1Section of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853; and 2University of California Bodega Marine Laboratory, Bodega Bay, California 94923
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ABSTRACT |
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Bodnar, D. A. and A. H. Bass. Midbrain combinatorial code for temporal and spectral Information in concurrent acoustic signals. All vocal species, including humans, often encounter simultaneous (concurrent) vocal signals from conspecifics. To segregate concurrent signals, the auditory system must extract information regarding the individual signals from their summed waveforms. During the breeding season, nesting male midshipman fish (Porichthys notatus) congregate in localized regions of the intertidal zone and produce long-duration (>1 min), multi-harmonic signals ("hums") during courtship of females. The hums of neighboring males often overlap, resulting in acoustic beats with amplitude and phase modulations at the difference frequencies (dFs) between their fundamental frequencies (F0s) and harmonic components. Behavioral studies also show that midshipman can localize a single hum-like tone when presented with a choice between two concurrent tones that originate from separate speakers. A previous study of the neural mechanisms underlying the segregation of concurrent signals demonstrated that midbrain neurons temporally encode a beat's dF through spike synchronization; however, spectral information about at least one of the beat's components is also required for signal segregation. Here we examine the encoding of spectral differences in beat signals by midbrain neurons. The results show that, although the spike rate responses of many neurons are sensitive to the spectral composition of a beat, virtually all midbrain units can encode information about differences in the spectral composition of beat stimuli via their interspike intervals (ISIs) with an equal distribution of ISI spectral sensitivity across the behaviorally relevant dFs. Together, temporal encoding in the midbrain of dF information through spike synchronization and of spectral information through ISI could permit the segregation of concurrent vocal signals.
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INTRODUCTION |
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All species that vocalize face a common problem in
auditory scene analysis, namely, the segregation of concurrent signals. When two conspecific senders vocalize at the same time, their signals
summate into a single acoustic waveform at a receiver's ear. To
discriminate and localize the two signals, a receiver's auditory
system must extract information regarding the individual vocalizations
from the fused signals. Psychophysical studies in humans show that the
segregation of concurrent vowels (multiharmonic signals) is facilitated
by small differences in their fundamental frequencies
(F0s) (Broxk and
Nooteboom 1982; Chalikia and Bregman 1989
). However, the actual coding of concurrent signals within the brain and the neural computations used in their segregation remain
relatively unexplored. In this study, we examine encoding of the
spectral composition of concurrent signals in the midbrain of the
plainfin midshipman (Porichthys notatus), a vocal species of
teleost fish that routinely encounters concurrent acoustic signals.
Nest building male midshipman fish produce vocal signals known as
"hums" that apparently function to attract females to their nest
(Brantley and Bass 1994; McKibben and Bass 1998
). Hums
are long duration (>1 min), multiharmonic (2-3 harmonics) signals with a F0 near 100 Hz. Males often congregate in
a localized area and vocalize simultaneously; overlapping hums produce
acoustic signals with a beat-like temporal structure characterized by
amplitude and phase fluctuations at the difference frequency (dF)
between the F0s and upper harmonics
(Bodnar and Bass 1997a
). Within a field population,
differences in the F0s of individual hums vary by
10 Hz at a given temperature (Bodnar and Bass
1997a
). Two-choice phonotaxis experiments show that, when
presented with concurrent tones near the F0s
of natural hums, midshipman localize and approach an individual tone
from a single speaker (McKibben and Bass 1998
), indicating they
have the neural mechanisms required for signal segregation.
In a previous study in midshipman, we found that neurons in the
midbrain's torus semicircularis (homologue of the inferior colliculus)
synchronize bursts of spikes to a beat's dF (Bodnar and Bass
1997a). Many midbrain neurons selectively synchronize to
specific dFs, and their selectivity overlaps the range of dFs for
naturally occurring acoustic beats. These data suggest that the
temporal coding of dF information plays a role in the segregation of
concurrent signals. However, although dF information alone can indicate
the presence of two vocal signals, spectral information about at least
one of the beat components is also required for dF information to be
utilized in signal segregation.
Neurophysiological studies in mammals demonstrated that the
F0s and upper harmonics of concurrent vowels are
temporally encoded by the peripheral auditory system via
synchronization of afferent spike trains to signal periodicities
(Cariani and Delgutte 1996a,b
; Palmer
1990
). In the ventral cochlear nucleus of cats, the
F0s of concurrent vowels are temporally encoded
by primary-like and chopper neurons (Keilson et al.
1997
). Thus segregation based on temporal coding strategies is
supported at these levels of processing. However, to date, no studies
have examined the encoding of the spectral composition of concurrent
vocal signals in other central auditory structures. In mammals,
midbrain studies of the coding of individual acoustic signals such as
pure tones or amplitude modulated (AM) signals focused primarily on
spatial/spike rate coding of frequency (Ehret and Merzenich
1985
, 1988
; Langner and Schreiner 1988
;
Rees and Moller 1983
; Rees and Palmer
1989
). In fish, temporal coding of pure tones via
synchronization was examined and for the most part found to be poor
(Crawford 1993
; Lu and Fay 1993
). Hence
it remains unknown whether a temporal code of the spectral composition
of concurrent signals is maintained throughout the central auditory
system and hence would contribute to signal segregation.
