking (2003), five were also included in the D4 data set that we analyzed. Although these five loci were characterized by unusually large RST values between African and European population samples in the study of Kayser, Brauer, and Stoneking (2003), none of them were identified as outliers in our FST-based simulation analyses. Since Kayser, Brauer, and Stoneking (2003) used different population samples for Europe and sub-Saharan Africa, a lack of correspondence between the results of our studies would be expected if selection was geographically restricted to specific subpopulations within continents. However, a replicated test using different population samples should identify loci that were subject to continent-wide selective sweeps. To assess whether these five loci also exhibit unusually high levels of differentiation in the D4 data set, we estimated locus-specific FST and RST values for each of the six possible pairwise comparisons between our African and non-African population samples. Two of the five loci (D9S2169 and D2S1400) fell in the upper 0.05 tail of the empirical distribution of RST values in each of the six pairwise comparisons (table 6). The D2S1400 locus also exhibited the highest FST value in the pairwise comparison between the San and Han Chinese samples, but neither D9S2169 nor any of the other three loci fell in the upper tails of the empirical distributions of FST. Rank correlations between single-locus FST and RST values were not statistically significant in any of the six pairwise comparisons (Spearman's rank correlation coefficient ranged from 0.077 to 0.024). In summary, two of the outliers identified by Kayser, Brauer, and Stoneking (2003) also appear as outliers in our analysis using completely independent population samples. However, patterns of variation at these loci are only unusual with respect to variance in allele size, not heterozygosity.
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The nonequilibrium demographic model that we used was highly conservative with regard to the identification of outliers. Simulations under an equilibrium island model of population structure typically predicted a sharper decline in FST at high values of H, consistent with the results of Flint et al. (1999). Consequently, greater numbers of loci exceeded the upper quantile of the distribution null at H values above 0.90. However, the same 13 loci listed in table 4 were consistent outliers in simulations that covered a wide range of different equilibrium and nonequilibrium models of population structure (data not shown).
Because African and non-African populations have experienced different demographic histories, it is reasonable to expect them to be characterized by different standing levels of DNA variability and different distributions of allele frequencies. However, the use of multilocus data allows us to distinguish between the locus-specific effects of selection and the genome-wide effects of demographic processes. Moreover, by considering the distribution of gene-diversity ratios in the pairwise population comparisons, we are able to control for differences in absolute levels of variability between continents.
The microsatellite loci listed in table 4 are flanked by 260 genes within a 0.25 cM window on either side. One or more loci within these chromosomal regions may be expected to harbor adaptive mutations that have been driven to unusually high frequencies within a single continental region. This list of candidate genes can be considered as a starting point for efforts to characterize functional polymorphisms that underlie adaptive differentiation in the human gene pool. Using estimates of local recombination rates taken from Kong et al. (2002), we assessed whether candidate loci were disproportionately represented in genomic regions of low recombination. We found this not to be the case, as only five candidate loci were characterized by local recombination rates that fell below the genome-wide average of 1.1 cM/Mb (Kong et al. 2002). Thus, if the candidate loci are in fact tracking selection at linked sites, they may be tightly linked to the targets of selection.
Using Genome Scans to Infer Selective Sweeps
The results presented here will be a valuable complement to data from genome-wide surveys of nucleotide polymorphism once such data become more widely available. Comparing multilocus patterns of nucleotide and microsatellite polymorphism can be expected to provide many novel insights into the evolutionary processes that shape patterns of genomic diversity. For example, following a selective sweep, single nucleotide polymorphism and microsatellite length polymorphism will exhibit very different rates of return to mutation-drift equilibrium because mutation rates differ by several orders of magnitude. Deterministic and stochastic models of hitchhiking at microsatellite loci have demonstrated that the strength of hitchhiking effects depends strongly on mutation rates in addition to recombination rates and the selection coefficient (Wiehe 1998). Thus, comparing patterns of nucleotide and microsatellite polymorphism can be expected to provide valuable information about the timing of hitchhiking events. Given the high mutation rates at human microsatellite loci (3 x 103 to 6 x 104; Ellegren 2000), theoretical results of Wiehe (1998) suggest that surveys of microsatellite variation are most appropriate for detecting selective sweeps that were both strong and recent (e.g., during the Neolithic). This stands in contrast to nucleotide variation, which may be more appropriate for detecting relatively ancient sweeps, as mutation rates for single nucleotide changes are generally at least four orders of magnitude lower (2 x 108; Nachman and Crowell 2000a). In addition, microsatellites may generally provide more power than single nucleotide changes for detecting sweeps, because reductions in microsatellite variability will occur relative to a much higher baseline level of standing variation.
Recent studies of both humans and Drosophila have revealed substantial differences in patterns of DNA variability between African and non-African populations (Begun and Aquadro 1993; Andolfatto 2001; Harr, Kauer, and Schlötterer 2002; Kauer et al. 2002; Glinka et al. 2003; Kauer, Dieringer, and Schlötterer 2003). These differences may largely reflect founder effects associated with migrations out of Africa. However, patterns of DNA variability may also reflect the effects of positive selection associated with the colonization of novel environments outside the ancestral species range. Consistent with this hypothesis, patterns of nucleotide and microsatellite variability in African and non-African populations of D. melanogaster have been interpreted as evidence for geographically restricted selective sweeps associated with adaptation to temperate zone environments (Andolfatto 2001; Harr, Kauer, and Schlötterer 2002; Kauer et al. 2002; Glinka et al. 2003; Kauer, Dieringer, and Schlötterer 2003). Although several studies have documented directional selection on loci involved in disease resistance within African populations of humans (Hamblin and Di Rienzo 2000; Tishkoff et al. 2001; Hamblin, Thompson, and Di Rienzo 2002; Sabeti et al. 2002; Saunders, Hammer, and Nachman 2002), in each case there were a priori reasons to expect that the genes under consideration were involved in local adaptation. By contrast, geographic surveys of X-linked loci in humans that were not previously implicated as candidates for local adaptation have revealed evidence of genetic hitchhiking events that appear to have been largely restricted to non-African populations (e.g., Harris and Hey 1999, 2001; Nachman and Crowell 2000b). Our finding that selective sweeps may have been more prevalent outside of Africa appears to be consistent with the picture emerging from global surveys of DNA sequence variation in humans. It remains to be seen whether surveys of X-linked loci will reveal additional evidence for selective sweeps outside of Africa, as in the case of Drosophila (Andolfatto 2001; Harr, Kauer, and Schlötterer 2002; Kauer et al. 2002; Glinka et al. 2003; Kauer, Dieringer, and Schlötterer 2003).
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Acknowledgements |
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Footnotes |
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2 Present address: Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University.
Diethard Tautz, Associate Editor
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