Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, 312 Nuclear Research Building, Tallahassee, FL 32306-4470, USA1
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, USA2
Center for Environmental Biotechnology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37932, USA3
Author for correspondence: D. L. Balkwill. Tel: +1 850 644 5719. Fax: +1 850 644 4865. e-mail: balkwill{at}bio.fsu.edu
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ABSTRACT |
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Keywords: Arthrobacter, subsurface microbiology, microbial phylogeny
The GenBank accession numbers for the sequences determined in this study are given in Methods.
a Present address: Center for Microbial Ecology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
b Present address: Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS 39180, USA.
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INTRODUCTION |
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The advent of molecular biological approaches in microbial ecology and systematics has led to major changes in the ways in which microbiologists look at microbial communities and classify bacteria. The analysis of 16S rRNA sequences to establish microbial phylogenies, as pioneered by Carl Woese (Woese, 1987 ) and colleagues (Pace et al., 1986
), has become an indispensable tool in many microbiology and microbial ecology laboratories. Furthermore, by extracting nucleic acids directly from environmental samples and analysing them by various fingerprinting or sequencing methods, the diversity and phylogeny of the microbial communities associated with those samples can be studied without culturing. This approach has now been applied to a wide range of natural environments, including a few subsurface environments (e.g. Chandler et al., 1997
; Ekendahl et al., 1994
; Pedersen et al., 1996b
). Although analysis of 16S rRNA sequences is a powerful way to determine phylogeny, it is clear that this approach usually cannot be used to infer a microbes full suite of morphological, physiological and genetic characteristics. Thus, it is possible to assign ecological roles to organisms detected solely by direct extraction of nucleic acids only when their 16S sequences correspond very closely to those of previously described organisms, which is often not the case. In contrast, characterization of culturable micro-organisms provides information on the ecological roles of at least some members of the microbial community, and it may enhance information on community structure that is obtained by direct molecular approaches (e.g. see Chandler et al., 1997
). Yet, with only a few exceptions (e.g. Amy et al., 1992
; Balkwill et al., 1997
; Boivin-Jahns et al., 1995
), many of the micro-organisms that have been cultured from subsurface environments remain uncharacterized.
In a recent study (Balkwill et al., 1997 ), we carried out a preliminary characterization of 169 chemoheterotrophic bacteria isolated from saturated paleosols, fluvial sands and gravels, and lacustrine sediments at the US Department of Energy Hanford Site in south central Washington State. 16S rRNA gene sequences from the subsurface isolates were compared to those in the Ribosomal Database Project (RDP) and GenBank sequence databases (using BLAST and SimilarityRank analyses, respectively; see Balkwill et al., 1997
), to determine the sequences for established species of bacteria to which they were most similar. These analyses implied that roughly 25% of the subsurface isolates were most closely related to the genus Arthrobacter, making them the most numerically predominant component of the culturable aerobic microbial community. In addition, Arthrobacter-like bacteria were the only types of aerobic heterotrophs to be isolated from all five lithologies that were examined at this site.
Arthrobacters are considered to be ubiquitous and predominant members of culturable soil microbial communities (Hagedorn & Holt, 1975 ; Keddie et al., 1986
). They have also been detected in several subsurface environments in addition to the Hanford Site sediments, including saturated Atlantic coastal plain sediments (20% of 187 heterotrophic isolates; Balkwill & Boone, 1997
; Reeves et al., 1995
), deep mine gallery clays (Boivin-Jahns et al., 1995
), a karstic aquifer (Rusterholz & Mallory, 1994
), a basalt aquifer (Zheng & Kellog, 1994
) and unwelded volcanic tuffs (21% of 119 isolates; Haldeman et al., 1993
). Because arthrobacters utilize a wide variety of organic compounds, including aromatic hydrocarbons (Hagedorn & Holt, 1975
; Keddie et al., 1986
; Stevenson, 1967
), they are widely believed to play a significant role in the transformation of organic matter in natural environments.