Midshipman auditory afferents, like those in many other vertebrate
species, synchronize their spike outputs to the spectral periodicities of an acoustic signal (McKibben 1998;
McKibben and Bass 1996
). Hence, in the case of pure
tone stimuli, a signal's frequency (f) is
given directly by an afferent's interspike intervals (ISIs), i.e.,
f = 1/ISI. Similarly, midshipman afferents synchronize to the individual components of a beat, and thus information about its
spectral composition is explicitly encoded by the ISIs of afferents
(McKibben 1998
; McKibben and Bass 1996
).
In contrast, auditory midbrain neurons show poor synchronization to
pure tone stimuli and the individual components of beats (Bodnar
and Bass 1997a
) and hence would appear to encode spectral
information by some mechanism other than phase locking to the
components.
Here, we assess how the spectral composition of beat stimuli may be encoded by auditory midbrain neurons by comparing the spike train responses of units in the torus semicircularis to beat stimuli with the same dF but that differ by one spectral component (Fig. 1A). Thus any differences in spike train responses must reflect differences in the spectral content of the signals. Our results show that, although many units show differences in their spike rates for spectrally different beats, virtually all auditory midbrain neurons show significant differences in their ISI distributions over specific interval ranges. Hence auditory midbrain units could encode the dF of beats via their synchronization to dF and the spectral composition of beats via their spike rates and/or ISIs. This combinatorial code of both dF and spectral information would be sufficient for the segregation of concurrent signals.
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Portions of these results appeared in abstract form (Bodnar and
Bass 1998).
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METHODS |
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Animals for physiological experiments were collected from nests
(Tomales Bay, CA), housed in either running seawater holding tanks or
artificial seawater aquaria at 15-16°C, and maintained on a diet of
minnows. Midshipman have two male reproductive "morphs" (Bass 1996). Type I males build and guard nests and have
the most extensive vocal repertoires. Type I males produce hums during courtship (see INTRODUCTION) and wider bandwidth,
shorter-duration "grunts" (ms scale) during agonistic encounters
(Brantley and Bass 1994
). Type II males do not build
nests or acoustically court females; instead they sneak spawn and, like
females, only produce low-amplitude grunts infrequently. In this study,
we used 38 type I males for neurophysiological recordings; future
studies will assess possible sex differences.
Surgical and recording methods follow those described previously
(Bodnar and Bass 1997a). During surgery, animals were
anesthetized by immersion in 0.2% ethyl p-amino benzoate
(Sigma Chemical, St. Louis, MO) in seawater. After exposure of the
midbrain, a plastic dam was attached to the skin surrounding the
opening, which later allowed for submersion of the fish below the water
surface during recording sessions. Pancuronium bromide (0.5 mg/kg) was
used for immobilization, and fentanyl (1 mg/kg) was used for analgesia during electrophysiological recording. Glass micropipettes were used
for single unit extracellular recordings, which were amplified and
band-pass filtered between 250 Hz and 3 kHz. As in a previous study,
recording sites in select cases were verified by iontophoresis of a 5%
solution of neurobiotin with subsequent immunohistochemical visualization (Bodnar and Bass 1997a
). Custom software
(CASSIE, designed by J. Vrieslander at Cornell University) was used for data acquisition; a pattern-matching alogrithm within CASSIE was used
to extract visually identified single units. Single units were
discriminated from multiple ones on the basis of their signal-to-noise ratio and spike shape; single units had distinct large amplitude peaks
and fast rise times.
Beat stimuli were synthesized with CASSIE and were composed of two
tones (F1 and F2) near
the F0s of natural hums.
F1 was held constant at 90 Hz, which is close to
the characteristic frequency of most auditory midbrain units;
F2 varied from F1 up
to ±10 Hz in 2-Hz increments, spanning the range of
characteristic frequencies (Bodnar and Bass 1997a). For
most units, the intensity level of the beat stimuli was 12 dB above
threshold measured for a 90-Hz pure tone; for some units the intensity
level was either 6 or 18 dB above threshold. Thresholds for beat and
pure tone stimuli were generally
3-6 dB with threshold for beats
being lower. The order of presentation of beat stimuli was either with
increasing dF, decreasing dF, or random dF. Stimuli were 1 s in
duration, and data were collected for 10 repetitions at each dF. A UW30 underwater speaker (Newark Electronics), positioned beneath the fish in
a 32-cm diameter tank, was used for delivery of acoustic signals (after
Lu and Fay 1993
). The speaker's frequency response in
water was measured with a Bruel and Kjaer 8103 mini-hydrophone; sound
pressure was equalized with CASSIE software. Hydrophone recordings of
acoustic stimuli demonstrated that reflections from the tank walls and
water surface did not alter the sound pressure waveform of the signals.
