School of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
Correspondence
d.j.adams{at}leeds.ac.uk
![]() |
ABSTRACT |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Introduction
The fungal kingdom is very diverse, with species growing as unicellular yeasts and/or branching hyphae that produce a remarkable array of spores and other reproductive structures. In each case, the shape and integrity of the fungus is dependent upon the mechanical strength of the cell wall, which performs a wide range of essential roles during the interaction of the fungus with its environment (Gooday, 1995). The fungal wall is a complex structure composed typically of chitin, 1,3-
- and 1,6-
-glucan, mannan and proteins, although wall composition frequently varies markedly between species of fungi. For diagrammatic representations of part or all of the cell wall of yeasts or filamentous fungi see recent reviews by Bernard & Latgé (2001)
, McFadden & Casadevall (2001)
, Smits et al. (2001)
and Odds et al. (2003)
.
Enzymes of chitin and glucan biosynthesis manufacture long, linear chains of 1,4-linked N-acetylglucosamine and
1,3-linked glucose, respectively. However, the fungal cell wall contains abundant quantities of branched 1,3-
-, 1,6-
-glucan and there is evidence of extensive cross-linking between chitin, glucan and other wall components (Cabib et al., 2001
; Klis et al., 2002
). Furthermore, the wall is a highly dynamic structure subject to constant change, for example, during cell expansion and division in yeasts, and during spore germination, hyphal branching and septum formation in filamentous fungi. Cell wall polymer branching and cross-linking, and the maintenance of wall plasticity during morphogenesis, may depend upon the activities of a range of hydrolytic enzymes found intimately associated with the fungal cell wall. Most of the fungal cell wall hydrolases characterized to date have chitinase or glucanase activity and a number of these enzymes also exhibit transglycosylase activity. They may therefore contribute to breakage and re-forming of bonds within and between polymers, leading to re-modelling of the cell wall during growth and morphogenesis. Well-defined and putative glucanolytic and chitinolytic activities are discussed here if there is evidence of a close association of the enzyme with the cell wall. Alternatively, or additionally, a hydrolase is included if disruption of the gene encoding the enzyme leads to an altered phenotype that may be attributable to changes in cell wall structure. Mycoparasitic Trichoderma species secrete chitinases and glucanases that attack cell wall polymers in other fungi and have been exploited in the development of biocontrol strategies (Chet & Inbar, 1994
). These enzymes are not considered here but see, for example, Kim et al. (2002)
for an account of multiple chitinases and glucanases from Trichoderma virens.
Cell wall chitinases of yeasts
Work with the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae provided the first clear evidence of a role for a cell wall hydrolase in fungal growth. During budding in S. cerevisiae a division septum is laid down between the cells and within a ring of chitin deposited at the bud site. Degradation of this material leads to cell separation and involves an extensively glycosylated endochitinase with an apparent molecular mass of approximately 130 kDa. Disruption of the CTS1 gene encoding this enzyme led to a defect in cell separation (Kuranda & Robbins, 1991), complementing results obtained by Sakuda et al. (1990)
who demonstrated inhibition of yeast cell separation by the potent chitinase inhibitor demethylallosamidin. Parting of yeast cells during budding is therefore dependent upon hydrolysis of chitin joining mother and daughter. More recently, King & Butler (1998)
demonstrated that disruption of CTS1 can also promote pseudohyphal growth. The chitin-binding domain of Cts1p may have a role in localizing the enzyme to the cell wall (Kuranda & Robbins, 1991
), where its activity appears to be counterbalanced by the repair enzyme chitin synthase 1 (Cabib et al., 2001
). Most recently, a second apparent chitinase-encoding gene, CTS2, was identified in S. cerevisiae. It seems clear that the gene product has a role during sporulation, as disruption of CTS2 led to abnormal spore wall biosynthesis and failure to form mature asci (Giaver et al., 2002
).
McCreath et al. (1995, 1996)
cloned three chitinase genes, CHT1, CHT2 and CHT3, from the dimorphic pathogen of humans, Candida albicans. CHT1 encodes a protein with a predicted molecular mass of 42 kDa which may correspond to a chitinase of 45 kDa purified from this organism by Mellor et al. (1994)
. CHT2 and CHT3 encode proteins with a predicted molecular mass of 61 kDa. The deduced amino acid sequences for Cht2p and Cht3p are 36 % similar to one another and 3638 % similar to S. cerevisiae Cts1p. Levels of transcription of CHT2 and CHT3 were greater when Ca. albicans was grown in a yeast phase as compared to a mycelial phase and preliminary results from disruption of CHT2 suggested a role for the gene product in cell separation, similar to the role noted for Cts1p of S. cerevisiae (Kuranda & Robbins, 1991
; McCreath et al., 1995
). A C-terminal chitin-binding domain was not immediately apparent in Cht2p or Cht3p although analysis of deduced amino acid sequences using the DGPI facility at the SIB website (http://ca.expasy.org/) identified putative glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchor and cleavage sites at the C-terminus of CHT2. This chitinase may therefore be GPI-anchored to the cell membrane or wall of Ca. albicans. In this regard it is interesting to note that Iranzo et al. (2002)
provided evidence for covalent linkage of Cht2p to the Ca. albicans yeast cell wall while Dickinson et al. (1991)
demonstrated a close association of chitinase with membrane fractions from this organism.
