Institute of Medicine1 and School of Medical Technology2, Chung Shan Medical and Dental College, Taichung, Taiwan, ROC
Author for correspondence: Mingli Hsieh. Tel: +886 4 3896190 ext. 50617. Fax: +886 4 3892412. e-mail: mingli{at}mercury.csmc.edu.tw
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ABSTRACT |
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Keywords: sigma 54, site-specific mutagenesis, hydrophobic heptad repeat, enhancer-dependent transcription, core-binding activity
Abbreviations: DMS, dimethyl sulfate
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INTRODUCTION |
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The Escherichia coli sigma 54 protein contains motifs reminiscent of those involved in eukaryotic enhancer-dependent transcription (Sasse-Dwight & Gralla, 1990 ). These include two hydrophobic heptad repeats, a very acidic region and a glutamine-rich region (Sasse-Dwight & Gralla, 1990
and see Fig. 1
). The potential roles of these regions have been investigated by assaying mutant forms of sigma 54. Previous studies of a variety of point-mutated sigma 54 proteins acting at the glnAp2 promoter have suggested roles for the acidic residues, glutamine residues, leucine-rich motif, hydrophobic-acidic region and C-terminal domain (Sasse-Dwight & Gralla, 1990
; Hsieh & Gralla, 1994
; Hsieh et al., 1994
; Tintut et al., 1994
; Tintut & Gralla, 1995
; Wong et al., 1994
; Guo & Gralla, 1997
; Syed & Gralla, 1998
). Recognition of the -24 region appears to be dominant in terms of DNA-binding affinity (Sasse-Dwight & Gralla, 1990
; Wong et al., 1994
; Cannon et al., 1995a
) and the specific DNA-binding domain was localized to the C-terminus of sigma 54 (Sasse-Dwight & Gralla, 1990
; Guo & Gralla, 1997
). However, because there are two promoter elements recognized and covered by sigma 54 (Cannon et al., 1995a
), DNA-binding by sigma 54 appears to be complex and the interaction between sigma 54 and DNA is also modulated by core RNA polymerase (Morris et al., 1994
; Cannon et al., 1993
, 1995b
). It is known that mutations in various regions of sigma 54 reduce DNA-binding affinity and lead to a loss of protection of the -12 promoter region, although they do not abolish DNA binding at the -24 promoter element (Hsieh & Gralla, 1994
; Sasse-Dwight & Gralla, 1990
; Wong et al., 1994
). At least five discrete sequences associated with DNA binding have been identified (Taylor et al., 1996
; Guo & Gralla, 1997
). It has been noted that mutations far outside the C-terminal DNA-binding domain influence DNA binding, suggesting that intramolecular communication between domains occurs (Sasse-Dwight & Gralla, 1990
; Merrick & Chambers, 1992
; Wong et al., 1994
; Cannon et al., 1995a
, 1997
). It was suggested that sigma 54 function is concerted by core RNA polymerase, which directs intramolecular communication within it (Sasse-Dwight & Gralla, 1990
). However, little is known about intramolecular interactions within sigma 54 or how such interactions might contribute to activity.
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It was speculated that because of the very low frequency of hydrophobic residues in the sigma 70 core-binding region, it is likely that these residues are related to a sigma-54-specific function (Tintut & Gralla, 1995 ). We aimed to determine whether sigma-54-specific functions are indeed associated with the hydrophobic residues in Region III. We performed site-directed mutagenesis to create specific single and double mutants in the leucines or isoleucines of the hydrophobic residues in the heptad repeat.
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METHODS |
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Plating test.
Plasmids containing each of the mutant or wild-type sigma 54 proteins were transformed into strain YMC109tk and the transformed cells were screened for growth on W-arg/X-Gal plates for further comparison. W-arg/X-Gal plates were prepared as described by Hsieh et al. (1994) ; Reitzer & Magasanik (1986)
; and Smith et al. (1971)
and contained 0·01 mg arginine ml-1 and 40 µg X-Gal ml-1, where arginine was the only nitrogen source. YMC109tk cells contain two copies of the sigma-54-dependent glnAp2 promoter. One directs transcription of the glutamine synthetase gene, required for growth on minimal (W-arg) plates where arginine is the sole nitrogen source; the other is fused to the ß-galatosidase gene in order to indicate glnAp2 expression via a blue colour on X-Gal plates. The incubation conditions were as described previously (Hsieh et al., 1994
).
In vivo dimethyl sulfate (DMS) footprinting, potassium permanganate probing and mRNA analysis.
These three assays were all done in identical media (G-gln) containing IPTG (Hsieh et al., 1994 ). YMC109tk cells bearing the desired substitution plasmids were grown in G-gln media and induced with IPTG as described previously (Hsieh et al., 1994
). The procedures for footprinting were as described by Hsieh & Gralla (1994)
. For RNA analysis following IPTG induction, 5 ml cells at an OD600 of ~0·70·8 were spun down and resuspended in 350 µl SA (0·15 M sucrose, 0·01 M sodium acetate), then lysed in 2% SDS/SA solution at 65 °C for 1 min. Sequentially, 60 µl 2 M sodium acetate pH 4, 0·5 ml phenol and 100 µl chloroform/isoamyl alcohol (24:1) were added and the mixture shaken for 10 s, then cooled on ice for 15 min. Samples were treated as described previously (Hsieh et al., 1994
). The glnD primer was also used for RNA primer extension. A Bla-1 primer which hybridized to the ß-lactamase gene was included as an internal control. The samples were resolved on 6% DNA sequencing gels.