All experiments were conducted inside a walk-in soundproof chamber
(Industrial Acoustics, Bronx, NY).
Spike train analysis
To assess possible spike train coding of spectral differences in
concurrent signals, we compared each unit's spike train responses to
negative and positive dF beats. A negative dF beat refers to a two-tone
stimulus composed of 90 Hz-dF Hz, e.g., a 6-Hz beat = 90 + 84 Hz (Fig. 1A). A positive dF beat refers to a two-tone stimulus composed of 90 Hz + dF Hz e.g., a +6-Hz beat = 90 + 96 Hz
(Fig. 1A). For each unit, comparisons were made at five ± dF values (2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 Hz). These beat stimuli had the same dF but differed by only one spectral component. Any differences observed in the spike rate or ISI distributions would reflect differences in the spectral composition of the beats. In this study, we
designate a unit as spectrally sensitive when it exhibits a
differential response in either its spike rate or ISI distributions for
positive and negative beat stimuli, i.e., having different spectral
compositions. The specific representation of individual frequency
components by a spike train is currently under investigation.
We measured both differences in spike rate and ISI distributions. Spike
rate was measured by calculating the average number of spikes per beat,
and a Mann-Whitney U test was used to test for significant
differences (P < 0.05). First-order ISIs, that is,
intervals between consecutive action potentials, were computed for
spike bursts within the beat period only (t, Fig. 1B);
ISIs between periods were not included (X, Fig.
1B). To compare first-order ISI probability distributions we
utilized the novel approach of examining the inverse cumulative
distribution functions, also known as survival functions (by using
StatView 4.5), of the ISIs of spike train responses to positive and
negative dF beats. A cumulative probability distribution (F)
shows the probability of event occurrences less than or equal to a
designated value (e.g.,
t, Fig. 1B), the inverse
cumulative distribution (1
F) shows the probability
of event occurrences greater than or equal to the designated value.
Raster plots and poststimulus time histograms of a unit's response to
±6-Hz beats are shown in Fig. 2,
A and B. Corresponding ISI probability
distributions and inverse cumulative distributions are shown in Fig. 2,
C and D, and E, respectively.
Qualitative differences can be observed in the standard plots of the
ISI probability distributions. However, it is difficult to ascertain
the range and extent of these differences. The points of divergence in
the ISIs are easily observed in the inverse cumulative ISI
distributions (Fig. 2E). Thus the range over which the ISIs appear to exhibit sensitivity to differences in the spectral
composition of a beat can be directly assessed.
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For many units (55%), significant differences in cumulative ISI
distributions were not observed over the entire distribution at any dF
(Fig. 2E). However, distinct regions of divergences in the
inverse cumulative distribution functions could be observed (designated
by arrows in Fig. 2E). When the cumulative distributions of
the ISIs only within this region were compared, there was often a
significant difference (Fig. 2F). Thus in our analysis, we
considered a neuron to have "ISI spectral sensitivity" when there
was a significant difference in mean first order ISIs
(P < 0.05, Mann-Whitney U test) between
positive and negative dF beat responses within a range of intervals
that contained 50% of its total ISIs. We refer to these units as
having "filtered ISI spectral sensitivity"
(fISI). The lower and upper ISI cutoffs for
the fISI distributions were chosen to maximize the
z-value, and consequently minimize the P-value,
of the statistical test.
The coefficient of variance (CV) of the ISI distribution (SD normalized
by the mean) serves as an indicator of the variability in a spike
train's ISIs. Previous studies used the CV as an index of the
regularity of a neuron's firing (Blackburn and Sachs
1989; Young et al. 1988
). These studies used a
more detailed analysis in which the CV was reiteratively computed
throughout the stimulus duration. To assess the general overall
variability in a unit's ISIs, we measured the CV over the entire data
set. For spectrally sensitive units, the CV was computed over the
spectrally sensitive range of ISIs.
Synchronization of spikes to the beat dF and beat components was
quantified by the vector strength of synchronization. The vector
strength of synchronization measures from 0 to 1 the accuracy of phase
locking to a periodic signal (Goldberg and Brown 1969). The vector strength was computed over 1-s intervals and the mean and SD
over 10 repetitions. For each unit, the vector strength of
synchronization was computed for the dF as well as each of the
constituent components. A Rayleigh Z-test, based on the mean vector
strength and mean number of spikes per repetition, was used to test
whether synchronization was significant (P < 0.05) (Batschelet 1981
).
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RESULTS |
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The results presented represent data collected from recordings of 132 neurons in the midbrain's torus semicircularis. For the majority of units (89%), full data sets were obtained for ± beat dF from 2 to 10 Hz; 9% of the units have data with only one dF value missing, and the remaining 2% have data with two dFs missing.
