School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University, 1-4-4 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, 739-8528, Japan1
Author for correspondence: Takeshi Naganuma. Tel: +81 824 24 7986. Fax: +81 824 22 7059. e-mail: takn{at}hiroshima-u.ac.jp
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ABSTRACT |
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Keywords: Lamellibrachia endosymbiont, 16S rDNA, cbbM, phylogenetic analysis, in situ hybridization
Abbreviations: ISH, in situ hybridization; NJ, neighbour-joining; ORU, operational RuBisCO unit; OTU, operational taxonomic unit; RuBisCO, D-ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylaseoxygenase
The DDBJ accession numbers for the sequences reported in this paper are AB042416 [ST-Sym(16S)-1], AB032829 [ST-Sym(II)-1] and AB040509 [ST-Sym(II)-2].
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INTRODUCTION |
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The trophosome of the vestimentiferan tubeworms consists of lobules (Hand, 1987 ). Prokaryotic cells are localized in specialized cells the bacteriocytes located at the peripheries of these lobules (Cary et al., 1993
). Morphologically diverse micro-organisms have been observed in the trophosomal tissue of the seep tubeworm Lamellibrachia sp. (Naganuma et al., 1997a
). In the vent tubeworm Riftia pachyptila, the trophosome consists of distinct zones that harbour morphologically distinct prokaryotes: rod-like prokaryotes are found in the inner zone of the lobules and coccoid prokaryotes are found in the outer zone of the lobules (Bright et al., 2000
).
The second piece of evidence for chemoautotrophic symbiosis within the trophosome of vestimentiferan tubeworms is the detection and amplification of bacterial rRNA and rDNA from the contents of the trophosome (Stahl et al., 1984 ; Distel et al., 1994
; Di Meo et al., 2000
). Intracellular localization of thiobacillic 16S rRNA sequences in the trophosome of the vent tubeworm Riftia pachyptila was demonstrated by in situ hybridization (ISH; Cary et al., 1993
), whereas the 16S rRNA of a member of the
-Proteobacteria was detected and localized in the trophosome of the seep tubeworm Lamellibrachia sp. (Naganuma et al., 1997b
).
The third piece of evidence for chemoautotrophic symbiosis in tubeworms was the detection of enzymes that catalyse the fixation of radioactive bicarbonate via the CalvinBenson cycle (Felbeck et al., 1981 ). The enzyme that mediates the first step of carbon fixation is D-ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylaseoxygenase (RuBisCO; EC 4.1.1.39), which serves as an indicator for autotrophy. RuBisCO is localized in intracellular polyhedral bodies (carboxysomes) in the endosymbiont of the vent tubeworm Ridgeia spp. (De Burgh et al., 1989
). The enzyme has three forms, namely form I, form II and archaeal RuBisCO, which are distinct from each other on the basis of their structures, and their physical and chemical properties (Kellogg & Juliano, 1997
; Watson et al., 1999
). The RuBisCO form I large-subunit gene (cbbL) was sequenced from the endosymbionts of the vent gastropod Alvinoconcha hessleri and the mussel Bathymodiolus sp. (Stein et al., 1990
; Elsaied & Naganuma, 2001
), whereas the RuBisCO form II gene (cbbM) was sequenced from the endosymbionts of the vent tubeworm Riftia pachyptila (Robinson et al., 1998
) and the cold-seep tubeworm Lamellibrachia sp. (Elsaied & Naganuma, 2001
).
In this study, we describe the use of both 16S rDNA and RuBisCO sequences to phylogenetically characterize only the autotrophic endosymbiotic bacteria from the natural microbial community within the trophosome of the tubeworm Lamellibrachia sp. We also demonstrate the localization of both the endosymbiotic 16S rRNA and RuBisCO form II cbbM sequences within the trophosome by using ISH with specific oligo- and polynucleotide probes, respectively.
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METHODS |
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Genomic DNA extraction, PCR, cloning and sequencing of the 16S-rRNA- and RuBisCO-encoding genes.
