1 Department of Biotechnology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi 110029, India
2 Department of Anatomy, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi 110029, India
Correspondence
Jaya Sivaswami Tyagi
jstyagi54in{at}indiatimes.com
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ABSTRACT |
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INTRODUCTION |
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The devRdevS genetic system was identified among genes differentially expressed in the virulent strain of M. tuberculosis (Kinger & Tyagi, 1993; Dasgupta et al., 2000
). DevR (Rv3133c) demonstrated homology to response regulator proteins of the NarL/UhpA/FixJ subfamily, and DevS (Rv3132c) to histidine sensor kinases. devR and devS are cotranscribed and conserved in M. tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis BCG (Dasgupta et al., 2000
); their nucleotide sequences are identical in M. tuberculosis (Cole et al., 1998
) and M. bovis except for a single amino acid replacement at codon 283 (Ile to Thr in M. bovis; D. Sharma & J. S. Tyagi, unpublished observation) in the putative transmembrane domain TM2 of DevS (DosS). Recent reports from our and other laboratories have indicated devRdevS expression to be hypoxia-responsive in pathogenic and nonpathogenic mycobacteria including M. tuberculosis (Sherman et al., 2001
), M. bovis BCG (Boon et al., 2001
) and Mycobacterium smegmatis (Mayuri et al., 2002
). DevR was recently designated DosR (dormancy survival regulator) on account of its function in dormancy survival and gene regulation in M. bovis BCG (Boon & Dick, 2002
).
In vitro phosphorylation studies have established the functionality of three two-component systems of M. tuberculosis, TrcRTrcS (Haydel et al., 1999), RegX3SenX3 (Himpens et al., 2000
) and MprAMprB (Zahrt et al., 2003
). Here we report the functional in vitro reconstitution of the DevRDevS two-component system of M. tuberculosis and identify His395 of DevS and Asp54 of DevR as the sites of phosphorylation. We further show that the DevRDevS system is transcriptionally induced in hypoxic cultures of M. tuberculosis expressing the N-terminal domain of DevR. RNA and protein expression analysis of devRdevS under aerobic and hypoxic conditions in wild-type and devR-disrupted strains of M. tuberculosis highlight differential regulation of this locus at the levels of transcription and translation.
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METHODS |
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Overexpression, purification and refolding of recombinant proteins.
All recombinant plasmids were freshly transformed into Escherichia coli BL23(DE3) and grown at 37 °C in 2xYT medium containing 100 µg ampicillin ml1 to an OD600 of 0·40·6. The production of recombinant proteins was induced by the addition of IPTG to a final concentration of 1 mM for 56 h. Cell pellets were resuspended in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), pH 7·4, and disrupted by sonication (5 pulses of 2 min each, Branson Sonifier 450). The insoluble protein fraction containing recombinant proteins was solubilized using denaturation buffer (20 mM Tris/HCl, pH 7·9, 10 %, v/v, glycerol, 500 mM NaCl and 20 mM imidazole containing 6 M guanidinium hydrochloride or 8 M urea) and proteins refolded on a solid matrix as described by Saini et al. (2002).
Site-directed mutagenesis.
Point mutations were introduced into pDSR217 and pSCS201 expressing DevR and DevS201, respectively, using the QuikChange site-directed mutagenesis kit (Stratagene). All the wild-type and mutant protein expression constructs were verified by DNA sequence analysis using an ABI Prism 377 DNA sequencer.
In vitro phosphorylation assays.
For autophosphorylation, DevS201 (15 µM) was incubated with 5 µCi [-32P]ATP (1·85x105 Bq mmol1, 5000 Ci mmol1; BRIT, India) in 10 µl reaction buffer (50 mM Tris/HCl, pH 8·0, 50 mM KCl, 25 mM MgCl2, 50 µM ATP) at 25 °C for various time periods, after which aliquots were withdrawn and stored at 70 °C until analysis. To study phosphotransfer, DevS201 was phosphorylated for 60 min as described above. Subsequently DevR protein (20 µM) was added, the reaction mixture was incubated at 25 °C, and at indicated time points, aliquots were removed and stored at 70 °C until analysis. Assays with mutant proteins were performed under identical conditions.
