1Educational Physiology Laboratory, Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033; 2Cardiology Division, Saiseikai Futsukaichi Hospital, Fukuoka 818-8516; and 3Research Institute of Angiocardiology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
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ABSTRACT |
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Hidaka, Ichiro,
Shin-Ichi Ando,
Hideaki Shigematsu,
Koji Sakai,
Soko Setoguchi,
Taku Seto,
Yoshitaka Hirooka,
Akira Takeshita, and
Yoshiharu Yamamoto.
Noise-Enhanced Heart Rate and Sympathetic Nerve Responses to
Oscillatory Lower Body Negative Pressure in Humans.
J. Neurophysiol. 86: 559-564, 2001.
By
injecting noise into the carotid sinus baroreceptors, we previously
showed that heart rate (HR) responses to weak oscillatory tilt were
enhanced via a mechanism known as "stochastic resonance." It
remains unclear, however, whether the same responses would be observed
when using oscillatory lower body negative pressure (LBNP), which would
unload the cardiopulmonary baroreceptors with physically negligible
effects on the arterial system. Also, the vasomotor sympathetic
activity directly controlling peripheral resistance against hypotensive
stimuli was not observed. We therefore investigated the effects of weak
(0 to approximately 10 mmHg) oscillatory (0.03 Hz) LBNP on HR and
muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) while adding incremental noise
to the carotid sinus baroreceptors via a pneumatic neck chamber. The
signal-to-noise ratio of HR, cardiac interbeat interval, and total MSNA
were all significantly improved by increasing noise intensity, while
there was no significant change in the arterial blood pressure in
synchronized with the oscillatory LBNP. We conclude that the stochastic
resonance, affecting both HR and MSNA, results from the interaction of
noise with the signal in the brain stem, where the neuronal inputs from the arterial and cardiopulmonary baroreceptors first come together in
the nucleus tractus solitarius. Also, these results indicate that the
noise could induce functional improvement in human blood pressure
regulatory system in overcoming given hypotensive stimuli.
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INTRODUCTION |
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The concept of
stochastic resonance (SR) (Gammaitoni et al. 1998;
Wiesenfeld and Moss 1995
), wherein noise enhances the
response of a nonlinear system to weak signals, may be the basis of a
general mechanism for weak signal transmission in a variety of neuronal systems, possibly including the brain. For example, the sensitivity of
sensory neurons to weak signals can be optimized by adding noise
(Collins et al. 1996a
; Cordo et al. 1996
;
Douglass et al. 1993
; Levin and Miller
1996
; Nozaki et al. 1999
). Moreover, several recent studies have shown that the higher CNS is well able to utilize
noise-enhanced sensory information: noise enhances human tactile
sensation (Collins et al. 1996b
; Richardson et
al. 1998
), human visual perception (Simonotto et al.
1997
), and animal feeding behavior (Greenwood et al.
2000
; Russell et al. 1999
). Whether these
functional improvements result from enhanced sensory afferent activity
at the receptor level or from the effects of noise on the CNS is still
unknown, however.
We recently demonstrated that noise could enhance the homeostatic
function of the human blood pressure regulatory system (Hidaka et al. 2000). In that experiment, noise applied to the carotid sinus baroreceptors from outside enhanced the heart rate (HR) response
to very weak changes in the central venous pressure induced by
oscillatory tilt. Although earlier studies indicated that SR only
affects receptor organs (Chiou-Tan et al. 1996
;
Collins et al. 1996a
; Cordo et al. 1996
;
Douglass et al. 1993
; Levin and Miller
1996
; Nozaki et al. 1999
), because carotid sinus
and cardiopulmonary baroreceptor afferents, which respectively
transmitted the information on noise and signal, first come together in
the nucleus tractus solitarius, we suggested that SR exerts its
functional effect by adding noise in the brain. We drew this conclusion
with reservations, however, as oscillatory tilt inevitably perturbed
hydrostatic blood pressure at the carotid sinus, and this small
periodic signal may have thus been presented to the carotid sinus
baroreceptors, which would support the notion that SR exerts its effect
on the receptor organs.
In the present study, therefore we used weak oscillatory lower body negative pressure (LBNP) to inject a signal that affected the central venous pressure, but that had physically negligible effects on the arterial system, while we simultaneously added noise to carotid sinus baroreceptors.