Cell wall glucanases of yeasts
S. cerevisiae contains a wide range of endo- and exo-1,3--glucanases and it seems likely that approximately 15 genes in this yeast encode polypeptides with glucanase or related enzymic activities (Baladrón et al., 2002
). Some of these glucanases have roles during cell separation while others exhibit transglycosylase activity and may be involved in extending and rearranging 1,3-
-glucan chains, and cross-linking these polymers to other wall components.
ENG1
Deletion of ENG1, a gene encoding an S. cerevisiae endo-1,3--glucanase, led to clumping of cells, suggesting that Eng1p, like Cts1p, is involved in dissolution of the motherdaughter septum during cell separation (Baladrón et al., 2002
). Ca. albicans and the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe contain genes related to S. cerevisiae ENG1 which encode products required for cell separation in these organisms. CaEng1p partially complemented the separation defect of a S. cerevisiae eng1 mutant, suggesting a close functional relationship between the glucanases from these organisms (Martín-Cuadrado et al., 2003
; Vázquez de Aldana et al., 2003
). Failure of eng1 mutant cells of Schiz. pombe to part was shown to be due mainly to an inability to degrade the 1,3-
-glucan-rich primary septum that separates sister cells (Martín-Cuadrado et al., 2003
).
SCW and SUN genes
Single knockouts of three S. cerevisiae genes, SCW3, SCW4 and SCW10, that may encode soluble cell wall glucanases, had no significant effect on phenotype but disruption of the related gene, SCW11, caused marked inhibition of cell separation after division (Cappellaro et al., 1998). The double knockout of SCW3 and SCW10 resulted in slower growth, an increase in the amount of protein released from cell walls by dithiothreitol and decreased mating efficiency. Interestingly, these effects were partly antagonized by disruption of the gene encoding the endoglucanase/transferase Bgl2p (Cappellaro et al., 1998
). SCW3 is also known as SUN4 and is the fourth member of the SUN gene family, which encodes a further group of yeast proteins, each with a different cellular function, that exhibit homology with a
-glucosidase. In a more recent study, Mouassite et al. (2000)
demonstrated a role for the SCW3/SUN4 gene product during cell separation in S. cerevisiae.
YHR143W/DSE2
This gene encodes a secreted protein, with sequence similarity to glucanases, that localizes to regions of the S. cerevisiae cell wall connecting mother and daughter cells (Colman-Lerner et al., 2001; Doolin et al., 2001
). Deletion of the YHR143W/DSE2 gene led to inhibition of cell separation after division and enhanced pseudohyphal growth (Doolin et al., 2001
).
GAS1
Gas1p is a glycoprotein that is GPI-anchored to the plasma membrane of S. cerevisiae. Disruption of the GAS1 gene led to several morphogenetic defects and an apparent decrease in the degree of cross-linking of 1,3--glucan to other wall polymers (reviewed by Popolo & Vai, 1999
). A proposed transglycosylase activity for Gas1p was confirmed by Mouyna et al. (2000a
; see below). S. cerevisiae contains four genes (GAS25) that are homologues of GAS1, and related genes have been identified in several fungal pathogens of humans (Popolo & Vai, 1999
). GAS5, like GAS1, is expressed during vegetative growth while GAS2, -3 and -4 exhibit differing expression patterns during meiosis and sporulation; diploid gas2 and gas4 mutants displayed defects in sporulation (Ragni et al., 2003
).
BGL2
Purified preparations of the BGL2-encoded endo-1,3--glucanase from Ca. albicans and S. cerevisiae were subjected to detailed kinetic analyses (Goldman et al., 1995
). Bgl2p catalyses a transferase reaction, with separate 1,3-
-glucan chains as donor and acceptor, in which the reducing terminus of the activated donor is connected to the non-reducing end of the acceptor in a
1,6 linkage. The product is therefore a linear but kinked glucan chain. Bgl2p may have the apparently important role of introducing
1,6 linkages into the 1,3-
-glucan of the fungal cell wall. However, in this regard, it should be noted that disruption of the S. cerevisiae BGL2 gene had no effect on phenotype (Klebl & Tanner, 1989
) although overproduction of Bgl2p caused a decrease in growth rate (Mrsa et al., 1993
).
