Institut für Mikrobiologie, Universität Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany1
Author for correspondence: Andreas Stolz. Tel: +49 711 6855489. Fax: +49 711 6855725. e-mail: andreas.stolz{at}po.uni-stuttgart.de
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ABSTRACT |
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Keywords: biotransformation, substituted phenylacetamides
Abbreviations: ee, enantiomeric excess
The NCBI accession number for the sequence reported in this paper is AF315580.
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INTRODUCTION |
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We have recently described the isolation of bacterial strains with the ability to produce enantiomerically almost pure (S)-2-arylpropionic acids from the corresponding racemic nitriles and amides. These cultures were obtained from enrichments with different nitriles as sole nitrogen source (Layh et al., 1997 ). Thus, the isolate Agrobacterium tumefaciens d3 was obtained after enrichment with 2-phenylpropionitrile which converted racemic 2-phenylpropionitrile, 2-phenylbutyronitrile, naproxen nitrile, ketoprofen nitrile, ibuprofen nitrile and 2-aminophenylacetamide to the corresponding S-acids with enantiomeric excess (ee) values above 99% (Bauer et al., 1994
; Layh et al., 1997
). The enantioselectivity of these reactions was due to the coupled effects of an enantioselective nitrile hydratase and an enantioselective amidase. We have reported the purification of the enantioselective nitrile hydratase from A. tumefaciens d3 and shown that this enzyme converted different 2-arylpropionitriles with a rather low enantioselectivity to the corresponding S-amides (Bauer et al., 1998
). This suggested that the observed high enantiospecificity for the conversion of the racemic nitriles to the corresponding S-acids was mainly due to a highly enantiospecific amidase. Enantioselective amidases have been studied from different bacterial strains (mainly from rhodococci and pseudomonads) (Gilligan et al., 1993
; Kobayashi et al., 1993
; Mayaux et al., 1990
, 1991
; Nishiyama et al., 1991
) but the functional coupling of an enantioselective nitrile hydratase with an enantioselective amidase has not been described before.
In the present study the enantioselective amidase from A. tumefaciens d3 was purified and the coding gene cloned to further characterize this extraordinary combination of two enantioselective enzymes which allows the production of almost enantiopure S-2-arylpropionic acids from racemic nitriles. Furthermore, we tried to establish a structurefunction relationship for the conversion of various amides carrying different substituents adjacent to the amide group with respect to the reaction rate and the enantioselectivity of the amidase.
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METHODS |
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pBluescript II KS(+) (Alting-Mees et al., 1992 ) was used for most cloning experiments and the L-rhamnose-inducible plasmid vector pJOE2702 (Volff et al., 1996
) for high levels of expression.
Analytical methods.
Amides and acids were analysed by HPLC (HPLC pump 510, Autosampler 717 plus photo diode array detector 996, HPLC Millenium Chromatography Manager 3.05.01; Waters Associates).
If separation of enantiomers was unnecessary a reversed-phase column (Grom-Sil C8; Grom) was used. The aqueous solvent systems usually contained 3060% (v/v) methanol plus 0·3% (v/v) H3PO4. Alternatively, for the separation of -aminophenylacetamide and
-aminophenylacetic acid the solvent system consisted of 15% (v/v) methanol plus 83% (v/v) sodium phosphate buffer (pH 2·2, 10 mM) and 2% (v/v) of an ion-pair reagent according to the instructions of the manufacturer (PIC B6; Waters).
The columns and solvent systems used for the enantioselective separation of various chiral amides and carboxylic acids are shown in Table 1.
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where p=product. The enantiomeric ratio (E) for the acids formed was calculated from the conversion (c) and the ee value of the acid according to Chen et al. (1982)
as follows:
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Preparation of cell-free extracts.
Cell suspensions of A. tumefaciens d3 and E. coli in 50 mM Tris/HCl buffer (pH 7·5) or 50 mM sodium/potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7·4), respectively, were disrupted by using a French Press (Aminco) at 80 or 125 MPa. Cell debris was removed by centrifugation at 100000 g for 30 min at 4 °C. Protein was determined by the method of Bradford (1976) using bovine serum albumin as a standard.