Although arthrobacters are commonly detected in the culturable microbial communities of terrestrial subsurface environments and are sometimes the numerically predominant members thereof, little is known about their significance in the broader microbial communities that can be detected with direct molecular biological methods that do not depend on culturing. Only a few such studies have been carried out on samples from subsurface environments, and most of these have focused on very deep rock or groundwater systems (e.g. Ekendahl et al., 1994 ; Pedersen et al., 1996b
) in which arthrobacters might not survive.
Recent 16S rDNA phylogenetic analyses have indicated that the species belonging to the genus Arthrobacter form a monophyletic clade (Koch et al., 1994 , 1995
). Arthrobacter species had previously been separated into two major clusters based on peptidoglycan composition (A3
or A4
), and the phylogenetic analyses confirmed this clustering within the genus (Koch et al., 1995
). Individual Arthrobacter species can be distinguished from each other by peptidoglycan type, menaquinone composition and the degree of DNA homology (Stackebrandt & Fiedler, 1979
; Stackebrandt et al., 1983
). It has also been shown that three Micrococcus species are phylogenetically intermixed with various species of Arthrobacter (Koch et al., 1994
, 1995
), and that six other Micrococcus species separate into three distinct sublines within the Arthrobacter line of descent (Stackebrandt et al., 1995
). As a result of these and other findings, it has been proposed that Micrococcus be redefined as four new genera (Stackebrandt et al., 1995
).
Because of their predominance among the culturable aerobic heterotrophic bacteria from the sediments at the Hanford Site, the objective of this study was to examine the phylogenetic and physiological diversity and probable identities of the Arthrobacter-like bacterial isolates from these sediments. Phylogenetic analyses of 16S rRNA gene sequences were utilized in combination with analyses of morphological, biochemical and physiological traits in order to address these questions. We describe here the relatedness of the subsurface isolates to each other and to previously described bacterial taxa, and we present evidence that many of the isolates are novel strains or species of Arthrobacter.
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METHODS |
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Isolation of aerobic chemoheterotrophs.
Aerobic, chemoheterotrophic bacteria were isolated from agar plates that were used for determination of viable counts. Samples were prepared for plating by blending 10 g sediment in 0·1% (w/v) sodium pyrophosphate, followed by serial dilution in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) as described previously (Balkwill, 1989 ). Dilutions were spread-plated in triplicate on the following media: PTYG and 1% PTYG (Balkwill & Ghiorse, 1985
), 5% (w/v) trypticase soy agar, OPCA (Stevens & Holbert, 1995
), hydroxyapatite agar (Sperber, 1958
), B-4 (Boquet et al., 1973
), and a sediment extract agar (Wollum, 1982
). All plates were incubated aerobically at 25 °C for 24 weeks.
Because viable counts were not statistically valid at the lowest dilution (10-2) used (fewer than 30 colonies usually fewer than 5 appearing on each plate), alternative methods were used to recover additional aerobic chemoheterotrophs from the Hanford Site samples. Direct contact plates were inoculated by aseptically scattering small quantities (0·250·75 g) of homogenized samples over the surfaces of PTYG, 1% PTYG and 5% TSA plates. Alternatively, 1 g (wet wt) of sediment was added to 9 ml PBS, shaken vigorously by hand for 1 min, and then shaken for 30 min at 25 °C in a reciprocating water bath. Serial dilutions in PBS were then plated on PTYG, 1% PTYG and 5% TSA.
All of the colonies appearing on the various types of plates described above (except for the approximately 4% that failed to transfer) were isolated by restreaking on the original plating medium and deposited in the DOE Subsurface Microbial Culture Collection (SMCC; Balkwill, 1993 ). All of the successfully isolated strains were included in the preliminary analysis of 16S rDNA sequences (see Introduction) carried out by Balkwill et al. (1997)
.
Bacterial strains and culture conditions.