Spike rate spectral sensitivity
Significant differences in the spike rates of auditory midbrain responses to ± beat dFs were observed in 68% of the units at one or more dFs (Fig. 3A). The distribution of spike rate spectral sensitivity at individual dFs is shown in Fig. 3B; note that any one unit may show spectral sensitivity at more than one dF. Ten percent of the population of units exhibited significant spike rate differences between ±2-Hz beats, 20% at ±4-Hz dFs, and ~35-45% at dFs of ±6, ±8, and ±10 Hz.
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First-order ISI spectral sensitivity
A large number of units was observed to show first-order ISI spectral sensitivity over a limited range of intervals (fISI; see METHODS). Across individual units and different dFs, there was variation in the ranges of fISIs that gave rise to spectral sensitivity. The graphs in Fig. 4 show the inverse cumulative distribution functions of representative examples of the three general ranges of fISI spectral sensitivity observed. Thus a unit may show significant differences over its entire ISI distribution (Fig. 4A, left panel) but much greater sensitivity over a more limited range (Fig. 4A, right panel). Figure 4A shows an example of a unit that exhibited its maximum fISI spectral sensitivity over short ISIs. The units in Fig. 4, B and C, show significant fISI spectral sensitivity over intermediate and long ISI ranges, respectively. Across all observations of spectral sensitivity (n = 322), 23% have their maximum spectral sensitivity over short ISI ranges, 31% over intermediate ISI ranges, 31% over long ISI ranges, and 15% over the entire range of ISIs.
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The distributions of the lower and upper ISI cutoffs across all fISI spectrally sensitive units and all dFs are shown in Fig. 5. These distributions show the ISIs ranges over which spectral sensitivity is observed across the population. The majority of units had low ISI cutoffs at intervals <15 ms, and there was wider variation in the high ISI cutoffs with a mode in the distribution at 40 ms. This suggests that there are no distinct classes of units with specific ISI cutoffs but instead that there is a continuum of fISI spectral sensitivity ranges within a population.
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Across the population, 97% of the units exhibited fISI spectral sensitivity at one or more dFs (Fig. 6A; as with spike rate, a unit may exhibit fISI spectral sensitivity at more than one dF). For any one dF, there was a relatively even distribution of ~50% of the population of units exhibiting fISI spectral sensitivity (Fig. 6B).
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Because differences in spike rate give rise to differences in
ISI, the ISI spectral sensitivity observed may actually reflect differences in spike rate. Figure 7
presents a regression plot of the difference in mean ISI versus the
difference in spike rate across all units and all dFs (for
fISI spectrally sensitive units, the mean ISI was
computed over the spectrally sensitive range of ISIs). Although there
was a significant relationship between ISI and
spike rate
(P < 0.0001), differences in spike rate account for
only 30% of the variance in ISI differences (Fig. 7).
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Figure 8, A and
B, shows the distributions of CV for all
fISIs of spectrally sensitive units across all
negative and positive dFs within the spectrally sensitive ranges. The
CV characterizes the variability in ISIs across several stimulus
presentations. A random Poisson distribution is characterized by a
CV = 1; previous studies classified neurons with CVs < 0.5 as exhibiting regularity in their firing (Blackburn and Sachs
1989; Young et al. 1988
). The CVs of both
negative and positive ISIs for spectrally sensitive units are normally
distributed with means at 0.547 ± 0.167 for
dF and 0.538 ± 0.150 for +dF beat; virtually all CVs are
1. The distributions of
the CVs for all nonspectrally sensitive units across all negative and
positive dFs are shown in Fig. 8, C and D, with
higher means at 0.787 ± 0.154 for
dF and 0.799 ± 0.144 for +dF beat. For both negative and positive dFs, there was a significant difference (P < 0.0001) in the mean CVs
between spectrally and nonspectrally sensitive dFs.
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dF and spectral sensitivity
In response to beat stimuli, midbrain units have been shown
to encode the dF of a beat by synchronization to dF, whereas midbrain units exhibit poor synchronization to the individual components (Bodnar and Bass 1997a). In this study, synchronization
to the individual beat components was measured in a representative
subset of units (n = 66); only 6 of 66 units (4%)
showed significant synchronization to either beat component at any dF,
in support of our previous findings (Bodnar and Bass
1997a
). Significant synchronization to the beat dF at one or
more dFs was observed in 90% of the units (n = 120/132) (Fig. 9A). The
distribution of units with significant synchronization at each dF is
shown in Fig. 9B. Of the dF-sensitive units, 80% also
showed fISI spectral sensitivity, and only 56%
showed spike rate spectral sensitivity (Fig. 9C). The
histogram in Fig. 9D shows the distribution of units that
show combined dF sensitivity and fISI spectral
sensitivity (solid bars) or combined dF sensitivity and spike rate
spectral sensitivity (open bars) across individual dFs. At each dF, a
greater percentage of dF sensitive units exhibit fISI
spectral sensitivity than spike rate spectral sensitivity.
