School of Biosciences, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
Correspondence
Jon L. Hobman
J.L.Hobman{at}bham.ac.uk
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ABSTRACT |
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Present address: BBSRC, Polaris House, North Star Avenue, Swindon SN2 1VH, UK.
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INTRODUCTION |
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The production of these radicals leads to damage to lipids, proteins, DNA and other molecules (Harrison et al., 2000). Copper tolerance is conferred by two genetic systems encoded on the Escherichia coli chromosome, the Cu-sensing (cus) locus (Munson et al., 2000
) and the Cu-efflux (cue) regulon (Outten et al., 2000
; Rensing et al., 1999
). The cus locus contains cusRS, encoding a copper-responsive two-component system that responds to an increase in periplasmic copper concentration. The sensorregulator pair is responsible for activating the expression of the cusCFBA genes, which encode a copper-efflux protein complex (Munson et al., 2000
; Franke et al., 2003
). CueR, a copper-activated MerR homologue, regulates the Cu-efflux (cue) system. CueR senses cytoplasmic copper concentrations, and activates transcription of at least two promoters, PcopA and PcueO (Outten et al., 2000
; Peterson & Moller, 2000
; Stoyanov et al., 2001
), in response to increasing copper stress. CopA is a Cu(I)-translocating P-type ATPase, which is the principal copper-efflux ATPase in E. coli, and CueO is a periplasmic multicopper oxidase, which is essential for full copper tolerance (Outten et al., 2000
) and has been shown to oxidize enterobactin (Grass et al., 2004
) and Cu(I) (Singh et al., 2004
).
The cus and cue systems in E. coli both have the ability to confer copper tolerance, but have differing expression profiles. The cue regulon is expressed at basal levels under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions, as is the cus locus, yet at near-lethal copper concentrations the cue regulon is expressed at reduced levels (Outten et al., 2001). Under aerobic conditions, the cue system is activated to confer copper tolerance at moderate and high copper concentrations, whilst the cus locus is only activated at near-lethal copper concentrations (Outten et al., 2001
). The cus locus plays an important role in protection against copper stress under anaerobic conditions. During anaerobic growth, the oxidizing power of the periplasmic compartment is decreased. This decrease, coupled with the loss of activity of oxygen-dependent CueO, leads to an increase in the periplasmic Cu(I) concentration, which is proposed to trigger the expression of the cus locus at lower external copper concentrations under anaerobic conditions (Outten et al., 2001
).
Although the mechanisms of copper export in E. coli have been elucidated, as yet there is no known copper import mechanism, and previous attempts to define the nature of the import process have been inconclusive (Cotter & Trevors, 1988; C. Doering-Saad & N. L. Brown, unpublished).
Here, we describe the total expression profile of E. coli K-12 MG1655 (CGSC 7740) grown in defined minimal medium at both 750 µM and 2 mM added copper, compared to the expression profile of the cells with no added copper. We show that both the cue and cus regulons are expressed at copper concentrations optimized for growth of E. coli MG1655 in defined medium. We also demonstrate differential expression of other genes in response to secondary effects, such as oxidative stress, caused by elevated copper concentrations.
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METHODS |
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Growth experiments in DMA were performed in triplicate. A 5 µl inoculum from a stationary-phase culture, grown in DMA without copper supplementation, was added to 5 ml growth medium in a sterile plastic universal bottle. These cultures were grown for 10 h at 37 °C with shaking at 150 r.p.m.; 300 µl samples were withdrawn at 2 h intervals and the OD595 was measured in a 96-well plate using a Labsystems Multiskan MS plate reader. LuriaBertani Medium (LB) (Sambrook et al., 1989) was used when creating electrocompetent cells.
RNA isolation and quantification.
Pool RNA was isolated from five independently grown 50 ml DMA cultures of E. coli K-12 MG1655. Test RNA was isolated from three independently grown 50 ml DMA cultures of E. coli K-12 MG1655, for each growth condition (no added CuSO4, or supplemented with either 750 µM or 2 mM copper, buffered with 3 mM or 8 mM glycine, respectively). A separate control experiment was performed with glycine supplementation equivalent to that used for the copper-glycine conditions (no added glycine, or supplemented with 3 mM or 8 mM glycine). A sample of each culture was taken at the mid- to late-exponential growth phase at OD600 0·8 (measured using a Pharmacia Biotech Ultrospec 2000 in a cuvette with a path length of 10 mm). RNA was isolated using the Qiagen RNAprotect, RNeasy Mini Kit and RNase-free DNase sets according to the manufacturer's instructions. The total RNA isolated from the cultures was quantified using an Agilent Bioanalyser 2100 RNA NanoLabchip, where the quality of the RNA was indicated from the ratio of absorbance of 23S to 16S rRNA, which was between 1·6 and 2.