Standard assay for the determination of enzyme activities with cell-free extracts and purified enzyme preparations.
Amide hydrolysing activity was assayed routinely in reaction mixtures (0·5 ml) composed of 25 µmol Tris/HCl buffer (pH 7·5) or 25 µmol sodium/potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7·4), 2·5 µmol phenylacetamide (stock solution, 100 mM in methanol) and different amounts of protein (1600 µg). The reaction was performed at room temperature in a plastic reaction tube. After different time intervals aliquots were taken (100 µl each), the reaction stopped by the addition of 10 µl 1 M HCl and the precipitated protein removed by centrifugation (5 min, 14000 r.p.m.). The formation of the corresponding acid was determined by HPLC. One unit of enzyme activity was defined as the amount of enzyme that catalyses the formation of 1 µmol product min-1.
Enzyme purification.
Protein was purified at room temperature (24 °C) by use of a fast-performance liquid chromatography system consisting of a LCC 500 controller, pump P-500, UV-1 monitor, conductivity monitor, REC-482 recorder and FRAC autosampler from Amersham Pharmacia Biotech.
Crude extract (76 mg protein in 8·3 ml, 6·0 U amidase activity) was applied in two subsequent batches (with 38 mg protein each) to a Resource Q column (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). Protein was eluted with 60 ml of a linear gradient of Tris/HCl (50 mM, pH 7·5) to Tris/HCl (50 mM, pH 7·5)/1 M NaCl at a flow rate of 1 ml min-1. All buffers used contained additionally 2 mM dithiothreitol. Fractions (1 ml) were collected and enzyme activity determined by HPLC. The amidase was eluted as a single peak at a concentration of about 0·25 M NaCl. The active fractions from both chromatographic steps were pooled (3·4 mg protein in 3·8 ml, 1·5 U amidase activity) and 1 M (NH4)2SO4 was added. The solution was incubated for 15 min on ice and finally filtered (Minisart NML, 0·2 µm pore size; Sartorius). This filtrate was transferred to a Phenyl-Superose column (HR 5/5; Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) and eluted with 60 ml of a linear gradient of Tris/HCl (50 mM, pH 7·5)/1 M (NH4)2SO4 to Tris/HCl (50 mM, pH 7·5) at a flow rate of 0·5 ml min-1. Fractions of 1 ml were collected. The active fractions eluted at a concentration of about 0·45 M (NH4)2SO4 (0·54 mg protein in 5·5 ml, 0·45 U amidase activity). The amidase was concentrated by ultrafiltration (Centricon 30; Amicon) and the concentrated sample applied to a Superdex 200 prep grade Hiload 16/60 column and eluted with 90 ml Tris/HCl (50 mM, pH 7·5)/0·15 M NaCl at a flow rate of 0·8 ml min-1. Fractions with amidase activity were pooled (0·38 mg protein in 6·5 ml, 0·45 U amidase activity) and applied to a Mono-Q column (HR5/5). Protein was eluted with 60 ml of a linear gradient of Tris/HCl (50 mM, pH 7·5) to Tris/HCl (50 mM, pH 7·5)/1 M NaCl at a flow rate of 0·5 ml min-1. The fraction with amidase activity (0·21 mg protein in 2·0 ml) was eluted at an NaCl concentration of 0·3 M.
PAGE.
SDS-PAGE was performed by the method of Laemmli (1970) . Gels were silver-stained by the method of Merril et al. (1981)
using the Amersham Pharmacia Biotech silver stain kit.
Determination of molecular mass.
The relative molecular mass of the native enzyme was determined by gel filtration as described previously (Hirrlinger et al., 1996 ).
Protein cleavage, isolation of peptides, and sequencing of peptides and N terminus.