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DISCUSSION |
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A fundamental signal processing task that must be achieved by the
auditory system of vocal species is the segregation of concurrent vocal
signals. Understanding how the spectral components of concurrent signals are encoded within the central auditory system is essential to
determining the computational mechanisms utilized in this task. The
data presented in this study in midshipman fish show that, in response
to beats with the same dFs but differing in one spectral component,
many auditory midbrain neurons (68%) exhibited significant differences
in their spike rates, whereas virtually all (97%) showed significant
differences in their first-order ISIs within a specific range of
intervals (fISI). Furthermore, although spike rate spectral sensitivity was observed primarily at dFs of 6-10 Hz
(Fig. 3B), fISI spectral sensitivity was
observed equally across all dFs (Fig. 6B), including dFs of
2 and 4 Hz, which are within the same range of the majority of dFs
observed in natural habitats (Bodnar and Bass 1997a).
Hence both a spike rate and temporal ISI code of a beat's spectral
composition appear to be present.
In a previous study, we found that midbrain neurons in midshipman show
significant synchronization to dF (Bodnar and Bass 1997a). This study demonstrates that 56% of the units that
exhibited significant synchronization to dF also showed spike rate
spectral sensitivity, whereas 80% also showed fISI
spectral sensitivity. Together these data indicate that midbrain
neurons provide a combinatorial code of the dF and spectral composition
of concurrent vocal signals.
Spike rate and temporal encoding strategies
The general view of central auditory encoding of acoustic signals
is that the spectral composition of a signal is represented spatially
via a spike rate code. Within the auditory midbrain (inferior
colliculus) of mammals there is a highly ordered tonotopic representation of frequency based on narrow spike rate tuning curves
that serve as a bank of band-pass filters (Merzenich and Reid
1974; Schriener and Langner 1994
; Semple
and Aitkin 1979
). The frequency resolution of collicular spike
rate filters is in close correspondence with behavioral measures of
frequency resolution (Ehret and Merzenich 1985
, 1988
).
Spike rate frequency tuning curves and tonotopic representations of
frequency were also observed in the auditory midbrain (torus
semicircularis) of a range of nonmammalian vertebrates, including fish
(Bodnar and Bass 1997a
; Crawford 1993
;
Echteler 1985
; Lu and Fay 1993
).
The segregation of concurrent vocal signals poses a significant challenge to a spatial/spike rate encoding strategy of spectral composition. In the case of concurrent multiharmonic signals such as human vowels or midshipman hums, the F0s and harmonics may differ by only a few Hertz. Thus the spectral components of the individual vocal signals often fall within the same bandwidth of a neuron's frequency tuning curve and hence remain unresolved by a spatial/spike rate encoding strategy. Thus it remains unclear how the spectral components of the two signals could be segregated based on a spatial/spike rate encoding alone.
Here we examined the possibilities of both spike rate and temporal
encoding (ISI) of the spectral composition of beats within the
midshipman auditory midbrain. Theunissen and Miller (1995) explicitly
defined a temporal encoding strategy as one that is independent of
spike rate encoding. Although both spike rate and fISI differences are observed in midbrain neurons in
midshipman, fISI encoding of spectral composition is
largely independent of spike rate, as only 30% of the variance of
fISI differences can be accounted for by spike rate
differences. This indicates that any specific mean spike rate still
allows considerable variance (70%) in the relative timing of spikes.
Hence, systematic shifts in ISI distributions could greatly expand the
range of stimulus parameters that are reliably encoded. Furthermore,
because more units exhibit fISI spectral sensitivity
over all behaviorally relevant dFs, the data suggest that a temporal
ISI code of spectral composition of concurrent vocal signals could
provide more information about the spectral composition of those
signals than a spike rate code alone. However, it is important to keep
in mind that spike rate and temporal encoding strategies are not
mutually exclusive and may in fact complement and enhance each other.
The response of a postsynaptic neuron is likely to be dependent on both
the number and timing of incoming spikes during the integration window of the cell. Our emphasis here is not that either a spike rate or
fISI is used for neural encoding but rather that the
use of a fISI code would markedly increase the
ability of the auditory system to segregate concurrent signals, whether
alone or in conjunction with a spike rate code.
Differences in the distributions of the fISIs of
neurons indicate a difference in the relative timing of action
potentials contained within a neuron's spike train output. At this
point, it remains unknown whether it is differences in the individual fISIs themselves that serve as the code for a
signal's spectral composition or whether the differences in mean ISIs
reflect changes in more complex patterns of spike intervals. A
computational study explored the possibility of pattern recognition
based on temporal patterns of spikes (Hopfield 1995),
whereas the potential for the discrimination of sound location based on
patterns of actual spike train data was demonstrated in the auditory
cortex of cats (Middlebrooks et al. 1994
). A more
detailed comparison of spike patterns of responses to positive and
negative dF beats is required to elucidate whether such a coding
mechanism is present in the midshipman's auditory system.