The second aim of the present study was to examine whether vasomotor responsiveness would be enhanced by adding noise into the brain stem. The question is thought to be important because the enhanced vasomotor control for peripheral resistance has a stronger effect than HR in overcoming given hypotensive stimuli, and hence inducing the functional improvement in human blood pressure regulatory system. We measured muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) to investigate this possibility.
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METHODS |
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Subjects
Eight male volunteers (ages 26.2 ± 3.9 yr, mean ± SD) participated in this study after providing written informed consent. All were healthy and took no medication. We were able to obtain good quality MSNA records from six of the eight subjects, which were then used for further analyses. This study was approved by the Human Research Committee, Research Institute of Angiocardiology, Kyushu University.
Experimental protocol
Each subject assumed a supine position on a bed, and his lower body was placed inside a cylindrical, airtight tank with a footrest. After attaching the various measuring devices to the subject, a single 40-min session was carried out in which periodic LBNPs and beat-by-beat random neck chamber pressures (NCPs) were provided to the baroreflex system as a signal and noise, respectively.
The human baroreflex system has the arterial and the cardiopulmonary
baroreceptors of which the afferents are independently transmitted to a
reflex center in the brain stem; from here the integrated outputs to
peripheral organs such as the heart and the vascular system are sent
via common efferent pathways (Andresen and Kunze 1994).
We hypothesized that injection of noise into one receptor would enhance
the response of the baroreflex system to a small signal added to the
other receptor, and thus SR could occur in the baroreflex system via
the interaction between signal and noise in the brain stem.
As a signal, we periodically unloaded the cardiopulmonary baroreceptors
using oscillatory LBNP. The frequency of oscillation was fixed at 0.03 Hz, which is sufficiently slower than the neurally mediated baroreflex
responses, and the oscillation amplitude was fixed at 0 to
approximately 10 mmHg, with 0 mmHg corresponding to the atmospheric
pressure. The LBNP tank was connected to a vacuum cleaner, and a power
processor (VSCP-15-N, Tokyo Riko, Tokyo) was used to set the input AC voltage.
Noise was added to the carotid sinus baroreceptors by compressing or
expanding a pneumatic neck chamber (Eckberg et al.
1975). The intrachamber pressure, controlled by positive
(EP-11, Nagano Keiki, Tokyo, Japan) and negative pressure regulators
(IT209-32, SMC, Tokyo, Japan), was regulated on a beat-by-beat basis to
generate Gaussian white noise with zero mean gauge pressure. The
response time of the regulators was 0.9 s, which was fast enough
to randomly control beat-by-beat NCPs. Thus the bandwidth of the noise
was from a reciprocal (0.0067 Hz) of the length of data windows (2.5 min; see Data analyses) to mean HR (
1.0 Hz) and
was significantly broader than the signal bandwidth near 0.03 Hz. To
observe transient HR and MSNA responses at the signal frequency, the
noise level was gradually increased according to the formula,
= 0.01875t2, where
and
t are, respectively, the SD of the noise in mmHg and time in
minutes (Hidaka et al. 2000
).
Recordings
Beat-to-beat RR intervals (RRIs) were measured continuously from a surface electrocardiogram (ECG) using standard bipolar leads with an ECG device (MEG-1200, Nihon-Koden, Tokyo). Blood pressure was obtained by the tonometry method (BP-508S, Colin, Tokyo) to provide beat-to-beat estimates for systolic blood pressure (SBP) at the right brachium. NCP and LBNP were measured using strain gauge pressure transducers (DX-360, Nihon Kohden). A customized computer (IBM PC/AT) program detected the occurrence of the QRS spikes in ECG at a sampling frequency of 1,000 Hz and read the corresponding values for LBNP and the subsequent highest values for SBP and NCP. The same computer simultaneously controlled LBNP and NCP; the operational commands were sent to the pressure regulators, switching bulbs and the power processor via D/A converters in the interface boards (DAS-1602, Keithley-Metrabyte, Cleveland, OH, and IBX-3304, Interface, Hiroshima, Japan). For NCP, the regulators were controlled on a beat-by-beat basis using a real-time, negative feedback control algorithm based on the measured value. For LBNP, the command was sent to the power processor at a frequency of 100 Hz.