Digestion of the amidase by trypsin and subsequent separation of tryptic digests by reversed-phase HPLC were performed as described by Eulberg et al. (1997) and Stone et al. (1989)
. Amino acid sequences were determined by automated Edman degradation using an Applied Biosystems model 491 sequencer.
DNA manipulation techniques.
The genomic DNA was prepared as described by Ausubel et al. (1987) . Plasmid DNA from E. coli DH5
was isolated with the Flexi-Prep kit (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) or the Qiaprep Spin Miniprep kit (Qiagen). Digestion of DNA with restriction endonucleases (Gibco-BRL; New England Biolabs), electrophoresis, purification and ligation with T4 DNA ligase (Gibco-BRL) were performed according to standard procedures (Sambrook et al., 1989
). Transformation of E. coli was done by the method of Inoue et al. (1990)
.
PCR.
Oligonucleotides were custom-synthesized according to the known or deduced sequences of the N-terminal amino acid sequence and various internal peptides. PCR mixtures (50 µl) for the amplification of genomic DNA contained 50 pmol each primer, 0·1 µg genomic template DNA, 0·1 mM each deoxynucleotide triphosphate, 07·5% (v/v) dimethylsulfoxide, 1·5 mM MgCl2, 0·7 U Taq DNA polymerase and the corresponding reaction buffer (Gibco-BRL).
For the amplification reaction with the primers deduced from the N-terminal sequence and peptide P6198, the following PCR program was used: an initial denaturation (95 °C, 3 min, addition of the Taq polymerase after 2 min) was followed by 29 cycles consisting of annealing at 50 °C, 1·5 min, polymerization at 72 °C, 2 min, and denaturation at 95 °C, 40 s. The last polymerization step was extended to 10 min.
The PCR products were initially cloned into the T-tailed EcoRV-site of pBluescript II KS(+) (Marchuk et al., 1991 ).
Hybridization procedures.
A DIG DNA labelling and detection kit was used according to the instructions of the supplier (Boehringer Mannheim). The hybridization temperature was set to 68 °C.
DNA sequencing and nucleotide sequence analysis.
The DNA sequence was determined by dideoxy-chain termination with double-stranded DNA of clones and overlapping subclones in an automated DNA-sequencing system (ALFexpress-Sequencer; Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) with fluorescently labelled primers or nucleotides.
Sequence analysis, database searches and comparisons were done with the PCGene software package, release 6.85 and the BLAST search facilities at NCBI. The alignment of amidases was obtained with the program CLUSTAL using the default parameters.
Expression of amidase in E. coli.
For expression in E. coli, the amidase gene was inserted in the plasmid vector pJOE2702 (Volff et al., 1996 ) under the control of an L-rhamnose-inducible promoter. The DNA segment encompassing the amidase gene was amplified by PCR with simultaneous introduction of an NdeI site upstream and a HindIII site downstream of the amidase gene. The amplified product was cleaved with NdeI and HindIII and ligated into pJOE2702. E. coli DH5
was transformed with the resulting plasmid (pST2WT) and the intactness of the amidase gene was verified by DNA sequencing. The plasmid was subsequently isolated and introduced into E. coli JM109 by transformation.
For induction, 0·2% (w/v) L-rhamnose was added to the culture (OD600 0·20·3) in LB/ampicillin medium. Induction was performed for 6 h at 30 °C.
Site-specific mutagenesis.
The mutants were produced from pST2WT by using a QuikChange site-directed mutagenesis kit from Stratagene. The generated mutants were verified by sequencing of the mutated gene.
Preparation of plasmids for the detection of megaplasmids.