The ISI spectral sensitivity we observed for most units was within a
limited range of ISIs. Inclusion of intervals outside this range masked
the detection of differences in spike trains by statistical tests. ISIs
outside the spectrally sensitive range may represent either noise or
they may encode other features of the stimulus. In response to beats,
the midshipman auditory system apparently transforms a periodicity code
of the spectral components of the beat into a combinatorial code of dF
(Bodnar and Bass 1997a) and spectral composition (this
study). It is possible that, to create a temporal code of dF within the
brain, some noise is introduced into the temporal encoding of the
spectral composition. Hence postsynaptic cells would need to filter
this spike train noise to reliably extract spectral information, i.e.,
produce responses only to spectrally sensitive ISIs. The low and high
ISI cutoffs of midbrain units indicate the ranges of temporal filtering
necessary for enhanced discrimination of ±dF beats by postsynaptic
cells. The majority of units had low ISI cutoffs at intervals <15 ms, and there was wider variation in the high ISI cutoffs with a peak in
the distribution at 40 ms.
Several studies have demonstrated roles of synaptic mechanisms
(Casseday et al. 1994; Covey et al.
1996
), dendritic structure (Carr and Konishi
1990
; Carr et al. 1986b
; Rose and Call
1993
), and voltage-dependent conductances (Brew and
Forsythe 1995
; Fortune and Rose 1997
;
Perney and Kaczmarek 1997
) in the temporal filtering of
spike inputs. Hence neural mechanisms clearly exist that would permit
appropriate filtering of spectrally sensitive ISIs.
Alternatively, ISIs outside the spectrally sensitive range may encode
other parameters of the stimulus waveform. In this study, we held
stimulus depth of modulation, intensity, and duration constant.
Increases in spike rates in response to stimulus intensity level have
been well documented within the auditory system. In addition, several
studies found units within the auditory midbrain that are sensitive to
changes in stimulus duration (Casseday et al. 1994;
Covey et al. 1996
; Ehrlich et al. 1997
;
Feng et al. 1990
; Fuzessery 1994
;
Gooler and Feng 1995
). Thus changes in these parameters
may produce changes in the ISIs of midbrain neurons. If midbrain
neurons encode different stimulus parameters within different ISI
ranges, changes in stimulus depth of modulation, intensity, or duration
should not influence ISIs within the spectrally sensitive range, but
instead produce changes in the ISIs outside this range. Changes in
stimulus intensity and duration can affect the synchronization of
midbrain units to dF (Bodnar and Bass 1997b
). Studies
are currently in progress to examine how these stimulus parameters may
influence temporal coding of the spectral composition of a signal.
Although an ISI code would appear to improve the amount of information
about the spectral composition of a signal within a spike train, the
question remains whether it is actually utilized in concurrent signal
segregation. The data presented here make specific predictions about
the ability of midshipman to segregate concurrent signals, depending on
whether they use spike rate or temporal encoding of spectral
composition. Because a greater percentage of midbrain units shows spike
rate spectral sensitivity primarily at large dFs, signal segregation
based on this code alone predicts that midshipman can reliably only
segregate signals with larger dFs. In contrast, because midshipman show
similar ISI spectral sensitivity across all dFs, signal segregation
that utilizes the ISI temporal code predicts they can segregate
concurrent signals equally well at small and large dFs. These
predictions can be directly tested in two choice behavioral phonotaxis
studies. Behavioral studies have shown that midshipman can reliably
segregate signals with dFs of 10 Hz (McKibben and Bass
1998). Preliminary data from that study suggest they also have
the ability to segregate at smaller dFs of 2-5 Hz that are prevalent
in a field population (Bodnar and Bass 1997a
). A
behavioral study to test the reliability of signal segregation at
smaller dFs is currently in progress.
Comparisons with other species
In a different sensory modality, namely the electrosensory system,
some weakly electric fish produce a quasisinusoidal electric organ
discharge (EOD) nearly continuously for use in social communication and
electrolocation (Heiligenberg 1991). When two fish with
EODs whose F0s differ by a few Hz are near each
other, their signals produce a beat waveform analogous to acoustic
beats with phase modulations and AM at the dF. To avoid "jamming"
of its signal, a fish will adjust its EOD away from that of its
conspecific (Bullock et al. 1972
;
Heiligenberg 1991
; Kawasaki 1993
). Hence
electric fish are faced with a similar problem, in segregating two
incoming signals, with the exception that one signal is typically its
own.
In gymnotiforms, the beat waveform is encoded by two types of
peripheral receptors that encode either the phase modulations (T-type)
or the AM (P-type) of the beat (see Carr 1993;
Heiligenberg 1991
). Within the midbrain, the general
spectral composition of a beat is contained within the intervals
between phase-locked spikes of giant cells of lamina 6 of the torus
semicircularis (Carr et al. 1986a
). The sign of dF
(positive or negative) relative to an animal's own signal is
determined on the basis of the comparison of differential phase
modulations across an animal's body in conjunction with differential
AM and dF information derived from parallel pathways
(Heiligenberg and Bastian 1984
; Heiligenberg and
Rose 1985
; Rose and Heiligenberg 1986
; see also
Guo and Kawasaki 1997
for gymnarchid electric fish).