Multiunit postganglionic MSNA was recorded from the right peronial
nerve at the fibular head using tungsten microelectrodes with the
diameter of 200 µm as previously described (Fagius and Wallin
1980). Briefly, the nerve signal was amplified, fed through a
band-pass filter (bandwidth, 700-3,000 Hz), rectified, and integrated using a time constant of 0.1 s. The preamplified signal was routed to a loudspeaker and a storage oscilloscope to auditorily and visually
discriminate MSNA from skin sympathetic (SSNA) or other nerve
activities. MSNA has four specific properties (Fagius and Wallin
1980
; Vallbo et al. 1979
). 1) MSNA is
observed synchronously with heartbeats with the relatively constant lag
time (
1.3 s after the occurrence of R wave), while other nerve
activities have no pulse rhythmicity. 2) The frequency and
amplitude of MSNA bursts are increased by the Valsalva maneuver.
3) MSNA responses are observed by tapping the innervating
muscle, but not by touching the skin, which sensitizes SSNA.
4) Echo stimulation (clapping hands by examiners) has no
effect on MSNA, while SSNA shows a marked response to the abrupt sound.
The position of the electrode was adjusted so that the signal satisfied
these four criteria.
The integrated MSNA signal was stored on a DAT recorder and analyzed off-line at a sampling frequency of 100 Hz. MSNA bursts were identified, and the amplitudes were obtained for each heartbeat. The amplitudes were converted to relative values by setting the maximum burst amplitude for each subject to 1,000 arbitrary unit (a.u.). To avoid subjectivity in detecting bursts by examiners, small bursts (<200 a.u.) were not used.
Data analyses
After removing noisy artifacts, 40-min RRI time series were
interpolated and resampled using the cubic spline function to yield
4,096 (=212) data points, which were then used to
convert the time series into an analytic signal and to evaluate the
instantaneous signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for the entire data set.
After Hilbert transformation, time-frequency distributions
(Wigner-Ville distributions) were calculated (Cohen
1989; Novak and Novak 1993
) using a 256-point data window corresponding to 2.5 min. At each time point, a mean distribution value within a signal bandwidth
(DS+N; 0.025-0.035 Hz) was calculated. The noise
component (DN) within this distribution value was
estimated by a geometric mean of the average distribution values just
below (0.015-0.025 Hz) and above (0.035-0.045 Hz) the signal
bandwidth. The geometric instead of an arithmetic mean was used here
because the RRI time series in the low-frequency range has been shown
to have a power law decay in the spectrum (Goldberger et
al. 1990
; Yamamoto and Hughson 1994
).
The SNR of the RRIs (SNRRRI) was then
calculated by (DS+N
DN)/DN. This temporally
varying SNRRRI was further smoothed using the method of robust locally weighted regression (Cleveland
1979
) to examine the transient responses in
SNRRRI with increasing levels of noise.
Because of the inherently silent nature of MSNA during weak LBNP,
continuous evaluation of the SNR as done for
SNRRRI was impossible. We therefore divided the
40-min data into nonoverlapping 10-min segments (stages I, II, III, and
IV) within which SNRs for the pooled MSNA bursts were evaluated; the
mean SD of the noise at each stage was 0.66, 4.41, 11.91, and 23.16 mmHg, respectively. In addition, as the noise-induced bursts of MSNA
were observed only when the LBNP was the lowest (Fig. 2B),
we only used MSNA bursts within windows (period L) during which LBNP
was lower than 8.555 ± 0.034 mmHg, corresponding to 80 percentile of heartbeats for each subject. For comparison, bursts
occurring within windows (period H) during which LBNP was higher than
0.055 ± 0.003 mmHg, corresponding to 20 percentile of
heartbeats, were collected from the same number of heartbeats as for
period L.
The burst frequency (BF), mean burst amplitude (MBA), and the total
nerve activity (TNA = BF × MBA) were calculated for each period (L or H) at each stage (I, II, III, or IV). We also calculated mean HR and SBP, after being band-pass filtered (0.01-0.05 Hz) (Hidaka et al. 2000), for each period at each stage.
SNRs for BF (SNRBF), MBA
(SNRMBA), TNA (SNRTNA), HR
(SNRHR), and SBP (SNRSBP) were obtained by dividing the values obtained from period L by those
from period H.
Statistical analyses
Values are represented as means ± SD. Two-way ANOVA was
performed to evaluate the effects of LBNP (L or H) and noise stage. One-way ANOVA was used to evaluate the effect of noise stage on SNRs.