EXG1, EXG2 and SSG1
S. cerevisiae contains three related exoglucanases, ExgI, ExgII and Ssg1. The transcript of the SSG1 gene was detected only in sporulating diploids and the appearance of mature asci during sporulation was delayed in diploid strains homozygous for SSG1 disruption (reviewed by Larriba et al., 1995). Disruption of both alleles of EXG1 and/or EXG2 had no significant effect on phenotype, and sporulation in a strain homozygous for disruption of all three exoglucanase genes was indistinguishable from sporulation in the strain homozygous for SSG1 disruption. However, when Jiang et al. (1995)
investigated the relationship between EXG1 expression and sensitivity of S. cerevisiae to K1 killer toxin they found that disruption of EXG1 increased sensitivity while overexpression of EXG1 led to resistance to the toxin. Overexpression of EXG1 also resulted in a modest reduction in cell wall
-1,6-glucan while disruption of the gene led to a small increase in this component. Jiang et al. (1995)
propose that the Exg1p exo-
-glucanase may therefore have a functional role in cell wall glucan metabolism. An Exg1p-related exoglucanase is secreted by Ca. albicans but no role has been identified for this enzyme (Larriba et al., 1995
).
CRH1, CRH2 and CRR1
Rodríguez-Peña et al. (2000) identified a family of three related gene products in S. cerevisiae with homology to bacterial
-glucanases and eukaryotic endotransglycosidases. Both Crh1 and Crh2 appear to be GPI-anchored to yeast cell wall components (Hamada et al., 1998
). The combined disruption of all three genes was not lethal. However, taken together, the results of gene knockout, gene expression and reporter gene localization studies suggest that these putative glycosidases may perform a common function in cell wall construction at different stages of the yeast life cycle (Rodríguez-Peña et al., 2000
).
Cell wall glucanases of filamentous fungi
Several glucanolytic activities have been detected in the cell walls of the respiratory pathogens Aspergillus fumigatus, Coccidioides posadasii and Coccidioides immitis. Some of these enzymes exhibit both glucanase and transglycosidase activities and, like the glucanases of yeasts, may have roles in cell wall remodelling during morphogenesis.
Fontaine et al. (1997) detected monomeric and dimeric exo-1,3-
-glucanases of molecular mass 82 kDa and 230 kDa, respectively, in cell wall autolysates of A. fumigatus. An endo-1,3-
-glucanase of molecular mass 74 kDa was also detected in A. fumigatus wall autolysates; disruption of the ENGL1 gene encoding this enzyme did not lead to a phenotype distinct from that of the parental strain (Mouyna et al., 2002
). The A. fumigatus cell wall also contains a number of glucanases which exhibit 1,3-
-glucanosyltransferase activity. These include a 49 kDa endoglucanase which cleaves 1,3-
-glucan then transfers the newly generated reducing end to the non-reducing end of another 1,3-
-glucan molecule. With the formation of a new
1,3 linkage the 1,3-
-glucan chain is elongated and the gene encoding this enzyme is described as GEL1 for glucan elongating glucanosyltransferase (Mouyna et al., 2000a
). GEL1 encodes a GPI-anchored protein homologous to the GAS1 and PHR gene products of S. cerevisiae and Ca. albicans, respectively. S. cerevisiae Gas1p, and Ca. albicans Phr1p and Phr2p, were known to have roles during morphogenesis but no biochemical function had been identified for these proteins until Mouyna et al. (2000a)
demonstrated that recombinant Gas1p, Phr1p and Phr2p each has 1,3-
-glucanosyltransferase activity similar to that of A. fumigatus Gel1p. Furthermore, expression of A. fumigatus GEL1 cDNA in a
gas1 strain of S. cerevisiae rescued the morphological defects of this mutant, leading Mouyna et al. (2000a)
to propose that the transglycosidase, GPI-anchored to the plasma membrane, has an active role during cell wall biosynthesis.
A. fumigatus appears to contain a family of at least three closely related 1,3--glucanosyltransferases that includes Gel1p (Mouyna et al., 2000b
). Similarly, there is evidence for the presence of a family of several structurally and functionally related 1,3-
-glucanosyltransferases in Co. posadasii (Delgado et al., 2003
). The presence of multiple genes encoding these enzymes in A. fumigatus and Co. posadasii may explain the lack of alteration of the normal phenotype in mutants containing a disrupted 1,3-
-glucanosyltransferase gene (Mouyna et al., 2000b
; Delgado et al., 2003
). That is, the expression of a functionally related gene(s) can be expected to compensate for the loss of a GEL gene in each of these species. Interestingly in this regard, Bruneau et al. (2001)
report a marked effect on phenotype for a double glucanosyltransferase mutant (
GEL1/
GEL2) of A. fumigatus.