Oligonucleotide microarray construction and transcriptomic experiments.
The Operon Array Ready E. coli 1.0 microarray oligonucleotide set (Qiagen-Operon) was printed and treated as described by Zhang et al. (2004) and Zheng et al. (2004)
. For each experiment, 20 µg total RNA was converted to Cy3- and Cy5-labelled cDNA using the CyScribe Post-Labelling Kit (Amersham Biosciences/GE Healthcare) according to manufacturer's instructions. Amino-allyl-labelled nucleotides were incorporated into the cDNA by reverse transcription of the total RNA, followed by a direct chemical coupling of Cy3 and Cy5 NHS-dye esters to the amino-allyl-labelled cDNAs. Prehybridization of the array slides was performed for 4 h in filtered prehybridization solution [25 % formamide, 5x SSC, 10 mg l1 BSA (fraction V), 0·1 % SDS] at 42 °C. Slides were briefly washed in ethanol and dried by centrifugation at 1000 g for 5 min. Hybridization of the probe was performed using hybridization solution (25 % formamide, 5x SSC, 0·1 % SDS, 0·1 µg poly(A) ml1, 1x Denhardt's solution and 80 pmol Cy3 and Cy5 combined probe). The hybridization solution containing the Cy-Dye-labelled cDNA was heated to 95 °C for 3 min, Lifter slips (Erie Scientific) were placed on the array slides and the hybridization solution was applied between the Lifter slip and the array slide. The slides were incubated overnight at 42 °C in the dark in a Corning hybridization chamber (Corning Scientific).
After hybridization, slides were washed in wash buffer I (2x SSC/0·1 % SDS) for 2 min at 42 °C, in wash buffer II (0·2x SSC) for 2 min at room temperature and then twice in wash buffer III (0·05x SSC) for 2 min at room temperature. All washes were done with vigorous shaking of the microarray slides. The slides were dried by centrifugation at 1000 g for 5 min, and then analysed using an Axon Genepix 4000A microarray scanner, and Genepix 3.0 software (Axon Scientific).
Semi-quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase PCR.
Real-time PCR (Heid et al., 1996) was performed on 1 ng cDNA template, using SYBR Green master mix (Applied Biosystems) to which primers were added to a final concentration of 50 nM. The cDNA template was produced using Superscript II RNaseH reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen) from the RNA samples used in the DNA microarray experiment. Primers used were designed using Primer Express software supplied with the ABI PRISM 7000 (Applied Biosystems). The primer pairs were as follows. For copA: forward (F), 5'-CAAGCCAGAAATCGGTCAGC-3'; reverse (R), 5'-CAAAGAAATACCAGATTGCCGC-3'. For cueO: F, 5'-TCGCTCACCTTCACTGGTTCAG-3'; R, 5'-TGTAATGCCCGTTCGCTCAA-3'. For cusF: F, 5'-ATGAAACCATGAGCGAAGCACA-3'; R, 5'-CGGATCGTGATGGATGGTGAT-3'. For znuA: F, 5'-TCGCTTCGCTTAAACCCGTT-3'; R, 5'-ATAATCATGTTCTGAAGCGCCG-3'. The melting temperatures of the primers were designed to be 60±1 °C and the amplicon was designed to be 101 bp.
Construction of mutant strains.