For multiple comparisons of the values at stages II, III, and IV with
those at stage I, the paired t-test was used. Holm's correction (Holm 1979) was applied to keep the total
error of the tests below 5%. Values of P < 0.05 were
considered significant.
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RESULTS |
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Figure 1C shows a
representative transient response of an RRI time series in one subject.
As in our previous study (Hidaka et al. 2000), the RRI
time series was band-pass filtered (0.01-0.05 Hz) to more clearly show
the periodic oscillation induced by LBNP. This filtering procedure was
not used in calculating SNRRRI. The magnitude of
the RRI oscillations evoked by the oscillatory LBNP (Fig.
1B) initially increased until reaching a maximum, and then gradually declined as the noise level continued to increase (Fig. 1A).
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The voltage commands sent to the LBNP tank were sinusoidal, but due to
the mechanical properties of the tank-processor system, the measured
LBNP signal was not, although it was periodic (Fig. 2, A and B).
However, as the RRI responses appeared locally sinusoidal compared with
LBNP (Fig. 1B), we only used the first harmonic in
calculating SNRRRI. Consequently, in all six
subjects, the transient changes in SNRRRI were
characterized by the bell-shaped curves typical of SR phenomena
(Gammaitoni et al. 1998; Wiesenfeld and Moss
1995
) (Fig. 1D).
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Figure 2, A and B, shows representative MSNA records obtained from one subject at stages I and III, respectively. At stage I, MSNA bursts seemed to be distributed uniformly in time and were less related to LBNP. At stage III, by contrast, the bursts were more clustered within the period during which LBNP was the lowest. The arterial blood pressure recordings seemed to be well stable at both stages.
HR, SBP, and MSNA responses to LBNP at different stages of noise intensity are summarized in Table 1. Two-way ANOVA showed that BF and TNA in period L were significantly greater than those in period H. LBNP had no significant effect on HR, SBP, and MBA. While no significant effect of noise intensity (stages) was found by two-way ANOVA, the differences in HR between periods H and L at stages II and III seemed to be greater than those at stages I and IV, suggesting that the HR response to weak LBNP was augmented by adding intermediate levels of noise. Consequently, multiple comparisons following one-way ANOVA showed that SNRHR was significantly greater at stage II than at stage I (Table 1 and Fig. 3A). The noise response curves of SNRHR (Fig. 3A) were very similar to the continuous SNRRRI calculated from the Wigner-Ville distribution (Fig. 1D). In SNRSBP, no significant difference was found between stages (Table 1 and Fig. 3B). Also, as mentioned above, SBP had no significant effect of LBNP, suggesting that there was no appreciable change in the arterial blood pressure and hence in the carotid sinus baroreceptor inputs in synchronized with oscillatory LBNP.
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Although insignificant, SNRBF in general seemed to be improved at intermediate noise levels (Fig. 3C). There was no significant noise-dependent change in SNRMBA (Table 1 and Fig. 3D). When compared with stage I, SNRTNA at stage II seemed to increase slightly, and that at stage III was significantly greater (Table 1 and Fig. 3E).
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DISCUSSION |
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The rationale behind our probing SR within the baroreflex center
in this and the previous study (Hidaka et al. 2000) is
as follows. Earlier physiological studies showed that when decreases in
LBNP (or increases in tilt angle) were small, and hence so were changes
in central venous pressure (Johnson et al. 1974
), the
end-organ responses, including changes in HR (or RRI) and arterial
blood pressure, were minimal. Greater LBNP or lower central venous
pressure, by contrast, resulted in marked hemodynamic responses (Johnson et al. 1974
). In other words, the curves
describing the relationship between the cardiopulmonary baroreflex and
central venous pressure were likely to exhibit threshold-like
nonlinearity often associated with SR (Gammaitoni et al.
1998
; Wiesenfeld and Moss 1995
). Thus without
adding noise, weak changes in central venous blood pressure induced by
oscillatory LBNP should not result in appreciable end-organ responses,
which might in turn activate the arterial baroreflex.
On the other hand, the changes in carotid sinus pressure evoked by the
neck chamber device are readily transmitted to the CNS, because in
normal humans, arterial baroreflex responses to changes in the carotid
sinus pressure are highly linear near the operating point
(Mancia and Mark 1983). As this afferent noise is
independently transmitted to the nucleus tractus solitarius in the
brain stem (Andresen and Kunze 1994
), where it merges
with the signal from the cardiopulmonary baroreceptors, the effects of
the noise, if present, would likely be indicative of SR within the brain.