Mouyna et al. (1998) identified a 1,3-
-glucanosyltransferase, distinct from members of the Gelp family, in the cell wall of A. fumigatus. This 37 kDa protein is a homologue of the Bgl2p
-glucanosyltransferase of S. cerevisiae and Ca. albicans, releasing a disaccharide unit from the reducing end of 1,3-
-glucan and transferring the newly generated reducing end to the non-reducing end of another 1,3-
-glucan molecule to form a new intrachain
1,6 linkage. The gene for this enzyme appears to be present as a single copy in the A. fumigatus genome. However, the results of gene disruption experiments were similar to those obtained following S. cerevisiae BGL2 disruption: the phenotype of a null mutant did not differ from that of the parental strain, suggesting that the 37 kDa enzyme does not play a major role during cell wall morphogenesis in A. fumigatus.
The cell wall of Co. immitis contains a 120 kDa -glucosidase with 1,3-
-glucanase activity. A considerable body of evidence has accumulated suggesting that this enzyme has a morphogenetic role during the parasitic phase of growth of Co. immitis (Cole & Hung, 2001
; Hung et al., 2001
). Disruption of the gene encoding the 120 kDa glucosidase led both to a reduction in the rate of development of the parasitic growth phase and to a reduction in the mycelial growth rate. Furthermore, the gene knockout appeared to cause a marked decrease in the virulence of this organism in a mouse model of infection (Cole & Hung, 2001
).
Cell wall chitinases of filamentous fungi
Chitinases, like glucanases, are closely associated with the cell walls of Aspergillus and Coccidioides species (Hearn et al., 1996; Reichard et al., 2000
). As genome sequencing programmes for A. fumigatus, A. nidulans and Co. immitis near completion (http://www.tigr.org; http://www-genome.wi.mit.edu) it is apparent that these species contain large numbers of chitinase-encoding genes. For example, interrogation of the A. fumigatus database, using the protein sequences of the ChiA1p and ChiB1p chitinases from this organism, reveals that A. fumigatus contains at least 11 conserved active-site domains for chitinases of glycosyl hydrolase family 18. These enzymes may be divided into fungal/bacterial chitinases, similar to chitinases found in bacteria, and fungal/plant chitinases, which are similar to chitinases from plants. Fungal/bacterial chitinases from Aspergillus species and Co. immitis have deduced molecular masses of approximately 4648 kDa. Disruption of the gene encoding the ChiB1p chitinase of A. fumigatus or the Cts1p chitinase of Co. immitis had no effect on growth or morphogenesis in these organisms (Reichard et al., 2000
; Jaques et al., 2003
). It is possible that related enzymes in A. fumigatus and Co. immitis compensate for the loss of ChiB1p or Cts1p. Alternatively, these secreted enzymes may not have morphogenetic roles. Instead they may contribute to the digestion and utilization of exogenous chitin as a source of organic nutrients for energy and biosynthesis. The fungal/plant chitinases of Aspergillus species and Co. immitis (deduced molecular mass 8397 kDa; Takaya et al., 1998
; Reichard et al., 2000
; Jaques et al., 2003
) are much larger than enzymes of the fungal/bacterial class. Furthermore, each fungal/plant chitinase contains a serine/threonine-rich domain and a putative GPI anchor and cleavage site. The domains of the A. fumigatus fungal/plant chitinase ChiA1p are compared with those of ChiB1p, a fungal/bacterial chitinase from this organism, in Fig. 1
. Fungal/plant chitinases, GPI-anchored to the cell membrane or anchored to the cell wall by a GPI anchor remnant, may have roles during growth and morphogenesis. In support of a morphogenetic role for these enzymes, disruption of the gene encoding the A. nidulans fungal/plant chitinase, ChiA, led to a decrease in the frequency of spore germination and a lower hyphal growth rate (Takaya et al., 1998
). Fungal cell wall chitinases may also have roles during sporulation in filamentous fungi, as the specific chitinase inhibitors allosamidin or demethylallosamidin inhibited fragmentation of hyphae into arthroconidia (Yamanaka et al., 1994
; Sándor et al., 1998
).
|
Expression of the eng1 glucanase of Schiz. pombe is regulated by a zinc finger protein which shows significant similarity to S. cerevisiae Ace2p. Deletion of the gene encoding this regulatory protein led to a defect in cell separation that was more severe than that noted following eng1+ gene disruption (Martín-Cuadrado et al., 2003). Regulatory mechanisms in Schiz. pombe may therefore be similar to those found in S. cerevisiae, with an Ace2p-type regulator controlling expression of genes encoding hydrolases and other activities required for dissolution of the septum during cell division.
Other kinases besides Cbk1p have been implicated in the regulation of cell wall hydrolase activities in S. cerevisiae. A mutation in the gene encoding protein kinase C (Pkc1p) of S. cerevisiae led to a fragile, hypo-osmolarity-sensitive phenotype (Shimizu et al., 1994). The amount of alkali-, acid-insoluble glucan in the cell wall of the mutant was reduced to about 30 % of wild-type, while the level of the Bgl2p glucanase in the wall was two- to threefold higher than in wild-type cells. Disruption of the BGL2 gene in the PKC1 mutant did not rescue the hypo-osmolarity-sensitive phenotype, suggesting that the PKC1 kinase cascade regulates not only the expression of BGL2 but also that of other genes involved in the biosynthesis and metabolism of the cell wall.