Deletion mutations were made in E. coli MG1655 CGSC 7740 as described by Datsenko & Wanner (2000). All mutants were produced by replacing the gene of interest with a copy of the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (cat) gene amplified from the plasmid pKD3 using the following primers. For copA: F, 5'-TTAAACGCGTGAAAGAAAGTCTTGAACAGCGTCCGGATGTTGAGCATGTAGGCTGGAGCTGCTTCG-3'; R, 5'-GCAGCAACCGGTTGGCGTTACTCACTACGGTAATCGACGAGAGCGCCATTGCATATGAATATCCTCCTTAGT-3'. For cusOP: F, 5'-TTAAGCGGGTAATGTGATAACAAACCTTGTCCCCCGCGCATCCGACGTTATGTAGGCTGGAGCTGCTTCG-3'; R, 5'-ATGTCGGTGCAGCCACATCAGCTTATACGCCGCCGGGATAATAAACAGCGATATGAATATCCTCCTTAGT-3'. For soxS: F 5'-GTCCCATCAGAAAATTATTCAGGATCTTATCGCATGGATTGACGAGCATATGAATATCCTCCTTAGT-3'; R, 5'-TTACAGGCGGTGGCGATAATCGCTGGGAGTGCGATCAAACTGTGTAGGCTGGAGCTGCTTCG-3'. PCR products were made using the Reddy Mix 1.1x PCR master mix (Abgene). Colony PCR using primers flanking each gene that was being replaced, and DIG-labelled cat gene (Roche) Southern blotting, were used to confirm the mutants.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION |
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The data generated by the DNA microarray experiments were analysed using Genespring version 6.1 software (Silicon Genetics). The normalizations performed included Lowess per spot normalization, used to adjust for intensity, biases, and normalization against the pooled RNA sample. ORFs were filtered on expression level (removing genes whose expression failed to alter more than twofold), error (normalized signal intensity from oligonucleotides on the array with a standard deviation from the mean of greater than one were removed), and confidence [using Student's t-test with the multiple test correction BenjaminiHochberg false discovery rate (Benjamini & Hochberg, 1995) and one-way ANOVA]. All statistical analyses were performed using the Genespring Cross Gene error model. In total, 340 reading frames passed the filtering with a P value less than 0·05. Of the 340 genes with a P value less than 0·05, 70 currently have no known function. The majority of the other genes identified could be grouped into operons and regulons. These microarray data, including the glycine response experiment, are deposited in the NCBI GEO database with the accession number GSE1780.
Copper homeostasis genes
At 750 µM copper-glycine, the optimal copper concentration for growth under the conditions tested (50 ml DMA in a 250 ml conical flask at 37 °C with shaking), both cue- and cus-regulated copper-efflux mechanisms were expressed (Table 1). The expression of the P-type ATPase transporter gene copA and of cusF (the gene encoding the periplasmic copper-binding protein of the cus operon) increased with increasing copper-glycine concentration. Not all cus genes passed the stringent statistical analysis applied to the microarray data, although these genes were observed as increasing in expression in the initial raw data. These data confirm previous studies (Outten et al., 2001
) showing that both cusC and copA were expressed at maximal levels under aerobic conditions, in media containing 500 µM copper sulphate. The microarray data described here also show that the expression of copA was 2·5 times greater than cusF at 750 µM copper-glycine, yet only 1·1 times greater than cusF at 2 mM copper-glycine, suggesting that the cus system is expressed when the cue system cannot control the cellular copper levels effectively. These data agree with previously published work (Outten et al., 2001
) which showed low-level, constitutive copA expression in the absence of copper and, as the copper concentration increased from 1 µM to 1 mM, copA expression increased 12-fold. In contrast, the cus system was not induced until the external copper concentration increased to 100 µM, with expression of cusC increasing 800-fold over its expression level in the absence of added copper (Outten et al., 2001
).
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Although the regulatory effects of OmpREnvZ (an osmolarity response sensorregulator) upon the csg operon were not apparent, the influence of OmpREnvZ upon expression of other ORFs was observed. The influence of copper on OmpREnvZ resulted in an increase in ompC expression with increased copper, and OmpR regulation may explain the transcription profile of the flagella biosynthetic operon. The expression of flhC and flhD, genes encoding the transcriptional activators of the flagellar regulon (Liu & Matsumura, 1994), are affected by two of the transcriptional regulators, H-NS (Bertin et al., 1994
) and OmpR-EnvZ (Shin & Park, 1995
), whose regulatory effect was suggested by our data. Previous studies have shown that a mutation in hns resulted in a complete lack of flagella (Bertin et al., 1994
). Although the expression of flhC and flhD did not alter in response to copper, their regulatory effects can be seen in the expression of genes known to be influenced by these two proteins (Table 3
). Therefore we predict that at 750 µM copper-glycine flhC and flhD are expressed, possibly through H-NS, and, at the higher copper concentration of 2 mM, OmpR competes with H-NS for the promoter region upstream of flhD, and represses the expression of flhD and flhC, therefore reducing the expression of the flagella biosynthetic operon. Other genes whose regulation is also known to be influenced by H-NS were present within the final gene list (Table 4
).