All of the subsurface isolates from the core samples described above that were closely related to Arthrobacter globiformis (a total of 40 strains, representing about 24% of all isolates) based on BLAST and Similarity Rank analyses of 16S rRNA gene sequences (Balkwill et al., 1997 ) were examined in this study (Table 2
). The following reference strains were also included for comparative purposes: Arthrobacter atrocyaneus ATCC 13752T, Arthrobacter aurescens ATCC 13344T, Arthrobacter citreus ATCC 11624T, Arthrobacter crystallopoietes ATCC 15481T, Arthrobacter globiformis ATCC 8010T, Arthrobacter histidinolovorans ATCC 11442T, Arthrobacter nicotianae ATCC 15236T, Arthrobacter oxydans ATCC 14358T, Arthrobacter pascens ATCC 13346T, Arthrobacter protophormiae ATCC 19271T, Arthrobacter ramosus ATCC 13727T, Arthrobacter sulfureus ATCC 19098T, Arthrobacter uratoxydans ATCC 21749T and Arthrobacter ureafaciens ATCC 7562T. Subsurface and reference strains were maintained on 5% PTYG agar (Balkwill & Ghiorse, 1985
) or grown directly from frozen stocks. Broth cultures were grown either in 5% PTYG or in E mineral medium containing 1 g glucose l-1 and 1 g yeast extract l-1 (EYG; Cure & Keddie, 1973
).
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All strains were examined for the existence of a rodcoccus growth cycle according to the method of Cure & Keddie (1973) . Cultures were grown for 3 d in EYG broth, after which the cells in 10 ml broth were harvested by centrifugation. The cell pellet was resuspended in 2 ml 0·85% (w/v) NaCl and subsequently diluted in 0·85% NaCl to a turbidity equivalent to that of a no. 5 MacFarland standard. A fresh EYG broth (50 ml) was inoculated with 24 drops of the diluted cell suspension, and cell morphologies were examined by phase-contrast microscopy of wet-mount preparations after 0, 6, 12, 24, 36 and 72 h incubation at 25 °C.
Forty-two compounds were tested as sole sources of carbon and energy: glucose, D-arabinose, D-ribose, DL-xylose, adonitol, D-galactose, D-fructose, L-sorbose, L-rhamnose, dulcitol, inositol, sorbitol, salicin, D-cellobiose, lactose, melibiose, sucrose, trehalose, D-melezitose, sorbic acid, D-raffinose, succinic acid, L-alanine, L-isoleucine, L-leucine, L-lysine, L-methionine, L-serine, L-threonine, L-asparagine, L-cysteine, L-glutamine, L-glutamic acid, L-phenylalanine, glycine, L-histidine, L-arginine, L-aspartic acid, L-tyrosine, L-tryptophan, L-ornithine and casein. Aqueous stocks of these organic compounds were filter-sterilized (0·45 µm Millipore filters) and added to E mineral base supplemented with a vitamin stock (Cote & Gherna, 1994 ) and 0·001% (w/v) yeast extract. An increase in turbidity greater than that observed in carbon-free broth inoculated as a control was considered to represent growth on the offered carbon source.
Additional biochemical and physiological characteristics were determined with the API 20NE (formerly Rapid NFT) system (bioMérieux Vitek), which tests for nine specific enzymic capabilities (glucose fermentation, arginine dihydrolase, urease, aesculin hydrolysis, gelatinase, PNPG-ß-galactosidase, nitrate reduction, oxidase and tryptophanase) and the ability to grow aerobically on 12 organic compounds as sole sources of carbon (D-glucose, L-arabinose, D-mannose, D-mannitol, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, maltose, D-gluconate, caprate, adipate, L-malate, citrate and phenylacetate). Production of catalase, DNase, cellulase and amylase (starch hydrolysis) was determined using standard methods (Difco, 1984 )
The Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony program (PAUP* 4.0 beta version 4a; Swofford, 2000 ) was used to analyse a data matrix of 60 taxonomically informative strain phenotypic characteristics for maximum parsimony. The traits included in this analysis were: colony pigmentation; presence of a rodcoccus growth cycle; all of the non-API carbon source utilization tests except dulcitol, methionine, cysteine, casein and glucose (37 traits); and all of the traits tested with the API 20NE system (21 traits). The remaining 18 phenotypic traits were not included because either they were phylogentically uninformative or they yielded variable reactions in triplicate test runs. Positive and negative character states were represented by the numerals 1 and 0, respectively, in the data matrix. A heuristic search (using standard program defaults for parsimony analysis) generated a total of 22840 equally parsimonious trees. A 50% majority rule consensus tree was then generated in order to determine the frequencies at which specific clusters of strains were recovered during the parsimony analysis.