Experiments involving the simultaneous use of DevS201 and DevR were performed with His6-DevS201 and DevR free of His6 tag. The latter was generated by digesting His6-DevR with rTEV protease (Invitrogen) at 30 °C for 6 h followed by Ni2+-NTA affinity chromatography. To assess the stability of DevR32P in the absence of DevS201, the latter was phosphorylated with [
-32P]ATP as described above and immobilized on Ni2+-NTA agarose beads. The beads were washed free of unbound DevS and incubated with DevR for 2 min in reaction buffer, centrifuged at low speed for 30 s and the supernatant fraction containing purified DevR
32P was incubated in aliquots for up to 30 min at 25 °C and subsequently analysed by SDS-PAGE and autoradiography.
Analysis of chemical stability of DevRP and DevS201
P.
Phosphorylated DevR and DevS201 proteins were prepared as described above and treated in the presence of 2 % SDS with 1 M HCl, 0·1 M HCl, 1 M NaOH, 0·1 M NaOH or 0·1 M Tris/HCl, pH 8·0, for 30 min at 37 °C. The reactions were neutralized with 0·25 vol. 2 M Tris/HCl, pH 8·0, and analysed by SDS-PAGE. All reactions were terminated with 5 µl 3x stop buffer (250 mM Tris/HCl, pH 6·8, 10 %, v/v, glycerol, 1 % SDS, 280 mM -mercaptoethanol, 0·01 % bromophenol blue) and analysed by 15 % SDS-PAGE and autoradiography.
Culture conditions.
Primary cultures of M. tuberculosis H37Rv and devR mutant strains were grown in 10 ml Dubos-Tween-Albumin (DTA) medium without any antibiotics or in the presence of kanamycin (20 µg ml1), respectively, at 37 °C in 50 ml conical tubes to an OD590 of about 0·81·0. For expression analysis, cultures were set up as described below.
Setup 1.
The primary culture was diluted to an OD590 of 0·0250·05 in 300 ml (or 100 ml) fresh DTA media in a 1 litre (or 500 ml) flask and grown with shaking at 190 r.p.m. at 37 °C (the flasks were plugged with cotton to maintain aeration) to an OD590 of 0·50·8. A 100 ml (or 30 ml) portion of the culture was immediately harvested by centrifugation (aerobic culture). For hypoxia, 10 ml or 13 ml cultures were dispensed into 15 ml screw-capped tubes and kept static for 48 h (hypoxic culture), after which the culture was pelleted in the same tube. In one of the culture tubes, methylene blue, added to monitor hypoxia generation, faded at 48 h, indicating that the cultures were hypoxic (but not the extent of hypoxia).
Setup 2.
Alternatively, secondary cultures were set up at a very low initial OD590 of 0·005 in DTA medium (160 ml in 180 ml bottles) and allowed to grow under sealed static conditions for up to 40 days. RNA was isolated from 30 day and 40 day hypoxic cultures (which were anoxic/hypoxic as assessed by decolorization/fading of methylene blue in wild-type/mutant cultures). In this setup, cultures grew and adapted to hypoxia over a considerably longer period than in setup 1, where exponential-phase cultures were shifted to static conditions for 48 h, during which hypoxia was generated by consumption of oxygen.
RT-PCR analysis.
The cell pellets were either immediately processed or stored at 70 °C for a maximum of 3 days before RNA isolation. RNA was isolated using an RNAeasy mini kit (Qiagen). DNase-treated RNA and 200 ng random hexamer primers were mixed and denatured by heating at 70 °C for 10 min followed by quenching on ice. RT reactions (20 µl volume) were set up in 50 mM Tris/HCl, pH 8·3, 75 mM KCl, 3 mM MgCl2, 10 mM DTT, 0·5 mM dNTPs, 40 U ribonuclease inhibitor and 200 U Mo-MuLV RT enzyme (Invitrogen) at 25 °C for 10 min and subsequently at 42 °C for 50 min. The absence of DNA contamination in RNA was confirmed by checking for 23S rDNA in RNA preparations. RT reactions were heated at 70 °C for 15 min and stored at 70 °C until further use in PCR assays using gene-specific primers. RNA expression analysis was performed with two separate RNA preparations and two to four times with the same RNA preparation (i.e. four to eight analyses in total) in setup 1 cultures. In setup 2, analysis was performed with one RNA preparation three times. RT-PCR gels were scanned and quantified using ChemiImager densitometric software (Alpha Innotech) and plotted as arbitrary densitometric units (mean ± SD) after normalizing against 23S rRNA. Rv3134c expression was analysed once each with two RNA preparations and SD was not plotted in this case. For each target, expression level is depicted relative to the H37Rv aerobic value (fixed at 100).