Finally, the results of Jiang et al. (1995) suggest that the Pbs2p kinase and the Ptc1p phosphatase play opposing regulatory roles in a MAP kinase signal transduction pathway that modulates the expression of the Exg1p glucanase and the expression of other proteins with roles in cell wall glucan assembly.
Regulation of gene expression in filamentous fungi
During recent years, Cbk1p and related serine/threonine protein kinases have emerged as important regulators of cell morphogenesis and proliferation in a range of eukaryotes. For example, the COT1 gene of Neurospora crassa encodes a member of this group that is essential for growth (Yarden et al., 1992; Bidlingmaier et al., 2001
). Conditional, temperature-sensitive mutants of COT1 exhibit slow growth and excessive hyphal branching at the restrictive temperature. It is tempting to speculate that the phenotype of the cot-1 mutant may be attributable, at least in part, to lack of regulation of cell wall lysins by Cot1p. However, no link has been established, as yet, between regulatory kinases/phosphatases and the expression of lytic enzymes with roles during growth and morphogenesis in filamentous fungi.
Conclusions
The work summarized in this review indicates that S. cerevisiae, A. nidulans and A. fumigatus contain multiple glucanase/glucanosyltransferase-encoding genes. The results of gene disruption studies suggest that several of these enzymes have roles during cell separation in unicellular organisms, and the development of cell wall architecture in yeasts and filamentous fungi. This battery of enzymes presumably helps to facilitate the complex pattern of lysis, branching and cross-linking that involves the glucan layers of the fungal cell wall. In contrast, S. cerevisiae contains only two chitinase-encoding genes, CTS1 and CTS2 (Kuranda & Robbins, 1991; Giaver et al., 2002
). Furthermore, the dimorphic, opportunistic pathogen Ca. albicans appears to contain only four or five chitinase genes (http://www-sequence.stanford.edu/); interrogation of the Ca. albicans database, using the protein sequences of A. fumigatus ChiA1p and ChiB1p, and S. cerevisiae Cts1p, identified only the chitinase-encoding sequences already deposited in the GenBank database and one other putative fungal/bacterial chitinase. This suggests that only a small number of these hydrolases may be required for cell wall modification in organisms that exhibit budding yeast and/or filamentous growth patterns. Many of the multiple chitinase-encoding genes of A. fumigatus and other filamentous fungi may therefore encode secreted enzymes with nutritional roles rather than cell wall hydrolases with roles during growth and morphogenesis.
A number of distinct, non-catalytic regions have been identified in fungal cell wall hydrolases with apparent roles during growth and morphogenesis. These include serine/threonine-rich, GPI-anchoring and chitin-binding domains. However, these domains are not found in all of the apparent cell wall chitinases and glucanases characterized to date. For example, it appears that localization of the S. cerevisiae Gas1p and the A. fumigatus Gel1p endoglucanase/glucanosyltransferase activities, to a specific site in the fungal cell envelope, is dependent upon the expression of the C-terminal GPI-anchor domain of these proteins (Mouyna et al., 2000a). In contrast, the Cts1p chitinase of S. cerevisiae has no apparent GPI-anchor domain. Localization of this hydrolase to the division septum during cell separation appears to depend upon the expression of a chitin-binding domain (Kuranda & Robbins, 1991
). Several apparent fungal cell wall hydrolases contain a serine/threonine-rich domain located towards the C-terminus of the enzyme. This is a common feature of many yeast cell wall proteins, and the serine and threonine residues within the domain are frequently heavily O-mannosylated. This pattern of glycosylation is thought to confer an extended, rod-like configuration on proteins and, in the case of cell wall hydrolases, may ensure that the active site of the enzyme is projected towards the surface of the cell or elsewhere within the wall structure (for references, see Popolo & Vai, 1999
).
This short review has focused on hydrolases that cleave, and in some cases re-form, bonds in cell wall glucan or chitin. However, it should be stressed that during recent years, many novel linkages between cell wall components have been identified in yeasts and filamentous fungi (Cabib et al., 2001; Klis et al., 2002
). Neither the enzymes that introduce these linkages into the cell wall nor, for the most part, the hydrolases that may cleave these unique bonds have been identified (it appears that chitinase can cleave a
1,4 linkage between chitin and glucan; Kollar et al., 1995
). Clearly this is an important area for future research with regard to both our understanding of fungal growth and morphogenesis, and the exploitation of these highly specific enzymes as additional, novel targets for antifungal drugs and agricultural fungicides. During the last decade, our understanding of the regulation of glucanase and chitinase activities in yeasts has increased markedly. It is equally important that our knowledge of the regulators of cell wall hydrolases in yeasts and filamentous fungi should improve, as underlying regulatory mechanisms may themselves be exploitable in the design of novel drugs. Thus, disruption of regulators may lead to inappropriate or excessive expression of glucanase and/or chitinase activities in the wall, leading to cell lysis.