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Superoxide-response genes
A secondary effect of excess copper is oxygen radical production caused by the redox cycling of Cu(I) to Cu(II). Previous work (Kimura & Nishioka, 1997) has shown that the addition of CuSO4 to the growth medium causes superoxide-induced redox stress in E. coli, which was confirmed by our microarray data. Superoxide stress is sensed by the SoxR protein, which, when activated, functions as a potent activator of soxS transcription.
Our data show that the transcription of members of the SoxRS regulon also increased in response to 2 mM copper-glycine (Table 1). The regulatory effects of SoxS could be seen by an increase in expression of fldA, encoding flavodoxin 1, fur (Zheng et al., 1999
), encoding an iron regulator, and zwf (Fawcett & Wolf, 1995
), encoding glucose-6-phosphate-1-dehydrogenase, all of which occurred in response to 2 mM copper-glycine. Other members of the SoxRS regulon were not present in the final gene list, due to the stringent statistical analysis applied to the raw data. However, the raw data of SoxRS-regulated genes appeared to correlate with previous data, with 13 of the 22 known SoxRS-regulated genes increasing in response to 2 mM copper glycine.
Copper and iron-regulated gene expression
The expression of the iron regulator gene, fur, is also known to be induced by SoxS (Zheng et al., 1999) and fur expression increased in response to 2 mM copper-glycine (Table 5
). However, the regulatory effects of Fur were not as clear as those for SoxS or CpxRA in our microarray data (Table 5
). It is known that the ferric-uptake regulator, Fur, represses the expression of various genes in response to an increase in ferric iron (McHugh et al., 2003
). Our data show that expression of fur increased at 2 mM copper-glycine compared to 750 µM copper-glycine, and no added copper. The increase in Fur concentration in the cell may have caused the observed decrease in expression of cheZ, cydA, cyoBC, nikC, nuoAM and ycdO, all of which are known to be directly regulated by Fur.
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The suf operon, represented by sufA and sufD in our microarray data, is also regulated by Fur and is involved in ironsulphur cluster formation (Table 5). As fur increased in expression in response to 2 mM copper, the same response profile would be expected by the Fur-regulated genes, sufA and sufD. However, our data showed that the transcription of these two genes increased greatly in response to 2 mM copper, which is the opposite of the anticipated result. This increase in expression may have been due to the increase in superoxide stress caused by the redox cycling between Cu(I) and Cu(II); the cysteine desulfurase, SufS, is required under oxidative stress for the activity of proteins containing labile ironsulphur clusters (Nachin et al., 2003
). It has been suggested that copper and iron homeostasis may be linked in yeast, where iron import is linked to copper homeostasis (Gross et al., 2000
; Roberts et al., 2002
), and our data indicated that this may also be the case in E. coli.
Copper and zinc homeostasis
The expression of another metal-responsive operon, znuABC, decreased in response to increasing copper concentrations in the microarray experiments (data not shown). znuABC encodes a zinc ABC transporter which imports zinc into E. coli (Patzer & Hantke, 1998). The decreased expression of this operon in response to excess copper may be due to cross-talk with the zinc-sensing systems, as copper may out-compete zinc for the metal-binding site of Zur, the negative zinc regulator shown to represses the expression of znuB and znuC (Patzer & Hantke, 2000
). Alternatively, under limiting copper concentrations ZnuABC may act as a copper-import system by the non-specific import of copper in tandem with zinc import. A specific copper-uptake system has not been identified in E. coli (C. Doering-Saad & N. L. Brown, unpublished).
Real-time PCR of selected ORFs
The microarray data showed that in E. coli, there were different whole-genome transcriptional profiles in response to the three different experimental copper concentrations. Real-time PCR was performed on the cheA, copA, cusF, entC and znuA reading frames (Fig. 3), representing each of the different types of response profile detected, in order to check the DNA microarray data. The real-time PCR expression profiles of these genes confirmed the data from the DNA microarray experiment, in that they showed the same response profile.