The extraction of trophosomal DNA, amplification of the genes of interest by PCR, and the cloning and sequencing of these genes was performed according to the methods of Distel et al. (1994) and Elsaied & Naganuma (2001)
. The primers used in the amplification of the 16S rDNA were 27F and 1492R, specific for the amplification of eubacterial 16S rDNA (DeLong, 1992
). The expected amplified product was equivalent to approximately 1484 bp of Escherichia coli 16S rDNA. Approximately 400 bp of cbbM were amplified from the bulk trophosomal DNA using specific primers and PCR conditions, as detailed in Elsaied & Naganuma (2001)
. Fifty clones containing the target inserts were selected randomly from both the 16S rDNA and cbbM clone libraries, and these were sequenced. The obtained sequences (1427 bp for the 16S rDNA and 400 bp for cbbM) were screened against sequences contained within the databases held at the DNA Database of Japan (DDBJ) (http://www.ddbj.nig.ac.jp) using the program FASTA 3. For the 16S rDNA, the sequences showing 97% nucleotide identity with each other were grouped into one operational taxonomic unit (OTU) (Godon et al., 1997
). The resulting nucleotide sequences of cbbM were translated into amino acids using the program PROTEIN ENGINE (available at the EBI website; http://www.ebi.ac.uk). The current cbbM sequences sharing 100% amino acid identity with each other were grouped into an operational RuBisCO unit (ORU). One OTU resulted from the nucleotide sequence analysis of the 50 16S rDNA clones, and this was named ST-Sym(16S)-1. Two ORUs resulted from the amino acid sequence analysis of cbbM, and these were grouped into ST-Sym(II)-1 and ST-Sym(II)-2, representing 38 and 12 clones, respectively, of the 50 cbbM clones that were analysed. Each OTU or ORU was represented by the clone that displayed the highest similarity (with respect to nucleotide sequence) with the other clones within the same OTU or ORU. Two phylogenetic trees were constructed based on multiple alignments of the nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences for the 16S rDNA OTU and the cbbM ORUs, respectively, and these included other sequences from the databases. The phylogenetic trees were constructed using the neighbour-joining (NJ) method (Saitou & Nei, 1987
), and were visualized using the program TREEVIEW (Page, 1996
). The branching patterns of the constructed phylogenetic trees were confirmed by reconstruction of the phylogenies using two other methods of analysis, namely maximum-parsimony and maximum-likelihood, contained within the PHYLIP package (Felsenstein, 1989
).
The ST-Sym(16S)-1, ST-Sym(II)-1 and ST-Sym(II)-2 sequences obtained in this study were deposited in the DDBJ under accession numbers AB042416, AB032829 and AB040509, respectively.
Preparation of the oligonucleotide 16S rDNA probes.
The oligonucleotide 16S-rRNA-targeted probe specific for the autotrophic Lamellibrachia sp. endosymbiont was designed from the sequence ST-Sym(16S)-1, by creating a multiple alignment with this sequence and those sequences retrieved from the database. The alignment was created with the program CLUSTAL W (Thompson et al., 1989 ). The endosymbiont-specific 16S-rRNA-targeted probe Lam-384R (5'-GCCTGCGCCCATTGTCTAAGATCCC-3') was complementary to nucleotide positions 360384 of E. coli 16S rDNA. The mismatching of the probe target region with 16S rDNA sequences from other species was checked by homology searches of the sequences contained within the databases (DDBJ, EMBL, GenBank and RDP) using the programs BLAST and PROBE MATCH (Altschul et al., 1990
; Olsen et al., 1991
).
The universal eubacterial 16S-rRNA-targeted probe EUB338 (5'-GCTGCCTCCCGTAGGAGT-3'), complementary to nucleotide positions 338355 of E. coli 16S rDNA (Amann et al., 1990 ), was used as a positive control, to localize all possible bacterial species within the trophosome. The oligonucleotide probes were chemically synthesized by Roche and were labelled using the Digoxigenin 3'-end Labelling Kit (Boehringer Mannheim), according to the manufacturers instructions.