Gel mobility shift assay.
Ten milliliters of cells harbouring pTH7 were grown in LB medium supplemented with antibiotics and the crude cell extract was prepared as described by Tintut et al. (1994) . A biotin-labelled 55 bp fragment carrying the sequence from -45 to +10 of the Rhizobium meliloti nifH promoter (Sundaresan et al., 1983
) was used as a probe. Briefly, two 5'-biotin labelled 37-bp-long oligomers with 19 overlapping bases were hybridized and the ends of the duplex were filled with Klenow DNA polymerase. Protein concentrations of the crude extract were determined with the Bio-Rad Bradford protein assay. Equal amounts of crude cell extracts containing different mutant forms of sigma 54 were incubated with binding buffer supplemented with 0·01 µg poly(dI.dC) ml-1, 1 mM ATP and 3·5% (w/v) polyethylene glycol (PEG) at 30 °C for 15 min. Biotin-labelled probe (3 pmol) was then added and the samples were loaded onto a 5% native polyacrylamide gel. Electrophoresis was carried out as described by Tintut et al. (1994)
and the gel was then transferred to a nitrocellulose filter. The filter was then blotted by use of streptavidin/horseradish peroxidase and the signals were detected using SuperSignal Substrate (Pierce) according to the manufacturers manual.
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RESULTS |
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Plating test on W-arg/X-Gal plates
YMC109tk contains a glnAp2lacZ fusion, and this allows a plate assay for function of the glnAp2 promoter via formation of a blue colour on X-Gal plates (Hsieh & Gralla, 1994 ). Cells lacking a transformed functional sigma 54 protein do not grow when streaked onto agar plates containing arginine as the only nitrogen source. Colony colours of cells transformed with all the single mutants in the heptad repeat of Region III were indistinguishable from that of cells transformed with wild-type sigma 54. However, the double mutants showed a light blue colony colouration, indicating lower levels of sigma-54-dependent glnAp2 expression. Colonies of the two triple mutants showed white or no growth, which is consistent with previous reports (Tintut et al., 1994
).
mRNA production assayed by primer extension
All the mutants were assayed for glnAp2 mRNA formation in media containing glutamine (G-gln media). Growth in this medium is strongly inducing for glnAp2 expression, but sigma 54 is not required for growth (Hsieh et al., 1994 ). This allows mRNA levels to be measured for all mutants. Primer extension experiments were performed using a glnD probe hybridized to glnAp2 transcript together with an internal control Bla-1 probe, which hybridized to the ß-lactamase gene, transcribed by sigma 70 holoenzymes (Wong et al., 1994
). The levels of glnAp2 transcript were normalized to that of ß-lactamase and the results are summarized in Table 1
. The mutants with single substitutions in the heptad repeat (lanes 2, 3 and 4 in Fig. 2
) produced between 70% and 100% of wild-type sigma 54 (lane 1) transcript levels. In addition, consistent with the plating test, the double mutants showed only about 3040% of wild-type transcript levels (lanes 57). Our results also confirmed that the triple mutants LHS-3 and RHS-3 produced 20% or less than 10%, respectively, of wild-type transcript (lanes 8 and 9 and Tintut et al., 1994
). Thus, multiple hydrophobic residue substitutions lead to significant changes in the ability of the sigma 54 polymerase to produce mRNA from the glnAp2 promoter.
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The collated data in Table 2 show that two triple mutants (LHS-3, RHS-3) that were most defective in mRNA production were also the most defective in open complex formation. The behaviour of single mutants IS165, IS172 and LS 179 with regard to DNA melting (lanes 3 and 4 of Fig. 3
and data not shown) was similar to that of wild-type sigma 54 (lane 2). This observation is consistent with their effect on mRNA production. However, the three double mutants LS158/165, IS165/172 and IS172/179 showed a tendency to retain open complex formation ability despite the lowering of mRNA levels (lanes 68). Because the triple mutants LHS-3 and RHS-3 do block open complex formation (lanes 9 and 10), we concluded that it is necessary to change more than two hydrophobic residues to interfere significantly with the ability to form an open complex.
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One hundred percent promoter occupancy is considered to be the difference in signal between no sigma 54 (lane 1 in Fig. 4) and wild-type sigma 54 (lane 2). The extent of promoter occupancy is indicated by the reduced intensity of the bands near -24 and -12 compared to the -19 reference band. The significant protection of -24 compared with -19 in all hydrophobic mutant samples confirms that the mutant forms of sigma 54 in the hydrophobic region of Region III are stable enough to provide a substantial level of occupancy of the promoter. It confirms previous studies that this region does not play a significant role in -24 protection (Sasse-Dwight & Gralla, 1990
).