To date, only a few other studies examined the coding of concurrent
vocal signals. In the eighth nerve of guinea pigs and cats, fibers
temporally encode the F0s and upper harmonics of concurrent vowels via synchronization to the periodicities in the
stimulus waveform (Cariani and Delgutte 1996a,b
;
Palmer 1990
). Within the ventral cochlear nucleus of
cats, again the F0s of concurrent vowels are
temporally encoded by both primary-like and chopper units via phase
locking (Keilson et al. 1997
). Thus a temporal code of
the F0s of concurrent vowels is present in mammals at both primary afferent and central medullary levels.
Thus far no studies examined the coding of concurrent vocal signals
within the auditory midbrain. However, a number of studies in a wide
variety of species examined the coding of AM signals (Condon et
al. 1994, 1996
; Gooler and Feng 1995
;
Langner 1983
; Langner and Schreiner 1988
;
Rees and Moller 1983
; Rees and Palmer 1989
; Rose and Capranica 1985
). Inferior
colliculus units exhibit tuning in their spike rates and vector
strength of synchronization to the rate of AM (Fmod). Among mammals,
strong synchronization to envelope modulations is most prominent at
lower AM rates (Langner and Schreiner 1988
); changes in
the carrier frequency (Fc) of the AM signal, and
hence its spectral composition, can produce changes in both a unit's
phase coupling to the stimulus envelope and its spike rate at a given
Fmod (Langner 1983
;
Langner and Schriener 1988
). Schriener and Langner
(1988)
found a topographical representation of
Fmod orthogonal to the tonotopic representation of Fc and hence discussed a combinatorial
spatial code for Fmod and
Fc. However, the fact that midbrain neurons
synchronize to Fmod and exhibit
Fc-related changes in spike rate indicates that individual neurons can also provide a combinatorial code of the Fmod and spectral composition of an acoustic
signal.
The effects of changes in Fc on the ISIs within
AM phase-coupled spike bursts were not examined. However, in a recent
study in guinea pigs, the responses of many collicular units to pure tones exhibited a high degree of regularity in their ISI distributions as measured by their coefficient of variation (Rees et al.
1997). In addition, data from a preliminary study suggest that
there is a correlation between a unit's regularity of firing and its response to AM signals (Sarbaz and Rees 1996
). It was
therefore proposed that the temporal patterns of regularly firing
neurons in the inferior colliculus may encode acoustic information.
Thus, as in midshipman, temporal encoding of the spectral composition of concurrent signals may also be present within the central auditory system of other vertebrates.
Behavioral studies of concurrent vocal signal segregation
Behavioral studies of animal responses in various psychoacoustic tests can provide essential insights into the neural mechanisms that may underlie auditory processing problems. The segregation of concurrent signals is the ability to hear out two overlapping signals. The fundamental components of this process are the ability to detect the presence of two signals, to discriminate or perceive a difference between the individual signals, and to localize each signal. The ability to identify individual signals is not a necessary part of the basic segregation task, although segregation is an essential prerequisite to signal identification.
Two general types of behavioral tests are used in assessing the auditory perception of nonhuman animals: conditioning or phonotaxis paradigms. In conditioning paradigms, animals are conditioned with one signal and then tested to determine whether they can discriminate between the conditioning and test signals by assessing changes in a behavioral or physiological response when presented with a test stimulus. These experiments generally assess detection and discrimination processes.
In phonotaxis experiments, animals are presented with signals from loudspeakers at a distance and allowed to approach a speaker at will. A choice is scored when an animal approaches a speaker and indicates the ability to detect and localize a signal. One-choice experiments assess the response specificity of an animal, whereas two-choice experiments assess preferences for particular signal features, e.g., frequency. The presence of response specificity indicates the presence of a signal identification process, i.e., animals are not simply approaching any acoustic signal, but rather certain signal features must be present for it to be attractive. The presence of signal feature preferences suggest signal identification at the level of the feature being tested; i.e., to exhibit a preference for a particular signal feature, an animal must not only discriminate it as different from another signal, but also must be able to identify some particular feature of the signal that makes it more attractive.
Two recent behavioral studies examined the auditory capabilities of
fishes in the processing of concurrent signals. Goldfish were recently
shown to discriminate between single tones and beats by using a
generalization conditioning paradigm where responsiveness is measured
by changes in respiratory rate (Fay 1998). The ability to discriminate is dependent on both the frequency of the conditioning tone and the difference frequency of the two-tone test signals. For
example, in the case of a low-frequency conditioning tone, 200 Hz,
goldfish discriminated a 4-Hz beat (200 + 204 Hz) 60% of the time.
Although these experiments indicate that goldfish can discriminate
between single tones and beats, it remains unclear whether they can
segregate, i.e., hear out and discriminate between the two tones
comprising a beat signal.
In midshipman, recent phonotaxis experiments assessed the
response specificity and preferences of females for midshipman vocal signals of varying parameters (McKibben and Bass 1998).