Preparation of the RuBisCO form II cbbM probe.
To obtain a cbbM probe, characterized by its efficiency to produce a cbbM-specific ISH signal in trophosome tissue, probes with different lengths (short oligonucleotides, typically <50-mer single-stranded DNA fragments, and long, 400 bp DNA fragments) were designed from the sequence alignments created for ST-Sym(II)-1 and ST-Sym(II)-2 (data not shown). The short probes were prepared and labelled in the same way as the 16S rDNA probes. The 400 bp fragment, representing the full-length ST-Sym(II)-2 sequence, was chosen as the cbbM probe, as the nucleotide sequence divergence within the ST-Sym(II)-2 ORU was as low as 1%. This was contrasted by the higher nucleotide sequence divergence (8·8%) seen within the ST-Sym(II)-1 ORU, which would have resulted in a degenerative probe that would have given a less specific ISH signal. The cbbM ST-Sym(II)-2 fragment was amplified by PCR from the plasmid of a transformed TOP10 E. coli clone. The fragment was purified by using the Qiagen QIAquick PCR Purification Kit (Germany) and labelled by random-priming with digoxigenin-11-dUTP, using the DIG-High Prime Kit (Boehringer Mannheim) according to the manufacturers instructions.
The specificities of the 16S rDNA and the RuBisCO cbbM probes for their target sequences were checked by Southern dot-blot hybridization using a positive high-bond nylon membrane (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech), according to the method of Cary et al. (1993) . The efficiency of these probes to produce ISH signals was also evaluated, using sections of the trophosomal tissue.
Detection of the RuBisCO form I cbbL gene by PCR and ISH.
The primers and PCR conditions used to test the amplification of the cbbL-encoding gene from bulk trophosomal DNA were as described in Elsaied & Naganuma (2001) . cbbL was not amplified from the Lamellibrachia sp. trophosomal DNA. To confirm the absence of this gene in the Lamellibrachia sp. trophosome, ISH was performed using a cbbL-specific probe. Approximately 800 bp were amplified by PCR from the cbbL gene of the endosymbiont of the deep-sea mussel Bathymodiolus sp. (Elsaied & Naganuma, 2001
). The 800 bp cbbL probe, named Bathy(cbbL)-1, was labelled by random-priming with digoxigenin-11-dUTP, using the DIG-High Prime Kit. The efficiency of Bathy(cbbL)-1 to produce a cbbL-specific ISH signal was tested on a section of gill tissue from Bathymodiolus sp. The probe was also used to test for the possible presence of RuBisCO form I cbbL within the trophosome of the tubeworm, Lamellibrachia sp., used in this study.
ISH procedure.
To visualize the localization of the endosymbiotic 16S-rRNA and RuBisCO sequences within the tubeworm trophosome, ISH was performed on consecutive paraffin cross sections of the trophosome, using a modified method of Naganuma et al. (1997b ). Before ISH, the trophosomal-tissue sections were de-paraffinized in xylene and were rehydrated by immersing them in a decreasing series of ethanol (100, 95, 90, 80 and 70%) for 5 min at each level, followed by a final wash for 5 min in H2O. The sections were then treated with 0·2% Triton X-100 in PBS for 1·5 min, followed by digestion with 100 µg proteinase K ml-1 at 37 °C for 15 min. The digested sections were treated with 0·1% glycine and were post-fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for 5 min. They were then washed in PBS. The sections were treated with 0·25% (v/v) acetic anhydrite in 0·1 M triethanolamine (pH 8) for 10 min, and equilibrated in 2xSSPE [diluted from a 20xSSPE stock solution (3 M NaCl; 0·2 M NaH2PO4.H2O; 20 mM EDTA; pH 7·4)]. Sections for ISH were dehydrated in an ascending series of ethanol (70, 95 and 100%; 5 min each dehydration step) and then air-dried. Slides can be stored at room temperature until the hybridization step.