The cueO gene is known to be regulated by CueR but was not one of the genes induced by increased external Cu(II) exposure of E. coli in the microarray experiment. Real-time PCR was performed on this gene, which showed that cueO and copA have similar expression profiles, as expected from their regulation by CueR. The increase in expression of cueO in response to an increase in copper concentration seen in real-time PCR supports previous findings, which suggest a role for CueO in enterobactin oxidation (Grass et al., 2004). The microarray data did not show induction of cueO, because the raw data for this gene failed to pass the stringent statistical analysis applied to the array data.
Growth of mutants in DMA supplemented with copper-glycine
To further validate the microarray data, mutations were made in E. coli MG1655, in which copA, genes from the cus operon and soxS were replaced with a cat gene cassette. The growth of each of these gene-replacement strains in 5 ml DMA supplemented with no added copper, or with 750 µM or 2 mM copper-glycine, was investigated (Fig. 4). The copA : : cat strain failed to grow at both 750 µM and 2 mM copper-glycine, indicating that the interpretation of the microarray data was correct. The drastic growth effect of a deletion of copA at both 750 µM and 2 mM copper-glycine can be explained by the pivotal role of this gene in the protection of the cytoplasmic compartment from copper toxicity. Similarly the soxS : : cat strain failed to grow at 2 mM copper-glycine, although this strain showed the same growth phenotype as the parental strain when exposed to 750 µM copper. This suggests that, if both the cus and cue systems are functional, then the intracellular level of copper, and hence copper-induced superoxide stress, is limited to concentrations that the cell can tolerate when no superoxide dismutases and other SoxS regulon genes are expressed. At both 750 µM and 2 mM copper, the cusRSCFBA : : cat strain had a similar growth profile to the parental strain. This is probably due to the cue system being the primary determinant of copper tolerance in aerobic growth, which would mask the effect of disruption of the cus operon.
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Concluding remarks
This study, which is believed to represent the first total genome expression profile of E. coli at three different copper concentrations, shows that excess copper leads to transcriptional responses of genes relating to direct copper export, CpxRA-regulated response to protein misfolding or envelope stress, and superoxide stress. Our data also suggest that cellular responses to copper stress within E. coli are linked with other metal ion import regulons, specifically those involved in iron and zinc homeostasis. Iron, copper and zinc are three biologically important metal ions required for growth. However, all three are toxic in excess and must be precisely controlled. Our data indicate that there is cross-talk between the homeostatic mechanisms for these three metal ions. This may be in order to reduce competition between these ions for essential metal-binding sites in proteins or may be due to lack of complete discrimination. The benefit of absolute discrimination between these metals may be too expensive metabolically. Furthermore, co-homeostasis may provide a mode of import for copper ions, as no candidate specific copper-uptake system has been identified in our microarray data or in proteomics data (C. Doering-Saad & N. L. Brown, unpublished). The possibility that copper import may occur non-specifically through the zinc ABC transport system (ZnuABC) requires further investigation.
These transcriptional data show the expression profile of E. coli in response to limiting, optimal and excess copper concentrations. The experimental design was such that the limiting and excess copper concentrations were determined by an alteration in the growth rate of E. coli, and this will inevitably have an effect upon the transcriptional data. However, these alterations in growth rate are a direct result of limiting and excess copper concentrations, and the transcriptional data rightly reflect this as a response to growth under these conditions. This alteration in growth rate could also affect oxygen transfer rates and other growth parameters, which may be reflected in the gene expression data.
This study has shown that continuous exposure to an increased extracellular concentration of one metal ion results in altered expression of other metal-homeostatic genes. Investigation of the transcriptional response to excess concentrations of other metal ions may also result in similar perturbations; future investigations into the homeostatic control of a single essential metal ion in isolation should take this into consideration.
The effect of adaptation of the transcriptome to near-toxic and insufficient copper concentrations has led to the identification of many ORFs whose functions are as yet unknown. Further gene-disruption studies and subsequent microarray analysis and other molecular biological approaches need to be performed to assign functions to these genes and to determine whether they have primary or secondary roles in the copper response.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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Received 23 September 2004;
revised 8 December 2004;
accepted 22 December 2004.
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