16S rRNA gene (rDNA) sequencing.
Chromosomal DNA was isolated from the subsurface strains by a chloroform/isoamyl alcohol procedure (Johnson, 1981 ). Twenty to one hundred nanograms of genomic DNA was used as a template for PCR amplification (Sambrook et al., 1989
) of an approximately 1500-base segment of the 16S rRNA gene (i.e. nearly the entire gene). The PCR primers were fD1 and rP2 (Weisburg et al., 1991
), and the resulting PCR products were purified with the QIAquick PCR purification kit (QIAGEN) according to the manufacturers instructions, except that sterile deionized water was used to elute the DNA. The purified PCR products were sequenced with an Applied Biosystems 373A sequencer, using the Taq DyeDeoxy terminator cycle sequencing method (Applied Biosystems, 1992
; McBride et al., 1989
). The sequencing primers were A, C, G, H, H-complement, P and P-complement (Balkwill et al., 1997
; Lane et al., 1985
; Reeves et al., 1995
). The sequences were then assembled with the AutoAssembler DNA Sequence Assembly Software (Applied Biosystems, 1994
).
The 16S rRNA sequences inferred from the 16S rDNA sequences determined as described above were aligned with 16S rRNA sequences from selected species within the Arthrobacter line of descent and from several related genera. Sequences of the reference strains were obtained from the Ribosomal Database Project (Maidak et al., 1996 ) and GenBank/EMBL databases. Regions of the sequence alignment in which data were missing from some of the sequences or the alignment was ambiguous (corresponding to positions 166, 462470 and 13611542 in the 16S rRNA sequence for Escherichia coli; Brosius et al., 1979
) were excluded from the phylogenetic analyses; 1279 bases were retained in the analyses. The phylogenetic positions of the subsurface strains were analysed using distance matrix, maximum-likelihood and parsimony methods. The PHYLIP computer program (Felsenstein, 1993
) was used for distance matrix analyses. Distances were calculated by the method of Jukes & Cantor (1963)
, after which phylogenies were estimated using the algorithms of DeSoete (1983)
and/or Fitch & Margoliash (1967)
. The DNAML component of the PHYLIP package was used for maximum-likelihood analyses. In addition, sequences for a smaller subset of 38 strains were analysed for maximum parsimony with the PAUP program (Swofford, 2000
) in order to construct the most parsimonious phylogenetic tree. Only the phylogenetically informative sites were considered, and alignment gaps were retained in the analysis. A heuristic search was performed with the standard program defaults.
The GenBank accession numbers for the 16S rDNA sequences of the subsurface strains examined in this study are as follows: G915, AF197020; G919, AF197021; G950, AF197022; G954, AF197023; G959, AF197024; G960, AF197025; G961, AF197026; G962, AF197027; G963, AF197028; G964, AF197029; G965, AF197030; G966, AF197031; G968, AF197032; G969, AF197033; G970, AF197034; G979, AF197035; G980, AF197036; G982, AF197037; G984, AF197038; G986, AF197039; G991, AF197040; G993, AF197041; ZAT001, AF197042; ZAT002, AF197043; ZAT004, AF197044; ZAT005, AF197045; ZAT012, AF197046; ZAT013, AF197047; ZAT014, AF197048; ZAT031, AF197049; ZAT054, AF197050; ZAT055, AF197051; ZAT056, AF197052; ZAT200, AF197053; ZAT255, AF197054; ZAT262, AF197055; ZAT263, AF197056; ZAT277, AF197057; ZAT351, AF196342; ZAT352, AF196343.
Whole-cell fatty acids.
