Department of Medical Microbiology, Imperial College School of Medicine at St Marys, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK1
Department of Histopathology, Imperial College School of Medicine at St Marys, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK2
Department of Biotechnology, School of Biosciences, University of Westminster, New Cavendish Street, London W1M 8JS, UK3
Author for correspondence: Q. Najma Karim. Tel: +44 171 725 1074. Fax: +44 171 725 1856. e-mail: q.karim{at}ic.ac.uk
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ABSTRACT |
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Keywords: Helicobacter pylor, bacterial motility, bacterial morphology, growth phase
Abbreviations: CLV, curvilinear velocity; PL, path length
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INTRODUCTION |
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Bacterial motility is generally held to be a requirement for H. pylori colonization of the stomach (Eaton et al., 1989 , 1992
). Consistent with this view, the bacteria in vivo typically possess helical morphologies and multiple polar flagella (Hazell et al., 1986
). There have, however, been reports of apparently non-motile H. pylori with U-shaped, doughnut-shaped (precoccoidal; Benaissa et al., 1996
) and coccoidal (Buck et al., 1986
; Chan et al., 1994
; Janas et al., 1995
; Megraud, 1989
; Moshkowitz et al., 1994
; Noach et al., 1994
) morphologies. H. pylori with these atypical structures is seen occasionally in vivo (Caselli et al., 1993
; Chan et al., 1994
; Janas et al., 1995
; Noach et al., 1994
), but most frequently in vitro in old cultures (Andersen et al., 1997
; Catrenich & Makin, 1991
; Cellini et al., 1994
; Jones & Curry, 1990
; Kusters et al., 1997
; Mai et al., 1989
; Moshkowitz et al., 1994
; Nilius et al., 1993
). It remains uncertain whether coccoidal forms are degenerative (Buck et al., 1986
; Catrenich & Makin, 1991
; Cellini et al., 1994
; Kusters et al., 1997
; Nilius et al., 1993
), or adaptations to marginal or hostile environments (Janas et al., 1995
), with a capacity for transmission and regrowth to the bacillary form (Andersen et al., 1997
; Benaissa et al., 1996
; Bode et al., 1991
; Jones & Curry, 1990
; Mai et al., 1989
).
In this paper we have examined how H. pylori motility is affected by bacterial morphology and phase of growth, with the aim of further clarifying the interrelationship between bacillary and coccoidal forms of the bacterium, and the possible role of motility in gastric colonization and pathology.
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METHODS |
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Batch culture.
Bacteria were thawed at room temperature, plated out on 7% (v/v) defibrinated horse blood agar, which included H. pylori selective supplement (Oxoid), and incubated in a microaerophilic atmosphere (see above) at 37 °C for 48 h. Colonies from these plates were suspended in sterile saline to a turbidity equivalent to that of McFarlands No. 4 standard (108 bacteria ml-1). From this suspension, 100 µl was transferred to 2·9 ml brain heart infusion broth (BBL) supplemented with 10% (v/v) newborn calf serum (Sigma) and H. pylori selective supplement. The broth was then incubated with agitation in a 50 ml capacity loose-capped container (Bibby Sterilin) in a microaerophilic atmosphere (10% CO2, 18% O2 and 72% N2) at 37 °C for at least 72 h. Aliquots (totalling 200 µl) were withdrawn periodically for assessment of bacterial motility, and viable count by the method of Miles and Misra as modified by Miles et al. (1938) . Gram stain, oxidase and catalase tests were used to confirm absence of contamination.
Continuous culture.
Bacteria were grown under conditions comparable to those reported by Hudson & Newell (1989) . The chemostat apparatus used was a series 00II modular fermenter (LH Fermenters), fitted with 1 l capacity glass culture vessel and autoclavable plate and fittings of nylon and silicon rubber. The top plate had ports for redox and pH electrodes, a thermocouple, and gas, growth medium and sampling lines.
Growth medium (broth pH 7; made H. pylori-selective as described above) was introduced into the culture vessel by continuous pumping through anti-growback glass tubing, and the volume of fluid was maintained at 600 ml by an overflow tube. The growth medium was maintained at 37 °C by external heating, stirred at 150200 r.p.m. and sparged with a 5% O2, 10% CO2 and 85% N2 gas mixture.
The culture vessel was inoculated with 30 ml H. pylori (in exponential phase of growth) in selective broth at a concentration of 108 bacteria ml-1. When bacteria had attained exponential growth, fresh medium was pumped into the culture vessel at a dilution rate of 0·05 culture volumes h-1 (D=0·12 h-1) and growth was monitored for 14 d thereafter by on-line measurements of OD550 with a Perkin Elmer spectrophotometer against a blank of fresh medium. Aliquots (5 ml) were removed at 6 hourly intervals for assessment of bacterial motility.
Motility measurements.