M. tuberculosis protein lysate preparation.
Setup 1 cultures harvested as indicated above were gamma-irradiated and frozen at 20 °C. Cell pellets were thawed, washed with 3 vols buffer [PBS containing protease inhibitor cocktail (Roche), 1 mM DTT, 0·5 mM EDTA and 0·1 mM PMSF], resuspended in 1 ml buffer and subjected to bead beating using an equal volume of 0·5 mm zirconium-silica beads for 5x1 min in a mini-bead-beater (Biospec). The cleared lysate was obtained by centrifugation at 20 000 g for 10 min at 4 °C and stored at 20 °C for use in immunoblot analysis.
Immunoblotting.
The protein concentration in lysates was estimated by the BCA assay system (Pierce Biologicals). About 3 and 6 µg protein equivalent of lysates were subjected to Western blot analysis as described by Saini et al. (2002). Briefly, proteins were resolved by 12·5 % SDS-PAGE and transferred to nitrocellulose membrane. Anti-DevR and anti-DevS201 rabbit polyclonal sera were cleaned of anti-E. coli antibodies as described by Dasgupta et al. (2000)
and used at a dilution of 1 : 4000. Anti-rabbit horseradish peroxidase conjugate (Bangalore Genie) was used at 1 : 2000 dilution. M. tuberculosis whole-cell lysate (25 mg protein ml1; obtained from Dr John Belisle, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA, under NIH contract AI-75320 and provided by Dr H. K. Prasad, AIIMS) was used as a positive control in all experiments. Blots were scanned and signals were quantified and plotted as arbitrary densitometric units relative to protein expression in H37Rv aerobic cultures (fixed at 100). The DevR value is the mean±SD of eight experiments from four cultures and the devs value is the mean±SD of four experiments from four cultures.
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RESULTS |
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By sequence homology with known proteins belonging to two-component systems, the conserved His residue at position 395 in DevS and the conserved Asp residue at position 54 in DevR were predicted to be the sites of phosphorylation (Dasgupta et al., 2000). Their involvement in the phosphorylation reactions was confirmed by the analysis of mutant proteins. His395 and Asp54 residues in DevS201 and DevR proteins, respectively, were altered by mutagenesis to create mutant proteins DevS201-H395Q and DevR-D54V. The mutant proteins were overproduced, purified as His6-tagged proteins, refolded and analysed in phosphorylation reactions. The DevS201-H395Q mutant protein was defective in autophosphorylation (Fig. 3d
). In contrast, the mutation of His397 to Ala or Gln in DevS201 did not affect its phosphorylation, confirming that phosphorylation occurs only at the conserved His395 residue within the H box. Likewise, mutation of the Asp54 residue in DevR to Val rendered it unable to accept the phosphoryl moiety from DevS201
P (Fig. 3e
).
The pH stability and mutagenesis experiments collectively confirmed that His395 of DevS201 and Asp54 of DevR participate in the auto- and transphosphorylation reactions, respectively, as is typical of proteins belonging to two-component systems.