Slides were prepared for hybridization by immersing them in hybridization buffer that contained 0·5 mg salmon-sperm DNA ml-1, 0·25 mg yeast tRNA ml-1 and 5xDenhardts reagent in 2xSSPE. They were then incubated for 40 min at 37 °C. One hundred nanograms of the digoxigenin-labelled probe was mixed with 100 µl of the fresh hybridization buffer, and this mixture was added to each slide section. The slides were then sealed with rubber cement. The probe and target sequences were denatured by placing the slides on a heating plate at 100 °C for 10 min. The slides were then incubated in a sealed humid chamber overnight at 43 °C for hybridization. Thereafter, the sections were washed consecutively in 2x, 1x and 0·2xSSPE for 30 min at room temperature, followed by a final high-stringency wash in 0·2xSSPE at 45 °C for 1 h to remove any unbound probe. The sections were then equilibrated in pre-blocking buffer (100 mM Tris; 150 mM NaCl; pH 7·5) for 5 min and incubated in pre-blocking buffer supplemented with 1% blocking agent (Boehringer Mannheim) for 30 min at room temperature. An alkaline-phosphatase-conjugated digoxigenin-specific IgG (anti-dig) (Boehringer Mannheim) was used to detect the hybridization signals with enhanced sensitivity. Approximately 100 µl of diluted anti-dig (1:400 blocking buffer) was applied to each section under a coverslip, and these were incubated in a sealed humidified chamber overnight at room temperature. To remove any unbound anti-dig, the sections were washed twice in pre-blocking buffer for 15 min, with shaking. They were then equilibrated in colouring buffer (100 mM Tris base; 100 mM NaCl; 50 M MgCl2; pH 9·5). The sections were incubated with a colour solution containing 0·4 mg nitrotetrazolium blue chloride ml-1, 0·19 mg 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-phosphate p-toluidine salt ml-1, 50 mM MgSO4 and 100 mM Tris buffer (pH 9·5) in the dark until the colour developed. Once the colour had started to precipitate, the reaction was stopped by washing the sections with 1xTE buffer (10 mM Tris; 1 mM EDTA; pH 8·0). The tissue sections were then examined using a light microscope.
To visualize the lobular structure of the trophosomal tissue, non-hybridized trophosome sections were stained by the standard double-staining method, using a haematoxylin/eosin dye mixture (Dealtry & Rickwood, 1992 ).
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION |
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The occurrence of cbbM within the trophosome of Lamellibrachia sp. supports the results of the 16S rDNA analyses, which showed the presence of an -Proteobacteria-like endosymbiont. This is because the autotrophic
-Proteobacteria have the ability to fix CO2 with the RuBisCO form II enzyme, using sulfide and thiosulfate as electron donors (Imhoff, 1989
). These conditions are optimum within the trophosome (Nargang et al., 1984
; Tabita, 1995
; Haygood, 1996
). Moreover, the endosymbiont of Riftia pachyptila bears cbbM that is closely related to that of an autotrophic member of the
-Proteobacteria, Rhodospirillum rubrum (Robinson et al., 1998
). This implies that Proteobacteria-like cbbM may be distributed widely among the vestimentiferan tubeworms. Studies on cbbM genes from other species of vestimentiferan endosymbionts are needed to support these observations.