In one-choice phonotaxis experiments, females routinely approached
speakers emitting hum-like signals but did not approach speakers when
either white noise or grunt-like signals were broadcast. In one series of two-choice phonotaxis experiments, females were presented with concurrent hum-like signals with difference frequencies of 10 Hz from
two separate loudspeakers. In these experiments, females unambiguously
went to one speaker or the other, demonstrating the ability to
segregate and discriminate between concurrent signals. In addition,
females exhibited significant preferences for particular frequencies.
In another series of two-choice experiments, midshipman were also shown
to be able to discriminate between single, hum-like tones and 5-Hz
beats composed of hum-like tones.
Here we have shown that differences in spike rate or the ISIs of auditory midbrain units encode differences in the spectral composition of beats and thus provide evidence of a neural substrate that is likely to contribute to the segregation of concurrent vocal signals in midshipman. The behavioral results described previously suggest that midshipman can segregate concurrent signals, that is, discriminate and localize the individual vocal signals, and also appear to identify individual signals on the basis of frequency. The latter suggests the presence of additional coding and computational mechanisms beyond those assessed here.
Signal identification could arise from two possible mechanisms,
dF sign selectivity or frequency recognition. Under a dF
sign-selectivity mechanism one component would be explicitly coded and
serve as a reference signal, whereas the sign of the difference
frequency would enable the computation of the frequency of the other
signal. This mechanism is analogous to that utilized by electric fish in computing differences among their EODs (Heiligenberg
1991). In contrast, a frequency recognition mechanism predicts
that each individual frequency component should be represented
simultaneously within the auditory system. Determination of the neural
mechanisms utilized by midshipman in identifying individual signals
requires the comparison of the spike train responses between beats
composed of different constituent tones (e.g., 90 Hz ± dF vs. 100 Hz ± dF) and between beat stimuli and their individual frequency
components. Spike train analysis of such data are currently underway
and will be presented in a forthcoming article.
Model for the combinatorial temporal coding of concurrent vocal signals
The mechanisms that underlie the segregation of concurrent
vocal signals can in part be elucidated by examining the coding of
concurrent signals and their transformations at different levels within
the auditory system. A summary of the neurophysiology known to date
about the temporal coding of concurrent vocal signals in the midshipman
auditory system is shown in Fig.
10A. In the peripheral
auditory system of midshipman, auditory afferents exhibit low
synchronization to the dF of a beat stimulus but high synchronization to the individual components, i.e., the F0s, of
a beat (McKibben 1998; McKibben and Bass
1996
). Hence the F0s of the beat's
components are encoded by corresponding periodic patterns of ISIs in
afferent spike trains. In contrast, auditory midbrain neurons encode
the dF of a beat by synchronizing to modulations in the stimulus
waveform (VSdF) (Bodnar and Bass 1997a
), whereas the
information about spectral composition can be encoded by patterns of
ISIs within a beat period (this report). Thus the afferent periodicity
code of beat components is apparently transformed into a combinatorial temporal code of dF and spectral composition.
|
The midbrain combinatorial code of dF and spectral composition of
beat stimuli may arise via a coincidence mechanism similar to the one
proposed by Langner (1983) to explain the phase coupling of midbrain
responses to AM at different carrier frequencies
(Fc). Under this model, responses of midbrain
neurons arise from the coincidence of inputs from two parallel
pathways, one in which spike activity is phase coupled to modulations
in the signal's envelope and the other in which activity is coupled to
the carrier frequency, giving rise to the combined coding of
Fmod and Fc. In the case
of concurrent signals, the parallel pathways would temporally
encode the F0s and dFs of beat signals (Fig.
10B). Hence this model predicts that two populations of
neurons should be present in the medulla of midshipman, one population
that like afferents exhibits strong synchronization to the individual
components of a beat and a second population that strongly synchronizes
to modulations in the signal's envelope. Midbrain neurons then serve as coincidence detectors that receive convergent inputs from these two
populations and elicit action potentials that are both phase locked to
dF and contain information about the F0s within
their ISIs, as is observed in midshipman fish. Consequently,
periodicity coding of the individual components of a beat in the
periphery would give rise to combinatorial coding of the
F0s and beat modulations (dF) within the brain.
These mechanisms for the coding of concurrent acoustic signals are
likely to be highly conserved and comparable with those used by other
vertebrates, as shown for other auditory coding mechanisms in teleosts
(Fay 1993
).
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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The authors thank M. Marchaterre for anatomic assistance and logistic support in the field, A. Mason and J. McKibben for helpful comments on early versions of the manuscript, and two anonymous reviewers for many helpful suggestions.
This research was supported by National Institute of Deafness and Other Communications Disorders Grant DC-00092 to A. H. Bass.
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FOOTNOTES |
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Address for reprint requests: D. A. Bodnar, Section of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca NY 14853.
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Received 2 June 1998; accepted in final form 15 October 1998.
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REFERENCES |
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