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In vitro RNA polymerase binding assays with cell extracts
The altered transcription site opening, mRNA production and loss of the -12 promoter recognition directed by some of the mutant forms of sigma 54 could be due to altered core-binding ability of the mutant sigma 54 polymerase. Therefore, we performed in vitro RNA polymerase binding assays to analyse different mutant forms of sigma 54. We adapted the gel mobility shift assay to use crude extracts to determine the interaction of the sigma 54 mutants with core RNA polymerase (Tintut et al., 1994 ). Soluble extracts from cells expressing the mutant forms of sigma 54 were incubated with the 5'-biotin-labelled R. meliloti nifH promoter probe. The resulting proteinprobe complexes were then resolved on a 5% native polyacrylamide gel (Fig. 5
). When sigma 54 was completely absent (host cells alone without sigma 54 expression), neither holoenzyme nor sigma 54 binding was observed (lane 1). The loss of one hydrophobic residue in Region III caused no detectable loss of core-binding ability when compared to that of wild-type sigma 54 (lanes 3 and 4 compared to lane 2). However, the loss of two hydrophobic residues in the hydrophobic heptad repeat led to a significant loss of holoenzyme formation (lanes 57 compared to lanes 24). Triple mutants LHS-3 and RHS-3 showed severe defects in the ability to produce a band corresponding to holoenzyme binding but retained the ability of free mutant sigma 54 to bind probe (lanes 8 and 9). The increased intensity of the core band in lanes 8 and 9 may be due to the relative abundance of free core polymerase, consistent with earlier reports (Tintut et al., 1994
). It was noted that all the mutant proteins could bind and shift similar amounts of the promoter fragment without core RNA polymerase (Fig. 5
), suggesting that the levels of expression of all the substitution mutant proteins were comparable. This finding also indicated that the decreased holoenzyme formation accompanying progressive loss of hydrophobicity is not due to protein instability.
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DISCUSSION |
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When DNA binding, core-binding ability, -12 promoter recognition and DNA opening were assayed in the mutants, it was core-binding ability and -12 promoter recognition that showed a gradual change, whilst recognition at the -24 element remained intact. It has been reported that the domain responsible for enhancing and mediating DNA-binding activity is distinct from the core-RNA-polymerase-binding domain (Cannon et al., 1997 ). Our results are consistent with this model and provide evidence that the mutant forms of sigma 54 altered in the core-binding domain do not influence DNA binding in the -24 promoter region. Our results further supported the earlier suggestion that sigma 54 is responsible for most of the close contacts detected between sigma 54 holoenzyme and promoter DNA (Buck & Cannon, 1992
; Cannon et al., 1995a
). However, the formation of an activatable promoter complex is dependent upon a critical interaction between sigma 54 and core RNA polymerase and the proper positioning of holoenzyme on the promoter elements.
It is noteworthy that the progressive loss of function and -12 promoter element recognition is not always accompanied by a loss of ability to form open complexes in vivo. The double mutants in the heptad repeat of Region III still retained nearly normal ability to form open complexes in vivo, but showed severe loss of ability to bind core RNA polymerase, substantially eliminating -12 promoter recognition. The double mutants retained mRNA production to only 3040% of the wild-type level. It has been demonstrated that sigma 54 alone is unable to function in the process of open complex formation unless bound as holoenzyme (Buck & Cannon, 1992 ). We also showed here that double mutations in Region III led to a partial loss of holoenzyme formation. Therefore, it seems that even though the double mutants only retained partial core-binding ability, the holoenzyme they form is capable of DNA melting. However, these open complexes do not seem to be fully functional. It is likely that the defect in these double mutants alters the structure required for activator-dependent DNA melting. The loss of function and -12 promoter element recognition not always being accompanied by a loss of ability to form open complexes in vivo was also observed in double mutants in Region I (Hsieh & Gralla, 1994
). The double mutant LS26/33 or multiple leucine mutant was found to convert the sigma 54 polymerase to an enhancer-independent enzyme (Syed & Gralla, 1997
, 1998
; Wang et al., 1995
). Therefore, we cannot exclude the possibility that the double mutants in the heptad repeat of Region III also contain the enhancer-bypass property, which may unlock the melting potential of the polymerase. It will be of great interest to test whether these double mutants behave as enhancer-independent enzymes. The results will also provide insight into how sigma 54 holoenzyme responds to the activator NtrC in the enhancer-like transcription initiation.
Previous work has suggested that only a small region of Region III of sigma 54 plays an essential role in binding the core polymerase (Cannon et al., 1995b ; Tintut et al., 1994
; Wong et al., 1994
). This region contains three motifs of interest: hydrophobic, acidic and a short stretch between residues 175 and 180 (Tintut et al., 1994
; Tintut & Gralla, 1995
). Our present results further demonstrate that it takes more than one hydrophobic residue in the heptad repeat motif of Region III to affect ability to bind core RNA polymerase. In conclusion, we confirmed here by site-directed mutagenesis that the structural features of the hydrophobic heptad repeat of Region III are essential for core-RNA-polymerase-binding ability in the enhancer-dependent transcription pathway.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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REFERENCES |
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Received 22 April 1999;
revised 28 July 1999;
accepted 6 August 1999.