Analysis of the cbbM sequences of ORU ST-Sym(II)-1 and ST-Sym(II)-2
To show the catalytic site amino acids within the ORUs, ST-Sym(II)-1 and ST-Sym(II)-2, their sequences were aligned with the sequences retrieved from the databases. The alignment of these partial amino acid sequences corresponded to amino acid positions 164296 of the cbbM of Rhodospirillum rubrum (Schneider et al., 1990 ) (Fig. 2
). The two cbbM ORUs shared 86% amino acid sequence identity and had the characteristic RuBisCO motif sequence (GGDFIKNDE) that has been found in other RuBisCOs (Schneider et al., 1990
; Newman & Gutteridge, 1993
). The ST-Sym(II)-1 and ST-Sym(II)-2 cbbM amino acid sequences also showed conservation of the known consensus catalytic site amino acids. The conserved region is flanked by a lysine at position 191, corresponding to the sequence of Rhodospirillum rubrum. This conserved region has been identified in other RuBisCOs as the binding site for CO2, and has been shown to be involved in carbamate formation during enzyme activation (Miziorko & Lorimer, 1983
; Schneider et al., 1990
). The other known active binding sites, such as those around the lysine at position 166 and the histidine at position 287, are conserved in the current ORUs (Schneider et al., 1990
).
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The phylogenetic similarity between the tubeworm endosymbiont and ambient free-living bacteria based on the RuBisCO genes has also been demonstrated on the basis of 16S rDNA analysis (Di Meo et al., 2000 ). This symbiontambient relationship implies that gutless tubeworms may acquire their endosymbionts through random ingestion of ambient bacteria during only a limited period when the tubeworm larva has a mouth opening (Di Meo et al., 2000
). After acquisition of these ambient bacteria, adaptive species that bear a suitable RuBisCO form (I or II) may be selected as endosymbionts. Although the mechanism of acquisition and selection of the endosymbionts has not been examined so far, observations indicate that the tubeworms living in different habitats, i.e. seep-dwelling Lamellibrachia sp. and vent-dwelling Riftia pachyptila, prefer to harbour cbbM-bearing endosymbionts (Robinson et al., 1998
). Establishment of the hostsymbiont relationship is an intriguing process in terms of the evolution and biogeography of vestimentifera. More tubeworm species should be collected and analysed to explain the idea of the selection of cbbM-bearing endosymbionts. In terms of a genetic comparison between the cbbM genes of tubeworm endosymbionts, ST-Sym(II)-1 and ST-Sym(II)-2 shared 79 and 75% aa identity, respectively, with the cbbM amino acid sequence of the Riftia pachyptila endosymbiont from a hydrothermal vent in the East Pacific Rise (Robinson et al., 1998
) (Fig. 2
). This genetic variation among the RuBisCOs of vestimentiferan endosymbionts may be influenced by a variety of factors, including host genus, geographic variations in the location of the tubeworm and the sea-bed composition.
Specificity and efficiency of the probes used for ISH
The portion of the16S rDNA sequence used to construct oligonucleotide probe Lam-384R showed minimal nucleotide mismatching (four mismatches) with the 16S rDNA sequence of the Lamellibrachia columna symbiont (Feldman et al., 1997 ), and had three mismatches with all of the aligned symbiont rDNA sequences (Fig. 4
). Lam-384R was specific for the Lamellibrachia sp. endosymbiont, as shown by Southern dot-blot hybridization (Fig. 5b
). The use of short oligonucleotide probes to localize cbbM sequences within the trophosome by ISH was not successful in yielding a visible signal. This was due to the existence of a single copy of the RuBisCO gene in the genome: a single copy of cbbM is not sufficient to give a signal when ISH is performed with a short oligonucleotide probe (Tabita, 1988
). This is in good contrast with the 16S rRNA, which has a high copy number within bacterial cells and can be detected using short, specific oligonucleotide probes such as Lam-384R (Cary et al., 1993
). The polynucleotide cbbM probe ST-Sym(II)-2 (400 bp) was efficient in yielding a sufficient cbbM ISH signal, but the use of this probe resulted in the loss of the ability to distinguish between the subtle differences in the sequences of ST-Sym(II)-1 and ST-Sym(II)-2, as indicated by dot-blot hybridization on the nylon membrane (Fig. 5c
). This was the result of a trade-off between signal intensity and specificity. Hence, the ST-Sym(II)-2 probe was used to visualize all of the possible RuBisCO form II sequences within the trophosome, including the ST-Sym(II)-1 sequence. However, ISH with the symbiont-specific 16S rDNA probe Lam-384R was used as a control for the localization of the signal produced by the cbbM probe, ST-Sym(II)-2. The ISH signals of the symbiont-specific 16S rDNA probe Lam-384R and the cbbM probe ST-Sym(II)-2 overlapped almost completely in two consecutive trophosome sections (Fig. 6b
, c
). This reflects the exact localization of the endosymbiont cbbM sequences within the trophosome.