![]() |
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
---|
![]() |
REFERENCES |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Bernard, M. & Latgé, J.-P. (2001). Aspergillus fumigatus cell wall: composition and biosynthesis. Med Mycol 39, Supplement 1, 918.
Bidlingmaier, S., Weiss, E. L., Seidel, C., Drubin, D. G. & Snyder, M. (2001). The Cbk1p pathway is important for polarized cell growth and cell separation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell Biol 21, 24492462.
Bruneau, J.-M., Magnin, T., Tagat, E., Legrand, R., Bernard, M., Diaquin, M., Fudali, C. & Latgé, J.-P. (2001). Proteome analysis of Aspergillus fumigatus identifies glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins associated to the cell wall biosynthesis. Electrophoresis 22, 28122823.[CrossRef][Medline]
Cabib, E., Dong-Hyun, R., Schmidt, M., Crotti, L. B. & Varma, A. (2001). The yeast cell wall and septum as paradigms of cell growth and morphogenesis. J Biol Chem 276, 1967919682.
Cappellaro, C., Mrsa, V. & Tanner, W. (1998). New potential cell wall glucanases of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and their involvement in mating. J Bacteriol 180, 50305037.
Chet, I. & Inbar, J. (1994). Biological control of fungal pathogens. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 48, 3743.[Medline]
Cole, G. T. & Hung, C.-Y. (2001). The parasitic cell wall of Coccidioides immitis. Med Mycol 39, 3140.[Medline]
Colman-Lerner, A., Chin, T. E. & Brent, R. (2001). Yeast Cbk1 and Mob2 activate daughter-specific genetic programs to induce asymmetric cell fates. Cell 107, 739750.[Medline]
Delgado, N., Xue, J., Yu, J.-J., Hung, C.-Y. & Cole, G. T. (2003). A recombinant -1,3-glucanosyltransferase homolog of Coccidioides posadasii protects mice against coccidioidomycosis. Infect Immun 71, 30103019.
Dickinson, K., Keer, V., Hitchcock, C. A. & Adams, D. J. (1991). Microsomal chitinase activity from Candida albicans. Biochim Biophys Acta 1073, 177182.[Medline]
Dohrmann, P. R., Voth, W. P. & Stillman, D. J. (1996). Role of negative regulation in promoter specificity of the homologous transcriptional activators Ace2p and Swi5p. Mol Cell Biol 16, 17461758.[Abstract]
Doolin, M.-T., Johnson, A. L., Johnston, L. H. & Butler, G. (2001). Overlapping and distinct roles of the duplicated yeast transcription factors Ace2p and Swi5p. Mol Microbiol 40, 422432.[CrossRef][Medline]
Fontaine, T., Hartland, R. P., Diaquin, M., Simenel, C. & Latgé, J.-P. (1997). Differential patterns of activity displayed by two exo--1,3-glucanases associated with the Aspergillus fumigatus cell wall. J Bacteriol 179, 31543163.[Abstract]
Giaver, G., Chu, A. M., Ni, L. & 70 other authors (2002). Functional profiling of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome. Nature 418, 387391.[CrossRef][Medline]
Goldman, R. C., Sullivan, P. A., Zakula, D. & Capobianco, J. O. (1995). Kinetics of -1,3 glucan interaction at the donor and acceptor sites of the fungal glucosyltransferase encoded by the BGL2 gene. Eur J Biochem 227, 372378.[Abstract]
Gooday, G. W. (1995). Cell walls. In the Growing Fungus, pp. 4362. Edited by N. A. R. Gow & G. M. Gadd. London: Chapman & Hall.
Hamada, K., Fukuchi, S., Arisawa, M., Baba, M. & Kitada, K. (1998). Screening for glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-dependent cell wall proteins in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Gen Genet 258, 5359.[CrossRef][Medline]
Hearn, V. M., Escott, G. M., Evans, E. G. V. & Adams, D. J. (1996). Chitinases of the cell surface and wall of Aspergillus fumigatus. In Chitin Enzymology, vol. 2, pp. 261271. Edited by R. A. A. Muzzarelli. Grottammare: Atec Edizione.
Hung, C.-Y., Yu, J.-J., Lehmann, P. F. & Cole, G. T. (2001). Cloning and expression of the gene which encodes a tube precipitin antigen and wall-associated -glucosidase of Coccidioides immitis. Infect Immun 69, 22112222.