Aliquots (10 µl) of the culture broth (prediluted when necessary with fresh medium to a concentration not exceeding 107 bacteria ml-1) were added to saline (90 µl), and the resulting bacterial suspension (pH 7) was drawn by capillary action into an optical microslide (Camlab) of 0·1 mm path length. The microslide was sealed at one end with vinyl plastic putty (Oxford; Labware), transferred to the warm stage (37 °C) of a phase-contrast microscope atx40 magnification, and allowed to equilibrate (5 min) before observations were commenced with a Hobson BacTracker. To ascertain the contribution of Brownian movement to bacterial motility, H. pylori was killed by exposure to 10% (v/v) formalin for 10 min at room temperature, before examination with the Hobson BacTracker.
The Hobson BacTracker, a new blob and track image-processing technology developed by Hobson Tracking Systems, Sheffield, UK, permits bacterial motility to be quantitatively measured in real time. In this system the microscopic image of the bacteria is recorded by video camera, and displayed on the tracker screen. Movements of up to 120 bacteria may be simultaneously and continuously monitored, with results reported in either histogram or trail draw formats. The Hobson system has the potential to examine 10 parameters of bacterial motility. Two representative parameters were used to assess the motilities of H. pylori in this study: curvilinear velocity (CLV; the distance in µm travelled along the path of the bacterium in each second between two stops) and path length (PL; the distance in µm travelled by the bacterium between two stops). Data collected by the BacTracker were analysed by the MannWhitney U-test with an SPSS (Social Sciences Version 6) statistics package. A detailed description of the Hobson BacTracker and its operation may be found in the manufacturers literature.
Transmission electron microscopy
Bacteria in culture.
H. pylori in lag, exponential and decline phases of growth was prepared for negative contrast transmission electron microscopy as described by Haschemyer & Meyers (1972) . Bacteria were transferred to a 400-mesh carbon-coated copper grid by floating the grid, coated side down, on a drop of H. pylori culture fluid for about 2 min. Excess liquid was removed by touching the grid with a filter paper, and bacteria were then negatively stained by floating the grid on a drop of 2% (w/v) phosphotungstic acid solution (pH 6·5) for 1 min. Excess liquid was again removed by touching the grid with a filter paper, and the bacterial preparation was examined with a Philips EM 400 transmission electron microscope.
Bacteria in antral biopsies.
Antral biopsies from patients with H. pylori-associated non-autoimmune gastritis and functional dyspepsia were fixed for 2 h in 4% (w/v) glutaraldehyde. The tissue was then post-fixed in osmium tetroxide, stained with uranyl acetate, dehydrated through an ethyl alcohol sequence until the alcohol content reached 100% and embedded in Taab 812 resin. Sections (0·5 µm) were initially cut for explorative light microscopy. Ultra-thin sections (approx. 100 nm) were then cut with a diamond knife from relevant blocks, collected on copper grids and stained with Reynolds lead stain, before examination with a Philips EM 400 transmission electron microscope.
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RESULTS |
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Motilities of H. pylori in different phases of growth
Two parameters were used to quantify the (translational) motions of the bacteria: CLV and PL.
The change in mean H. pylori motility throughout the growth cycle in batch culture is shown in Fig. 1(a). The curve demonstrates that CLV is closely linked with bacterial growth in lag and exponential phases of growth, then decreases sharply shortly after bacteria enter the stationary phase of growth.
Translational motions of H. pylori from a larger number of isolates were examined at selected points on batch growth curves, to ascertain whether motilities of bacteria from patients with duodenal ulcer and non-ulcer dyspepsia were significantly different. Results are summarized in Fig. 2. All the bacteria were essentially non-motile in the early-lag phase of growth (mean CLV was 7·0, SD 5·7 µm s-1; mean PL was 3·8±3·1 µm), became highly motile in late-exponential and early-stationary phases of growth (mean CLV was 28·7±5·6 µm s-1; mean PL was 9·9±1·8 µm), and lost motility in the late-decline phase of growth (mean CLV was 5·0±1·0 µm s-1; mean PL was 3·1±0·3 µm).
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Morphologies of H. pylori in different phases of growth
Morphologies of H. pylori in lag and exponential phases of growth are shown in Fig. 3, and in the decline phase of growth in Fig. 4
. Bacteria in lag and exponential phases of growth were morphologically indistinguishable. The populations were composed predominantly of non-dividing bacilli (about 85% in lag phase, decreasing to about 60% in early-exponential phase, as judged from a small number of photomicrographs), with slight or pronounced helical morphologies and multiple flagella at a single pole, and dividing forms. The latter were distinguishable from morphologically similar U-shaped (precoccoidal) bacteria in the decline phase by the presence of a division septum and flagellar filaments at each pole. In the early-decline phase of growth a high proportion of bacteria remained flagellate and had precoccoidal forms, whereas in the late-decline phase almost all bacteria were fully coccoidal, and usually devoid of flagella. The precoccoidal and coccoidal forms of H. pylori did not seem to be degenerative: both the bacterial cells and flagella, for instance, showed no obvious signs of the disintegration that occurs on exposure to bismuth and antibiotics (Armstrong et al., 1987
; Nilius et al., 1993
).