Bacterial cultures were grown on 5% PTYG agar plates at 25 °C for 2448 h. Cells were then scraped from the plates with a sterile loop. Saponification, methylation, extraction of fatty acids and gas-chromatographic analysis of the fatty acid methyl esters were performed as described by Sasser (1990) . A hierarchical cluster analysis was performed on the data using arcsin-transformed peak area percentages. The cluster analysis was by complete linkage.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION |
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16S rRNA phylogenetic analysis
Approximately 80% of the 16S rDNA sequence was determined for the 40 Arthrobacter-like subsurface isolates from the Hanford Site. Similarities among these sequences (over 1279 bases compared) ranged from 94·7 to 100%, implying that the subsurface isolates were closely related to each other. When the subsurface sequences were compared to available sequences for previously described bacterial species, it appeared that the subsurface isolates were most closely related to bacteria from the genus Arthrobacter (with sequence similarities ranging from 96·3 to 100%). To further assess the phylogenetic positions of the subsurface strains, their sequences were analysed with those for members of the Arthrobacter line of descent and several other related genera. This analysis placed the Arthrobacter-like subsurface isolates into seven distinct clusters that were preserved with a high degree of confidence during bootstrap analysis (Fig. 1), indicating that there was some detectable phylogenetic diversity among these strains.
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Four subsurface isolates formed a separate cluster (cluster 5) on a branch that included A. globiformis, A. pascens and A. ramosus. Similarities among the sequences for strains on this branch of the tree ranged from 98·9 to 99·6%, while similarities between the cluster 5 sequences and all other sequences for subsurface isolates ranged from 94·1 to 97·9%. Isolates G960 and G964 also clustered (cluster 6) on a distinct branch of the tree, and their sequences were most similar to those from A. pascens and A. ramosus (97·5%). Isolates ZAT031 and ZAT277 clustered with Arthrobacter (formerly Micrococcus) agilis (cluster 1) and were very closely related to this species (sequence similarities 99·7 to 100%). Subsurface isolate G919 was placed on a relatively long, separate branch of the phylogenetic tree that was part of a larger cluster including five Arthrobacter species. The 16S rDNA sequence from G919 was most similar (98·4%) to that from A. aurescens.
In distance matrix, maximum-likelihood and parsimony analyses, isolates ZAT351 and ZAT352 clustered (cluster 7) on a relatively long, distinct branch within a larger cluster that contained the three Kocuria species included in the analysis (data not shown). However, this larger cluster was not retained in 50% or more of the trees when bootstrap analysis (Felsenstein, 1985 ) was performed on the distance-matrix data (Fig. 1
). The ZAT351 and ZAT352 sequences were most similar to that of Kocuria rosea (96·3%), making them the only subsurface isolates with sequences less than 97·5% similar to those of all other strains examined in this study.
There was significant phylogenetic diversity among strains within groups of Arthrobacter-like bacteria isolated from some, but not all, of the geological formations examined in this study. For example, the 26 isolates from the lacustrine sediments were sufficiently diverse to be assigned to clusters 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Although there were only four isolates from the fluvial gravels, these strains were placed in three separate clusters (clusters 2, 3 and 4). In contrast, four of the five lower paleosol isolates were assigned to cluster 4 and the fifth isolate was placed in cluster 3, the cluster that is most closely related phylogenetically to cluster 4.
The isolates from the fluvial sands, upper paleosol and tephra were phylogenetically distinct from nearly all of the strains isolated from other geological formations, falling into clusters 1 and 5. The total number of isolates from these three lithologies was quite small (only five strains), making comparison to isolates from other lithologies difficult. Nevertheless, the largest and most diverse group of isolates (i.e. from the lacustrine sediments) included only one strain that fell into cluster 5 and none that could be assigned to cluster 1. In addition, four strains from the lacustrine sediment and one from the fluvial gravels were placed in three clusters (clusters 2, 6 and 7) that contained no isolates from other lithologies. Given that all of the Arthrobacter-like strains that could be isolated from the samples were included in the analysis, these findings suggest that, to some extent, differing physical and chemical conditions in different lithologies may have selected for phylogenetically distinct arthrobacters.