The isolation of plasmids from strain d3 was basically performed as described by Barton et al. (1995) . Cells were embedded in low-melting-point agarose (0·5%) and treated with lysozyme, Brij58, N-lauroylsarcosinate and proteinase K. These agarose plugs (about 9x4x1·2 mm) were incubated for different time intervals (25 min) at 37 °C with 1 U S1 nuclease and directly used for contour-clamped homogeneous field (CHEF) electrophoresis (Chu et al., 1986
). The electrophoresis was performed by using the CHEF mapper system of Bio-Rad. The agarose slab gels (0·8%, 12·7x14x0·5 cm) were run in 0·5x TBE (45 mM Tris, 45 mM boric acid, 1 mM EDTA) at 14 °C at 6 V cm-1 for 19 h with a constant pulse time of 80 s. Chromosomes from Saccharomyces cerevisiae YNN295 (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) were used as high-molecular-mass DNA standards.
Chemicals.
-Chlorophenylacetamide was synthesized from mandeloamide and thionylchloride as described by Bergmann & Miekeley (1924)
.
-Methoxyphenylacetamide was synthesized from
-methoxyphenylacetic acid methylester and methanolic ammonia according to Ault et al. (1934)
and O-acetylphenylacetamide from the corresponding acylchloride and aqueous ammonia (Anschütz & Böcker, 1909
). 2-Methyl-3-phenylpropionamide was synthesized from 2-methyl-3-phenylpropionic acid, thionylchloride and aqueous ammonia as described by Kenyon & Ross (1951)
. The sources of all other chemicals have been described previously (Bauer et al., 1994
, 1998
; Hirrlinger et al., 1996
).
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RESULTS |
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Enantioselectivity of the purified amidase
Previously, the enantioselective hydrolysis of racemic 2-phenylpropionamide was demonstrated with whole cells of A. tumefaciens d3 (Bauer et al., 1994 ). This reaction was also catalysed by the purified amidase. From racemic 2-phenylpropionamide, S-2-phenylpropionic acid was preferentially formed. After 30% conversion the ee value of S-2-phenylpropionic acid was above 99% and after 44% conversion it was still 97%. Thus about the same degree of enantioselectivity was observed as with resting cells of strain d3.
Determination of the N-terminal and some internal amino acid sequences
The N-terminal amino acid sequence of the purified enzyme was determined by automated Edman degradation and compared with the N-terminal amino acid sequences of other (enantioselective) amidases. It did not show any significant sequence similarity to other known amidase sequences. To obtain more sequence information, the purified protein was digested with trypsin and the fragments separated by HPLC. Thus the sequences of four fragments were determined. One of these fragments (P6198; Table 2) showed significant homologies with conserved regions within other enantioselective amidases (e.g. aa 452468 in the enzymes from Pseudomonas chlororaphis B23 and Rhodococcus sp. R312).
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To obtain the genes immediately downstream of the amidase gene a probe was constructed by PCR from the terminal region of the insert of plasmid pAAM1 and used to clone a PstI fragment of about 3·5 kb from the genomic DNA in pBluescript II KS(+) (resulting in pAAM2).
Determination of the nucleotide sequence of the amidase gene and the surrounding DNA fragments
The DNA sequences of the inserts in plasmids pAAM1 and pAAM2 were determined. Thus a continuous DNA sequence of 9330 bp was obtained. The gene for amidase (amdA) was found almost in the middle of the sequenced region (Fig. 1). The gene encoded a protein of 517 aa which corresponded to a protein with a molecular mass of 55·9 kDa. An alignment of the deduced amino acid sequence of the amidase from A. tumefaciens d3 with previously published amidases demonstrated that the highest degree of sequence similarity was found to the enantioselective amidase from P. chlororaphis B23 (45% identity).
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Expression of the amidase gene in E. coli
The amidase gene was amplified by PCR from plasmid pAAM1 using a set of primers which created new NdeI and HindIII restriction sites. The amplified fragment was then ligated into the L-rhamnose-inducible expression vector pJOE2702 (Volff et al., 1996 ). The resulting expression plasmid (pST2WT) was used to transform E. coli JM109 and the amidase gene was induced by the addition of L-rhamnose. A comparison of SDS-PAGE gels from induced and uninduced cells of E. coli JM109(pST2WT) demonstrated the induction of an additional protein with a molecular mass of about 60 kDa. The amidase activity of these cell extracts with phenylacetamide as substrate was 0·23 U (mg protein)-1. No activity could be found in the cell extracts from uninduced cells.