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DISCUSSION |
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All the H. pylori isolates investigated were highly motile when in exponential and stationary phases of growth, consistent with motility being a colonization factor for the bacterium. Motilities of H. pylori from patients with duodenal ulcer or non-ulcer dyspepsia were not found to be significantly different, however, when bacteria were in the same phase of growth, nor could the H. pylori isolates investigated, irrespective of source, be divided into two populations with significantly different motilities when in the same phase of growth. These latter findings are consistent with those from an earlier study (Worku et al., 1999 ), in which we showed that the motilities of H. pylori (in exponential phase) from patients with duodenal ulcer or non-ulcer dyspepsia were not significantly different in viscous media, at viscosities equivalent to those within the gastric mucus layer. Collectively these are potentially important observations, since they argue that an inherent difference in motility between strains is unlikely to be the determinant of H. pylori pathology or, for instance, the greater density of epithelial colonization in the antrum of patients with duodenal ulcer, when compared to those with non-ulcer dyspepsia (Khulusi et al., 1995
).
H. pylori was found to exhibit highest motility when in late-exponential and early-stationary phases of growth. This observation mirrored our experience with other mucophiles (Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa; unpublished observations), and accords with earlier work by other investigators (Kodaka et al., 1982 ; Macnab, 1996
). The onset of H. pylori motility coincided with the appearance in the cultures of large numbers of non-dividing bacilli having helical morphologies and multiple polar flagella. Subsequent loss of motility after the bacteria entered the decline phase of growth coincided with the loss of this distinctive morphology [presumably from autohydrolysis of carbohydrate and peptide bonds in the peptidoglycan network (Baker & Park, 1975
; Thwaites & Mendelson, 1991
; Van Heijenoort, 1996
)], and the appearance of flagellate precoccoidal, then aflagellate coccoidal forms.
Our data also confirm that the age of a batch culture can have a dramatic effect on flagellation, and support the view of Kodaka et al. (1982) and Josenhans et al. (1995a)
that optimal flagellar development occurs when bacteria are in the exponential phase of growth. Loss of flagella from H. pylori in the late-decline phase of growth may be a further manifestation of the stress-induced autohydrolysis that releases surface proteins from the bacterial cell (Phadnis et al., 1996
).
We are uncertain of the reasons for the poor motility of H. pylori in late-lag and early-exponential phases of growth, particularly as non-dividing flagellated bacteria in lag and exponential growth phases were morphologically indistinguishable. However, (i) the strong relationship that exists between bacterial motility and flagellin expression (Josenhans et al., 1995a ) when H. pylori is in the exponential or stationary phase of growth (development of high bacterial motility in mid/late-exponential phase, for instance, coincides with a 1020-fold increase in expression of FlaA and FlaB subunits), and (ii) the dependence of full H. pylori motility on the presence of both flagellin subunits (Josenhans et al., 1995b
) suggest that the cause is functional, and due to incomplete production of one or both flagellins. Such a deficiency, moreover, would not necessarily alter flagellar morphology (Josenhans et al., 1995b
).
Implications for gastric colonization
The interrelationship between bacterial motility, morphology and phase of growth revealed by our in vitro experiments suggests that H. pylori in vivo with helical forms are likely to be highly motile and, therefore, suited to colonization of the gastric mucus layer. In contrast, the poorly motile precoccoidal or coccoidal form of H. pylori ought to be quickly cleared from the mucus environment. If these latter morphological forms are viable, then this characteristic should better fit them for a role in transmission of the infection.
The present study also provides a useful insight into the likely state of a typical population of H. pylori within the antral mucus layer. Most of the H. pylori colonizing the gastric antrum are to be found within the mucus environment (Terada et al., 1993 ; Thomsen et al., 1990
) and [as we and other investigators (Buck et al., 1986
; Hazell et al., 1986
; Megraud, 1989
) have shown] invariably possess helical morphologies. This observation, in conjunction with results from our in vitro studies of bacterial motility and morphology, and the dependence of gastric colonization on bacterial motility (Eaton et al., 1989
, 1992
), lead us to conclude that the typical H. pylori population within the antral mucus layer is in a state of continuous (exponential phase) growth.
To maintain a bacterial population in continuous growth the nutrient supply must at all times exceed that required by the bacteria (Duguid et al., 1978 ). H. pylori in the human stomach should attain this theoretical condition because the bacteria inhabit the gastric mucous barrier, a microenvironment whose physiological properties (Sidebotham & Baron, 1994
) will cause it to function in the manner of a chemostat. The nutrient supply to H. pylori within the mucous barrier is plasma, which transudes from damaged microcapillaries within the mucosa (Sidebotham et al., 1995
). Although the supply of plasma is finite, it should be possible to keep it in excess of requirement because effective clearance mechanisms constantly limit the size of the bacterial population. These mechanisms include the secretion of abnormally viscous mucus (Curt & Pringle, 1969
; Markesich et al., 1995
), which entraps and removes bacteria from the epithelial surface, and mucus erosion and the washout effect of acid secretion, which displace bacteria into the gastric lumen. The greater susceptibility of H. pylori cells with inherently poor motility to clearance from the mucous barrier by these mechanisms will also ensure that bacteria in the exponential phase of growth are preferentially retained within the antral mucus layer.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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Received 18 February 1999;
revised 28 May 1999;
accepted 1 June 1999.