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The vestimentiferan trophosome consists of lobules. The symbiont-bearing cells, the bacteriocytes, are concentrated at the peripheries of the lobules (Hand, 1987 ). Two types of cells, coccoid and filamentous, were apparently observed at the peripheries of the lobules stained with haematoxylin/eosin (Fig. 7a
, b
). Both of the cell types were in situ hybridized with the universal eubacterial 16S-rRNA-targeted probe EUB338 (Fig. 6a
). The occurrence of more than one bacterial morphotype in the vestimentifera trophosome has been reported in a relatively small number of studies (Cavanaugh et al., 1981
; Cavanaugh, 1985
; Fisher, 1990
; Naganuma et al., 1997a
, b
; Bright et al., 2000
). The occurrence of multiple bacterial morphotypes within the trophosome may reflect the complexity of the geochemical processes seen in tubeworm habitats. Some seep habitats, such as the area of sample collection for this study, have abundant methane in the water and sediment, but hydrogen sulfide is only present in the sediment (Sakai et al., 1987
). The seep-dwelling tubeworms are known to incorporate hydrogen sulfide from the sediment via their posterior end, which is buried in the sediment (Julian et al., 1999
). Hence, the existence of a diverse microflora in the trophosome of the tubeworm Lamellibrachia sp. has been hypothesized to be correlated with the need to utilize sulfur compounds available from the surrounding environment, using methane as a reducing agent (Naganuma et al., 1997a
; Naganuma, 1998
).
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The filamentous cells showed a hybridization signal with the universal 16S rDNA probe EUB338, but not with the 16S-rDNA-specific probe Lam-384R nor with the RuBisCO form II probe ST-Sym(II)-2 (Fig. 6ac
). This may indicate that these filamentous bacterial cells have a different function, and that they are not involved in carbon fixation. Alternatively, these filamentous cells may have been extracellular bacteria which could not be detected by 16S rDNA sequence analysis, as only the autotrophic endosymbiotic bacteria contained within the trophosome were targeted, and the trophosomal tissue used for DNA extraction was pre-treated to remove any extracellular bacteria. The same filamentous cells have been observed previously in the trophosome of the same Lamellibrachia sp. used in this study and are related to the
-Proteobacteria (Naganuma et al., 1997a
). Certain species belonging to the
-Proteobacteria are known to inhabit animal cavities as extracellular micro-aerophilic bacteria and are capable of sulfur oxidation (Simbert, 1984
; Penner, 1988
; Naganuma et al., 1997a
, b
). This seems to be an adaptive trait for the environmental conditions within the trophosome. The use of the term symbiotic' to describe these filamentous cells should be avoided until their commensal functions have been demonstrated.
No ISH signal was observed with the RuBisCO form I cbbL probe, Bathy(cbbL)-1, when it was applied to the trophosome section (Fig. 6d). This result was in agreement with the inability to amplify the RuBisCO form I gene (cbbL) from the bulk trophosomal DNA.
The use of ISH for the localization of the RuBisCO form II sequences will facilitate our understanding of the autotrophic microbial processes within the trophosome. Further investigations should be done to show the metabolic relationships between autotrophic and non-autotrophic microflora within the trophosome of this gutless, methane-seep tubeworm, namely Lamellibrachia sp.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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Received 23 February 2001;
revised 3 January 2002;
accepted 1 February 2002.