Mutational analysis of other conserved residues in DevS201 and DevR
The mutation of the Asn503 residue located in the N box of DevS (Fig. 1a) to Asp also blocked the phosphorylation of DevS201 (Fig. 3d
). The N box residue, together with the D/G1 and G2 boxes, is implicated in the formation of the ATP-binding region of DevS. Likewise, Asp8 and Asp9 in DevR were predicted to correspond to acidic residues at analogous positions in other response regulator proteins that together with Asp54 form the acidic pocket and coordinate Mg2+ required for the phosphorylation reaction (Stock et al., 2000
). Mutant DevR proteins were created wherein these two residues were singly mutated to Asn (DevR-D8N and DevR-D9N) and the invariant Lys104 was mutated to Glu (DevR-K104E). All the mutant proteins were defective in phosphotransfer from wild-type DevS201
P protein, confirming the essentiality of the Mg2+-binding pocket and Lys104 in the phosphotransfer reaction (Fig. 3e
).
Full-length DevR is necessary for normal basal expression under aerobic conditions
The effect of devR disruption on its own transcription was analysed in a M. tuberculosis devR mutant constructed by allelic exchange (Malhotra et al., 2004). Briefly, a kanamycin-resistance cassette encoding AphI was cloned into a unique PpuMI site within the devR gene. DNA sequence analysis of the devR : : kan locus in the mutant strain indicated the disruption of the devR ORF accompanied by the creation of an ORF potentially encoding a putative 406 amino acid fusion polypeptide composed of 145 amino acids corresponding to the N-terminal receiver domain of DevR and the AphI protein (designated DevRN-Aph, Fig. 4
) and lacking the DNA-binding domain in the C-terminal region.
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The DevR N-terminal domain is sufficient for hypoxic induction of RNA from the Rv3134cdevRdevS locus
Next we compared transcript levels of this locus in the devR mutant and wild-type strains in hypoxic cultures. A modest but consistent increase in the expression of the locus was noted during hypoxia in wild-type cultures (Fig. 4a, b). In the devR mutant strain, wild-type devR transcripts were obviously not detected (Fig. 4a, b
, second panel), but transcripts from the flanking regions were induced during hypoxia (Fig. 4a, b
). Furthermore, aphI transcripts from the kanamycin-resistance cassette were also induced, which indicated Rv3134c/devR promoter activation since the cloned cassette lacks its own promoter. In hypoxic cultures we consistently observed higher devR transcript levels 3' to the cloned cassette and of the cassette itself, for which we have no explanation. But we found 12/18 and 11/20 matches in a sequence stretch (in devR upstream of the cassette) to the DNA motif proposed by Florczyk et al. (2003)
and Park et al. (2003)
to bind DevR. Thus the induction of these genes occurred reproducibly in the mutant and the fold-induction matched that in the wild-type strain. Importantly, hypoxic induction occurred in the absence of the DNA-binding C-terminal domain of DevR.
Levels of DevR and DevS proteins in aerobic cultures of wild-type and devR mutant strains
The devR and devS genes overlap by 1 bp and are cotranscribed as mentioned earlier (Dasgupta et al., 2000). A classical ShineDalgarno sequence was not apparent in sequences immediately upstream of the devS ORF, although a TGATGGA sequence having a 4/7 match with a proposed mycobacterial consensus sequence (Dale & Patki, 1990
) was present 2 bp upstream of its AUG initiation codon. Therefore DevS may be made either independently or by cotranslation with DevR. In the mutant strain, the latter possibility is discarded since stop codons were present in all three frames downstream of the AphI-coding region. So while the presence of devS and devRaphI transcripts was not in doubt it was imperative to detect DevS and DevRNAph proteins in the mutant strain.
Aerobic expression of DevR and DevS was confirmed by Western blotting. Using anti-DevR sera, an approximately 23 kDa protein was detected in wild-type lysates, while an approximately 45 kDa protein of the expected size was detected in mutant lysates (Fig. 5a, lanes 1 and 2, upper panels). In mutant lysates, labelling resulted from immunoreactivity of the N-terminal two-thirds of DevR in the DevRNAph fusion protein (Fig. 4
). The DevR protein level was modestly but consistently higher in wild-type cultures as compared to mutant cultures (Fig. 5a
, upper panels) and reflected the differences observed at the RNA level. However, it is possible that the difference could also be due to differences in seroreactivity of DevR vs DevRNAph. With anti-DevS sera, an approximately 62 kDa protein corresponding to DevS was detected in both wild-type and mutant bacteria (Fig. 5a
, lanes 1 and 2, lower panels). DevS protein expression in the mutant strain confirmed that DevS was translated independently of DevR.