Iranzo, M., Aguado, C., Pallotti, C., Cañizares, J. V. & Mormeneo, S. (2002). The use of trypsin to solubilize wall proteins from Candida albicans led to the identification of chitinase 2 as an enzyme covalently linked to the yeast wall structure. Res Microbiol 153, 227232.[CrossRef][Medline]
Jaques, A. K., Fukamizo, T., Hall, D., Barton, R. C., Escott, G. M., Parkinson, T., Hitchcock, C. A. & Adams, D. J. (2003). Disruption of the gene encoding the ChiB1 chitinase of Aspergillus fumigatus and characterization of a recombinant gene product. Microbiology 149, 29312939.
Jiang, B., Ram, A. F. J., Sheraton, J., Klis, F. M. & Bussey, H. (1995). Regulation of cell wall -glucan assembly: PTC1 negatively affects PBS2 action in a pathway that includes modulation of EXG1 transcription. Mol Gen Genet 248, 260269.[Medline]
Kim, D. J., Baek, J. M., Uribe, P., Kenerley, C. M. & Cook, D. R. (2002). Cloning and characterization of multiple glycosyl hydrolase genes from Trichoderma virens. Curr Genet 40, 374384.[CrossRef][Medline]
King, L. & Butler, G. (1998). Ace2p, a regulator of CTS1 (chitinase) expression, affects pseudohyphal production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Curr Genet 34, 183191.[CrossRef][Medline]
Klebl, F. & Tanner, W. (1989). Molecular cloning of a cell wall exo--1,3-glucanase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Bacteriol 171, 62596264.[Medline]
Klis, F. M., Mol, P., Hellingwerf, K. & Brul, S. (2002). Dynamics of cell wall structure in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. FEMS Microbiol Rev 26, 239256.[CrossRef][Medline]
Kollar, R., Petrakova, E., Ashwell, G., Robbins, P. W. & Cabib, E. (1995). Architecture of the yeast cell wall. The linkage between chitin and (1-3)-glucan. J Biol Chem 270, 11701180.
Kuranda, M. J. & Robbins, P. W. (1991). Chitinase is required for cell separation during growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem 266, 1975819767.
Larriba, G., Andaluz, E., Cueva, R. & Basco, R. D. (1995). Molecular biology of yeast exoglucanases. FEMS Microbiol Lett 125, 121126.[CrossRef][Medline]
Martín-Cuadrado, A. B., Dueñas, E., Sipiczki, M., Vázquez de Aldana, C. R. & del Rey, F. (2003). The endo--1,3-glucanase eng1p is required for dissolution of the primary septum during cell separation in Schizosaccharomyces pombe. J Cell Sci 116, 16891698.
McCreath, K. J., Specht, C. A. & Robbins, P. W. (1995). Molecular cloning and characterization of chitinase genes from Candida albicans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 92, 25442548.[Abstract]
McCreath, K. J., Specht, C. A., Liu, Y. & Robbins, P. W. (1996). Molecular cloning of a third chitinase gene (CHT1) from Candida albicans. Yeast 12, 501504.[CrossRef][Medline]
McFadden, D. C. & Casadevall, A. (2001). Capsule and melanin synthesis in Cryptococcus neoformans. Med Mycol 39, Supplement 1, 1930.
Mellor, K. J., Nicholas, R. O. & Adams, D. J. (1994). Purification and characterization of chitinase from Candida albicans. FEMS Microbiol Lett 119, 111117.[CrossRef][Medline]
Mouassite, M., Camougrand, N., Schwob, E., Demaison, G., Laclau, M. & Guérin, M. (2000). The SUN family: yeast SUN4/SCW3 is involved in cell septation. Yeast 16, 905919.[CrossRef][Medline]
Mouyna, I., Hartland, R. P., Fontaine, T., Diaquin, M., Simenel, C., Delepierre, M., Henrissat, B. & Latgé, J.-P. (1998). A 1,3--glucanosyltransferase isolated from the cell wall of Aspergillus fumigatus is a homologue of the yeast Bgl2p. Microbiology 144, 31713180.[Abstract]
Mouyna, I., Fontaine, T., Vai, M., Monod, M., Fonzi, W. A., Diaquin, M., Popolo, L., Hartland, R. P. & Latgé, J.-P. (2000a). Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored glucanosyltransferases play an active role in the biosynthesis of the fungal cell wall. J Biol Chem 275, 1488214889.