Conversion of different -substituted phenylacetamides by the amidase from strain d3
It was previously shown that whole cells and cell extracts from A. tumefaciens d3 converted 2-phenylpropionamide and -aminophenylacetamide with a high degree of enantioselectivity (Bauer et al., 1994
; Layh et al., 1997
). It was therefore tested whether the amidase also converted other
-substituted phenylacetamides enantioselectively. Different substituted phenylacetamides were chemically synthesized and tested as substrates for the amidase. Cell extracts from induced cells of E. coli JM109(pST2WT) were incubated with 2-phenylpropionamide, mandeloamide, O-acetylmandeloamide,
-methoxyphenylacetamide,
-chlorophenylacetamide or 2-methyl-3-phenylpropionamide. Thus it was found that the amidase showed good to excellent enantioselectivities with
-methyl-,
-methoxy- and
-chlorophenylacetamide and 2-methyl-3-phenylpropionamide (Table 4
).
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DISCUSSION |
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Another novel observation was the localization of amdA on a plasmid. To the best of our knowledge this has never been described previously for aliphatic or enantioselective amidases. The size of this plasmid (about 500 kb) was significantly larger than the mean size (about 200 kb) of the Ti plasmids found in strains of A. tumefaciens (Hooykaas et al., 1994 ). Furthermore, according to the amino acid sequence, the indoleacetamide amidases, which are encoded on Ti plasmids, form a distinct group of amidases which are clearly separated from the enantioselective amidases (Chebrou et al., 1996b
). It is therefore suggested that the amidase from strain d3 is encoded by a plasmid different from Ti plasmids. The localization of the amidase gene on a plasmid may facilitate the exchange of the amdA gene among different bacterial genera. This may explain the observed sequence similarities between amidases isolated from rhodococci and pseudomonads. In multiple alignments of the amino acid sequences no correlation was found between the sequences of the amidases and the taxonomic position of the strains from which they were isolated.
Amidases with the ability to enantioselectively hydrolyse 2-phenylpropionamide and other 2-arylpropionamides have been found in several rhodococci and pseudomonads (Ciskanik et al., 1995 ; Gilligan et al., 1993
; Hirrlinger et al., 1996
; Kakeya et al., 1991
; Kobayashi et al., 1993
; Mayaux et al., 1990
, 1991
). Also, the undefined biocatalysts distributed previously by Novo Nordisk (Denmark) obviously contained enantioselective amidases (Beard et al., 1993
; Cohen et al., 1992
). The major aim in these previous studies was the preparation of S-2-arylpropionic acids (such as S-ibuprofen, S-naproxen and S-ketoprofen), which are the pharmacologically active enantiomers in these non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs produced in large quantities by the pharmaceutical industry. In the present study it was tested whether the presence of a methyl group in 2-substituted arylacetamides is indispensable for the high enantioselectivity of the amidases or whether other substituents also may permit a highly enantioselective hydrolysis of amides. These investigations clearly demonstrated that amides carrying different types of substituents (like a chlorine atom or a methoxy group) on the carbon atom in the direct neighbourhood of the amide group are also converted with a high degree of enantioselectivity. This observation may allow novel applications of these enzymes in biotechnology.
It has been proposed previously that the amino acids which constitute the amidase signature motif GGSS(GAS)G may form a hydrophobic pocket (Chebrou et al., 1996a ). The results of the mutagenesis experiments performed in the present study demonstrated that mutations within this amidase signature motif change the relative activity of the amidase with different amides and suggest a function of this motif as substrate accommodation site. The pronounced changes observed for the turnover rates of different amides in the mutant forms of the enzyme indicate that further modification within this group may allow the construction of mutants with highly modified substrate specificities and presumably also modified enantioselectivities.
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Received 29 December 2000;
revised 9 March 2001;
accepted 15 March 2001.