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Immunoelectron microscopic analysis of these cultures using anti-DevS and anti-DevR sera showed labelling in the entire cellular compartment, with no indication of a specific pattern of intracellular localization in either aerobic or hypoxia-adapted cultures (Fig. 6).
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DISCUSSION |
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The stability of DevS201P was modulated by DevR; the phosphorylated species had a very short half-life (<1 min) in the presence of DevR but was very stable in its absence (90 % of radioactivity retained in DevS
P at 4 h). DevS201
P stability was in contrast to that of some other sensor kinases such as RegS of Bradyrhizobium japonicum and NarX of E. coli, the half-lives of whose phosphorylated forms were reported to be 15 min and >1 h. Dephosphorylation of DevR was enhanced in the presence of DevS201, as reported for the phosphorylated response regulators NarL and RegR in the presence of their cognate sensor kinases (Emmerich et al., 1999
; Walker & DeMoss, 1993
). The phosphorylated species of M. tuberculosis two-component systems TrcRTrcS and RegX3SenX3, when present together, appeared to be more stable than those of DevRDevS. At 10 min (only a single point was studied; Haydel et al., 1999
), TrcR
P and TrcS
P were markedly more stable than DevR
P and DevS
P; the phosphorylated species of both proteins all but disappeared in the latter system at the same time point. Likewise, the phosphorylated species of SenX3 and RegX3 were quite stable up to at least 30 min (last time point examined; Himpens et al., 2000
). The phosphorylation kinetics of DevRDevS indicate a rapid rate of phosphotransfer between DevS201 and DevR and a rapid rate of signal dissipation from DevR. In vivo, these kinetics would enable bacilli to respond quickly to hypoxia and also revert rapidly to the basal state upon hypoxia reversal. However, the in vitro phosphorylation properties of DevS201 may not truly reflect its in vivo response as it lacks the N-terminal domain; the results therefore need to be viewed with caution.
Our results suggest DevS to be the cognate sensor kinase of DevR. Histidine kinases typically sense a specific signal by their N-terminal domains, and the N-terminal domain of DevS is predicted to contain two GAF domains that are present in many proteins implicated in sensory and signalling pathways (Ho et al., 2000). The nature of the sensed signal and the precise role of DevS and its GAF domains in the hypoxia response are yet to be elucidated. The absence of a severe phenotype in a devS mutant with regard to hypoxic viability compared to a severe loss in hypoxic viability and expression of dormancy proteins such as Acr in a devR mutant of M. bovis BCG, along with a lack of phenotype in Acr expression in a devS mutant of M. tuberculosis, suggested the operation of a compensatory pathway involving signalling from an alternative sensor kinase (Boon & Dick, 2002
; Sherman et al., 2001
). We had earlier highlighted the similarity between the putative orphan histidine kinase Rv2027c and DevS (Dasgupta et al., 2000
). So Rv2027c could compensate for the lack of DevS by generating phosphorylated DevR. DevR may also be activated by a low-molecular-mass phosphate donor such as acetyl phosphate. Another possibility is that DevRDevS is not the primary system to sense and respond to hypoxia but part of a cascade involving other proteins. The M. tuberculosis genome does not have homologues to bacterial proteins that sense oxygen such as FixL FNR, Dos and HemAT (Patschkowski et al., 1996
; Kiley & Bienert, 1998
; Delgado-Nixon et al., 2000
; Hou et al., 2001
). Yet another possibility is that DevS does not perceive oxygen but some metabolite generated as a consequence of oxygen deprivation, as does the E. coli histidine kinase ArcB (Georgellis et al., 1999
). Cytochrome c oxidase was recently suggested as the sensor for oxygen limitation and nitric oxide in M. tuberculosis (Voskuil et al., 2003
).