Although all of the core samples from 173·4 to 183·5 m were lacustrine (lake sediments deposited 68 million years ago; Fredrickson et al., 1995 ), there was considerable variation in the chemical and physical properties of these samples (Table 1
). For example, the uppermost sample from 173·4 m contained relatively low concentrations of organic carbon and many yellow-brown iron concretions indicative of an oxidizing environment. In contrast, the sample collected immediately below (174·8 m) contained more than 11 g organic carbon per kg sediment and was dark grey in appearance, suggesting that this sample was not oxidized. Both of these core samples had very low liquid permeabilities (<1x10-9 millidarcies), and thus the movement of bacteria between these formations would have been very unlikely (Fredrickson et al., 1995
). It is not surprising that the highest proportion (10/40) of arthrobacters came from the oxidized region within the lacustrine sediment because Arthrobacter is a genus composed entirely of obligately aerobic organisms. It is interesting to note that 8 of 10 isolates from the 173·4 m sample were placed in cluster 4 while the remaining two were placed in cluster 6.
The two PHYLIP distance matrix methods and the maximum-likelihood method (see Methods) produced very similar results in terms of how the subsurface isolates were grouped in the resulting phylogenetic trees. There were some minor differences in branch lengths and the position of subsurface strain G919 within the clade that included A. aurescens and A. ureafaciens (data not shown), but no major discrepancies were detected. The parsimony analysis (PAUP program; see Methods) had some difficulty in resolving the order of branching within the tree and was unable to complete a single heuristic search without running out of memory. This may be an example of the difficulty that parsimony analysis sometimes has when assessing the phylogenetic relationships among very closely related strains, a problem that was observed previously by Koch et al. (1995) . To address this problem, a heuristic search was halted after approximately 100000 trees had been saved, and a majority-rule consensus tree was generated from those trees. This analysis indicated that the seven distinct clusters containing the Arthrobacter-like subsurface isolates were retained in at least 91% of the trees (data not shown). The confidence that could be placed in the clusters of Arthrobacter-like strains was also assessed by performing a bootstrap analysis (Felsenstein, 1985
) on the distance matrix data. (It was not possible to run a bootstrap analysis with parsimony because of the aforementioned computational problem.) This analysis produced the tree shown in Fig. 1
, in which the clusters were again retained with a reasonably high degree of confidence.
Cellular fatty acid methyl ester analysis
The major fatty acids of the subsurface strains and Arthrobacter reference strains were anteiso- and iso- terminally branched saturated fatty acids, including 13-methylpentadecanoic acid (anteiso-C15:0), 14-methylpentadecanoic acid (iso-C15:0) and 15-methylhexadecanoic acid (iso-C16:0) (Table 3). Somewhat smaller quantities of 15-methylheptadecanoic acid (anteiso-C17:0) were detected in 13% of the subsurface isolates and 42% of the reference strains. The reference strains did not contain significant quantities of hexadecanoic acid (C16:0), whereas this acid was detected in 41% of the subsurface isolates. Subsurface strains ZAT351 and ZAT352 differed from the Arthrobacter reference strains and the other subsurface isolates in that they contained 15-methylheptadecanoic acid (iso-C17:1, which was not detected in any of the other strains) and comparatively large amounts of 13-methylpentadecanoic acid (anteiso-C15:0). Moreover, they differed from all other subsurface isolates in that they did not contain 15-methylhexadecanoic acid (iso-C16:0). In terms of the major iso-and anteiso- methyl-branched acids, these cellular fatty acid patterns are consistent with those described previously for species of the genus Arthrobacter (Keddie et al., 1986
; Stackebrandt et al., 1995
).