Mouyna, I., Monod, M., Fontaine, T., Henrissat, B., Léchenne, B. & Latgé, J.-P. (2000b). Identification of the catalytic residues of the first family of (1-3)glucanosyltransferases identified in fungi. Biochem J 347, 741747.[CrossRef][Medline]
Mouyna, I., Sarfati, J., Recco, P., Fontaine, T., Henrissat, B. & Latgé, J.-P. (2002). Molecular characterization of a cell wall-associated (1-3)endoglucanase of Aspergillus fumigatus. Med Mycol 40, 455464.[Medline]
Mrsa, V., Klebl, F. & Tanner, W. (1993). Purification and characterization of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae BGL2 gene product, a cell wall endo--1,3-glucanase. J Bacteriol 175, 21022106.[Abstract]
O'Conalláin, C., Doolin, M.-T., Taggart, C., Thornton, F. & Butler, G. (1999). Regulated nuclear localisation of the yeast transcription factor Ace2p controls expression of chitinase (CTS1) in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Gen Genet 262, 275282.[CrossRef][Medline]
Odds, F. C., Brown, A. J. P. & Gow, N. A. R. (2003). Antifungal agents: mechanisms of action. Trends Microbiol 11, 272279.[CrossRef][Medline]
Popolo, L. & Vai, M. (1999). The Gas1 glycoprotein, a putative wall polymer cross-linker. Biochim Biophys Acta 1426, 385400.[Medline]
Pringle, J. R. (1991). Staining of bud scars and other cell wall chitin with calcofluor. Methods Enzymol 194, 732735.[Medline]
Racki, W. J., Bécam, A.-M., Nasr, F. & Herbert, C. J. (2000). Cbk1p, a protein similar to the human myotonic dystrophy kinase, is essential for normal morphogenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. EMBO J 19, 45244532.
Ragni, E., Carotti, C., Vai, M. & Popolo, L. (2003). Homologs of the GPI-anchored (1,3)-glucan transferase Gas1p of Saccharomyces cerevisiae have specific roles during sporulation. Abstract, 2nd International Conference on Molecular Mechanisms of Fungal Cell Wall Biogenesis, Salamanca, Spain.
Reichard, U., Hung, C.-Y., Thomas, P. W. & Cole, G. T. (2000). Disruption of the gene which encodes a serodiagnostic antigen and chitinase of the human fungal pathogen Coccidioides immitis. Infect Immun 68, 58305838.
Rodríguez-Peña, J. M., Cid, V. J., Arroyo, J. & Nombela, C. (2000). A novel family of cell wall-related proteins regulated differently during the yeast cell cycle. Mol Cell Biol 20, 32453255.
Sakuda, S., Nishimoto, Y., Ohi, M., Watanabe, M., Takayama, S., Isogai, A. & Yamada, Y. (1990). Effects of demethylallosamidin, a potent yeast chitinase inhibitor, on the cell division of yeast. Agric Biol Chem 54, 13331335.
Sándor, E., Pusztahelyi, T., Karaffa, L., Karányi, Z., Pócsi, I., Biró, S., Szentirmai, A. & Pócsi, I. (1998). Allosamidin inhibits the fragmentation of Acremonium chrysogenum but does not influence the cephalosporin-C production of the fungus. FEMS Microbiol Lett 164, 231236.[CrossRef][Medline]
Shimizu, J., Yoda, K. & Yamasaki, M. (1994). The hypo-osmolarity-sensitive phenotype of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae hpo2 mutant is due to a mutation in PKC1, which regulates expression of -glucanase. Mol Gen Genet 242, 641648.[Medline]
Smits, G. J., van den Ende, H. & Klis, F. M. (2001). Differential regulation of cell wall biogenesis during growth and development in yeast. Microbiology 147, 781794.
Takaya, N., Yamazaki, D., Horiuchi, H., Ohta, A. & Takagi, M. (1998). Cloning and characterization of a chitinase-encoding gene (chiA) from Aspergillus nidulans, disruption of which decreases germination frequency and hyphal growth. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 62, 6065.[Medline]
Vázquez de Aldana, C. R., Martín-Cuadrado, A. B., Dueñas, E., Sipiczki, M., Esteban, P. F., Fontaine, T., Latgé, J. P. & del Rey, F. (2003). Role of family 81 endo--1,3-glucanases (GFH81) in cell separation. Abstract, 2nd International Conference on Molecular Mechanisms of Fungal Cell Wall Biogenesis, Salamanca, Spain.
Weiss, E. L., Kurischko, C., Zhang, C., Shokat, K., Drubin, D. G. & Luca, F. C. (2002). The Saccharomyces cerevisiae Mob2p-Cbk1p kinase complex promotes polarized growth and acts with the mitotic exit network to facilitate daughter cell-specific localization of Ace2p transcription factor. J Cell Biol 158, 885900.
Yamanaka, S., Tsuyoshi, N., Kikuchi, R., Takayama, S., Sakuda, S. & Yamada, Y. (1994). Effect of demethylallosamidin, a chitinase inhibitor, on morphology of fungus Geotrichum candidum. J Gen Appl Microbiol 40, 171174.
Yarden, O., Plamann, M., Ebbole, D. J. & Yanofsky, C. (1992). cot-1, a gene required for hyphal elongation in Neurospora crassa, encodes a protein kinase. EMBO J 11, 21592166.[Abstract]