Rv3134cdevRdevS expression at the RNA level exhibited two notable properties. First, it was expressed in the devR mutant strain, albeit at a lower level compared to the wild-type strain. Since the mutant strain expresses the N-terminal domain of DevR we conclude that basal transcription of the operon was not absolutely dependent on the presence of full-length DevR. Secondly, hypoxic induction occurred in both the wild-type and mutant strains. Our observations regarding devRdevS expression are at variance with those of Sherman et al. (2001) and Park et al. (2003)
with regard to (1) the induction noted in the present study vs the loss of induction in their study in mutant bacteria, and (2) the fold-induction in hypoxia (less than twofold in this study vs tenfold in their study). These discrepancies could be ascribed to differences in mutant bacilli, the assays used (semi-quantitative RT-PCR vs microarrays) and the conditions employed to develop hypoxia. The devR mutant strain used by us expressed the N-terminal domain of DevR while their mutant was deleted of nearly all Rv3134c sequences and also some upstream sequences (Sherman et al., 2001
) that possess promoter activity which is hypoxia-responsive (Bagchi et al., 2003
). Our culture conditions involved the setting in of hypoxia from utilization of oxygen by exponential-phase cultures in sealed tubes during a 48 h period (setup 1) or by adaptation of cultures of low starting density to hypoxia in sealed bottles over a 40 day growth period (setup 2). It is possible that our cultures (smaller headspace and no stirring) may be in NRP2 rather than NRP1 (Wayne & Hayes, 1996
) and the peak of induction falls away so that we see lower levels of induction. Such a peaking and falling of devR promoter activity was observed by us in M. smegmatis cultured under similar conditions (Bagchi et al., 2003
). The discrepancy in fold-induction can be tested by generating hypoxia in cultures exposed to 0·2 % oxygen for 2 h as described by Sherman et al. (2001)
. Thus the differences in the rate and extent of hypoxia generation and their effect on the physiological state of the bacilli might be the root cause of the observed differences in fold-induction. However, this does not change the observation that the Rv3134cdevRdevS locus is induced during hypoxia in the mutant strain.
In the mutant strain DevS can be phosphorylated at the onset of hypoxia and then could rapidly transfer the phosphoryl moiety to DevRNAph in the first step of the signalling cascade. This is feasible, as phosphotransfer from kinases to independent N-terminal domains of response regulators was reported to occur in Spo0A, RegR and TrcR (Fujita & Losick, 2003; Emmerich et al., 1999
; Haydel et al., 1999
). However, the second step of phosphorylation-mediated activation of DNA binding would not occur, as mutant DevR protein lacks the DNA-binding gene-activating domain. In this context, the hypoxic induction of this locus in the mutant strain is striking and suggests a role for the N-terminal domain of DevR. The absence of an increase in DevS protein levels during hypoxia is also striking. Since phosphosignal transfer from DevS
P to DevR is extremely rapid and occurs at a rate that is proportional to the concentration of the latter, perhaps an enhanced amount of DevS protein is unnecessary for efficient signalling during hypoxia. In the case of DevR, however, the constitutive level of DevR protein may be insufficient for hypoxic regulation of the devR regulon and a mechanism of protein amplification may be necessary to elicit activation of the regulon. This may be very critical after infection, when the bacteria would need to implement widespread changes in gene expression in response to hypoxia.
In summary, the modest but reproducible hypoxic induction of devRdevS expression in M. tuberculosis expressing the DevR N-terminal domain (this study) but not in a devR deletion mutant (Park et al., 2003) suggests a critical role for the DevR N-terminal domain and warrants detailed studies of the receiver and activation domains in DevR. In vitro reconstitution of DevRDevS and the availability of a mutant strain expressing the N-terminal domain of DevR provide an unique opportunity to decipher the regulatory features of this locus in M. tuberculosis. The biochemical properties of DevS and DevR proteins provide us with valuable assays to screen for potential inhibitors that interfere with their function and obstruct the initiation and/or maintenance of the hypoxia response (US patent pending). The study of the DevRDevS signalling pathway will improve our understanding of the dormancy response in M. tuberculosis and perhaps provide novel molecules for the treatment of persistent tuberculosis.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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Received 3 January 2003;
revised 16 December 2003;
accepted 17 December 2003.