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Subsurface strains ZAT031, ZAT277, ZAT351 and ZAT352 were observed to be Gram-positive cocci, regardless of the age of the culture. ZAT031 and ZAT277 cells were spheres that occurred in pairs and tetrads, and ZAT031 cells were motile. Colonies on 5% PTYG agar were light pink (ZAT277) to dark rose (ZAT031), circular, smooth, slightly convex and entire. These morphological traits are consistent with the description of Arthrobacter (formerly Micrococcus) agilis (Koch et al., 1995 ). Cells of strains ZAT351 and ZAT352 were spheres that occurred in pairs, tetrads and clusters. Colonies on 5% PTYG agar were yellow, circular, smooth, convex and entire. These characteristics are more consistent with the description of Kocuria (formerly Micrococcus) varians than that of Kocuria rosea (formerly Micrococcus roseus; Stackebrandt et al., 1995
), even though 16S rDNA sequence analysis implied that ZAT351 and ZAT352 were slightly more closely related phylogenetically to K. rosea.
A comparison of metabolic traits indicated that the subsurface isolates and Arthrobacter type strains generally had similar substrate ranges and enzymic capabilities. Most of the type and subsurface strains were ß-galactosidase-positive, whereas only 50% could hydrolyse aesculin or gelatin. None of the strains exhibited tryptophanase, arginine dihydrolase or cellulase activity, nor did they ferment glucose to acidic end products. None of the strains used dulcitol, cysteine or methionine, and fewer than 15% utilized adonitol, sorbitol, sorbic acid or caproic acid. More than 90% of the strains utilized glucose, maltose, D-gluconate, citric acid, malic acid, asparagine, lysine, glutamine and casein as sole carbon sources. Despite the overall similarities, most of the subsurface isolates differed from the Arthrobacter type strains in at least some of the metabolic characteristics examined, suggesting that the two populations were physiologically distinct.
Some of the phylogenetic relationships suggested by 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis appeared to be maintained at the phenotypic level when a parsimony analysis was carried out on phenotypic traits (Fig. 3). Most of the isolates in 16S rDNA cluster 4 (Fig. 1
) also clustered together phenotypically, as did subsurface strains in clusters 1, 6 and 7. This finding was not unexpected because fatty acid analysis also confirmed the close relatedness among the strains in these clusters (Fig. 2
). Moreover, several of the subsurface strains in these clusters were isolated from the same sample depth (Table 1
), and thus have a greater likelihood of being duplicate (or near-duplicate) strains.
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Some of most distinctive phenotypic differences between the subsurface strains assigned to separate 16S rDNA clusters are summarized in Table 4. Five physiological properties (urease, tryptophanase, PNPG-ß-galactosidase and utilization of L-serine and sucrose) were present or absent in all members of a single 16S rDNA cluster, and thus could be used to differentiate that cluster from the others. Except for cluster 3, all strains in each of the 16S rDNA clusters differed from the strains of other clusters by at least three (sometimes more than 10) phenotypic traits. There were no distinct phenotypic differences between the strains in clusters 3 and 5 (which clustered together during parsimony analysis of phenotypic traits; Fig. 3
). Moreover, the cluster 3 strains differed from those in cluster 4 by only two traits (utilization of L-ornithine and DL-xylose) and from those in cluster 5 by only a single characteristic (utilization of L-ornithine). However, the apparent lack of differences between the cluster 3 strains and those in other clusters was mostly the result of the high phenotypic diversity within cluster 3 noted earlier. There were very few phenotypic traits that all isolates in cluster 3 had in common (note the number of variable traits listed in Table 4
alone), so only a few valid comparisons could be made between this and the other clusters. The variations in phenotypic traits among the strains in 16S rDNA cluster 3 did not appear to correspond either to the subclusters detected by phylogenetic analysis (Fig. 1
) or to the two subgroups defined by analysis of fatty acids (Fig. 2
).
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Conclusions
All but two of the subsurface isolates examined in this study (i.e. ZAT351 and ZAT352) can be considered species of Arthrobacter, based on the results of phylogenetic analyses (Fig. 1) and on general similarities in morphological, physiological and biochemical (i.e. cell fatty acid profiles) characteristics. Strains ZAT351 and ZAT352 are most likely species of Kocuria, based on morphological similarities and the results of the phylogenetic analyses (all methods), in which they were assigned to a cluster including the three Kocuria type strains. However, the fact that this clustering was not retained during a bootstrap analysis (see Fig. 1
) raises uncertainties as to the actual genus affiliation of these two subsurface strains.