Our findings that noise enhances SNRRRI and
SNRHR are consistent with that scenario. Although
we previously obtained similar results using weak oscillatory tilt
(Hidaka et al. 2000), we had reservations because
oscillatory tilt inevitably perturbs hydrostatic blood pressure at the
carotid sinus, and a small periodic signal might thus be presented to
the baroreceptors there. In addition, as the subject's head moved
periodically, the effect of the vestibular system on the baroreflex
modulation of HR (Yates 1992
) also complicated the
interpretation. By minimizing these factors using oscillatory LBNP, we
were able to show the functional benefits of added noise in the brain.
In fact, we could not find any significant differences in SBP between
periods L and H, and SNRSBP was not significantly altered by adding noise. This strongly suggests that we could minimize
the factors described above. While noise-enhanced information processing in brain has been proposed based on observations of SR in a
mammalian brain preparation (Gluckman et al. 1996
;
Stacey and Durand 2000
) and with a dynamic model
(Mandell and Selz 1993
), the current findings provide
the first experimental confirmation for a functional role for noise in
the brain.
We also observed that noise enhanced SNRTNA
responses, which are directly related to the vasomotor responsiveness
controlling peripheral resistance against hypotensive stimuli. However,
the result was different from that for SNRHR in
that there was no significant increase in SNRTNA
at the earlier stage II (Fig. 3E). It is still unclear
whether the relationship between LBNP and MSNA responses would exhibit
apparent threshold-like nonlinearity. Jacobsen et al.
(1993) measured MSNA while applying 5-min graded LBNPs of
5,
10, and
15 mmHg, and reported that both BF and TNA increased
exponentially with increasing levels of LBNP. Zoller et al.
(1972)
also reported that forearm blood flow, reflecting peripheral sympathetic activity, decreased exponentially with application of LBNPs of
5,
10,
20, and
40 mmHg. These results indicate that the response curves for MSNA to LBNP have no obvious threshold, although they do possess threshold-like nonlinearity. The
blunted MSNA responses to LBNP might thus result in the delayed SR
curve for SNRTNA.
There are some methodological limitations in the current study. First,
the length of the period of data collection was limited to 40 min,
mainly to limit the restrictive stress on the subjects, who were asked
to maintain a constant waking state and a constant body position. A
longer period of data collection might have enabled us to observe
clearer SR effects, e.g., in SNRBF. Second, a
hysteresis or a time effect of monotonically increasing noise intensity
might also be considered; however, this is unlikely, as we observed SR
effects on RRI with a randomized design in terms of noise intensity (Hidaka et al. 2000).
In conclusion, we were able to confirm that SR is functionally
operative within the human baroreflex center. We believe these results
to be particularly important from the standpoint of baroreflex physiology. The current results suggest that simple evaluation of the
linear transfer characteristics from the input (blood pressure) to the
output (efferent neural activities and/or the target organ responses)
(Kubota et al. 1992) may not be sufficient since noise intrinsic to the human cardiovascular system (Goldberger et al. 1990
; Yamamoto and Hughson 1994
) would alter the
baroreflex sensitivity, i.e., the input-output relationship, even if
the input stimuli were kept constant. This also suggests that the
causality of the brain's response might be influenced by the existence
of background "noise," and we might have to take the background
fluctuations or ongoing (neural) activities into account when studying
the regulatory systems in the brain.
We also believe the current observation on the enhancement of the brain
stem responsiveness to be relevant as an experimental basis for a
biomedical engineering application, whereby externally added noise is
used to compensate for brain dysfunction such as orthostatic disorders,
because the brain stem SR was obtained at a functional level in humans.
Orthostatic intolerance affects an appreciable part of population
(Robertson 1999), including the elderly (Lipsitz
1989
), adolescents, and astronauts. The noise-induced sensitization of human baroreflex shown in this study may
provide an alternative treatment strategy to traditional
nonpharmacologic interventions such as salt loading and elastic
stockings (Lipsitz 1989
).
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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This work was supported by Monbusho Grant-in-Aids for Scientific Research and Japan Space Forum.
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FOOTNOTES |
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Address for reprint requests: Y. Yamamoto, Educational Physiology Laboratory, Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan (E-mail: yamamoto{at}p.u-tokyo.ac.jp).
Received 13 June 2000; accepted in final form 13 April 2001.
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REFERENCES |
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