The subsurface Arthrobacter-like strains examined in this study were phylogenetically and physiologically diverse, and they very likely represent several distinct species. 16S rRNA sequence similarities between strains in the seven distinct clusters defined by the phylogenetic analyses (Fig. 1) were generally too high (i.e. >97·5%; see Fox et al., 1992
) for these clusters to be considered as different species on the basis of their 16S rRNA phylogeny alone. However, this is not unusual in the genus Arthrobacter, where well-defined species often have very high 16S rRNA sequence similarities (e.g. >99% among A. globiformis, A. pascens and A. ramosus). Moreover, with the exception of cluster 3, the strain clusters defined by phylogenetic analysis could also be differentiated by analysis of cellular fatty acids (Fig. 2
) and by three or more distinct phenotypic traits (Table 4
). The strains in 16S rDNA cluster 3 were not easily distinguished from those in other clusters because of their high physiological diversity. There may well be significant species-level diversity within cluster 3, but additional analyses would be needed to resolve this issue because analyses of phylogenetic, biochemical (i.e. cell fatty acid) and physiological data subdivided the cluster 3 strains in different ways. DNADNA reassociation experiments (beyond the scope of this study) would be helpful in this regard.
Several of the subsurface isolates examined in this study are likely to be strains of novel species. This is clearly the case for isolates ZAT351 and ZAT352, whose 16S rDNA sequences are less than 97·5% similar to those of the most closely related established species. As noted above, however, there is some uncertainty in regard to the genus in which these isolates should be placed. Subsurface strains G960 and G964 almost certainly represent a new species as well. Their 16S rDNA sequences differed by 2·5% from those of the most closely related Arthrobacter species (on the borderline of a species-level difference according to Fox et al., 1992 ), they did not cluster with any Arthrobacter species in fatty acid analysis (Fig. 2
), and they differed from all tested Arthrobacter species in at least eight phenotypic traits. Similar arguments could be made for considering subsurface isolate G919 and those in 16S rDNA cluster 3 to be novel species of Arthrobacter. The isolates in cluster 4 were separated from established Arthrobacter species by phylogenetic, fatty acid and physiological analyses, so these strains may also represent one or more novel species of Arthrobacter. The situation within 16S rRNA cluster 3 is less clear, and DNADNA reassociation studies or other analyses will probably be necessary to define species-level differences (if any) within this group of strains. Moreover, additional properties commonly used to distinguish species of Arthrobacter (such as type of peptidoglycan, menaquinones and polar lipid content) should probably be determined for all of the subsurface strains before any of the apparent new species are named and described in more detail.
The results of this study and others (Amy et al., 1992 ; Balkwill & Boone, 1997
; Boivin-Jahns et al., 1995
; Reeves et al., 1995
; Rusterholz & Mallory, 1994
; Zheng & Kellog, 1994
) indicate that Arthrobacter strains are often among the predominant members of the culturable microbial communities in terrestrial subsurface environments. It is not yet known whether they are also predominant members of the broader microbial communities that would be detected by direct molecular analyses of subsurface sediments. Nevertheless, this study has indicated that most of the culturable arthrobacters in the Hanford sediments are likely to be members of novel species with distinctive physiological characteristics. The ecological significance and specific functional roles of these previously uncharacterized organisms should be examined in future studies. For example, it would be interesting to know whether the disparity of organic carbon concentrations between the upper regions of the lacustrine sediments and the unoxidized zone that lies immediately beneath it at the Hanford Site is in any way related to oxidation of organic matter by subsurface arthrobacters.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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This research was supported by: (i) the US Department of Energy (DOE) Laboratory Technology Research Division under the terms of a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement, and (ii) DOE Grant nos DE-FG05-91ER61159 and DE-FG02-96ER62210 from the Subsurface Science Program, DOE Office of Energy Research.
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Received 7 October 1999;
revised 25 February 2000;
accepted 1 March 2000.