Affiliations of authors: R. H. Secker-Walker, G. J. Hooper (Office of Health Promotion Research), P. M. Vacek (Biometry Facility), D. A. Plante (Department of Medicine), University of Vermont, Burlington; A. S. Detsky, Department of Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada.
Correspondence to: Roger H. Secker-Walker, M.D., 1 South Prospect St., Burlington, VT 05401-3444 (e-mail: rseckerw{at}zoo.uvm.edu).
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ABSTRACT |
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INTRODUCTION |
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As part of a project to determine the cost-effectiveness of a community-based program to promote breast screening, we estimated the costs incurred by women in terms of time spent, distance traveled, and cash payments for the detection, diagnosis, treatment, and early follow-up of both malignant and benign breast problems. We also compared the costs incurred by women for breast problems found by screening with those found because of symptoms.
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SUBJECTS AND METHODS |
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This observational study took place in four suburban coastal communities in Florida. One community, with a population of 352 051 in 1992 (13), was the site of a multifaceted, community-based intervention designed to encourage women to participate in breast screening through regular breast self-examination, annual clinical breast examinations, and regular mammography (14). The other three communities, adjacent to each other and demographically similar to the first, had a combined population of 358 890 in 1992 (13) and served as the comparison site for evaluation of that intervention.
This study was approved by the University of Vermont's Institutional Review Board, in accordance with an assurance filed with and approved by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Written informed consent was obtained from each subject in the study.
Participant Recruitment
For this study, women who had undergone a breast biopsy 6-8 months earlier were randomly selected from lists of breast biopsy reports supplied by each of the pathology laboratories in the four communities. Because about 25% of the breast biopsy reports indicated breast cancer, our sampling fraction for women with benign breast disease was one third of that for women with breast cancer to obtain similar sample sizes in both groups.
Women were invited to participate in the study by their surgeon. An invitation letter, prepared by our staff on the surgeon's letterhead and signed by the surgeon, was sent to each woman selected. Included with this letter were a response form on which the woman could check whether or not she wished to participate in the study and a stamped addressed envelope to be returned with the form to the woman's surgeon, who then forwarded them to us.
Participating surgeons (n = 27) sent invitations to 941 women. Two hundred fifty women (27%) did not respond to their surgeon's invitation, and 153 (16%) refused to participate. Five hundred thirty-eight women (57%) agreed to be interviewed. Fifteen of these women could not be reached, and five lived outside the study communities, leaving 518 women with completed interviews. Of these, 53 were excluded from the analysis because of a history of breast cancer or of breast biopsies, leaving 465 interviews for analysis: 208 (45%) from women with breast cancer and 257 (55%) from women with benign breast disease. The 53 women excluded did not differ statistically significantly from the study participants in age, educational level, or household income.
The 465 study participants represented 49% of the 941 women invited to take part in this study. Refusal rates did not differ with respect to surgeons or intervention and comparison sites. The only information available to us on the women who refused was their breast biopsy reports: age and breast pathology. There were no statistically significant differences in age distribution or in the proportions of women with breast cancer or benign breast disease among the subjects who refused to participate and those who participated. Among women with breast cancer, there was no statistically significant difference in the proportions of those with in situ, local, regional, or distant disease. Among women with benign breast disease, there was no statistically significant difference with respect to histologic categories of risk for breast cancer derived from their breast biopsy reports (15).
The age and stage distributions for participants who had breast cancer were not statistically significantly different from those for all women with breast cancer from these four communities, as compiled by the Florida Cancer Registry from 1992 through 1994. The stage distribution also was not statistically significantly different from that for women with breast cancer in the Survival, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER)1 dataset from 1992 through 1994; however, our participants were statistically significantly older.
Interviews
Women who agreed to participate were called by telephone and given a brief outline of the content of the interview, including our interest in costs, and then appointments were made to see them. The women were interviewed by trained interviewers, who first obtained their informed consent. The interviews, conducted from 1992 through 1995, took place 6-33 months after the breast biopsies, with an average elapsed time ± standard deviation (SD) of 11.0 ± 4.0 months and a median elapsed time of 10 months.
The interviews lasted an average of 34 ± 14 minutes. Women were asked how their breast problem had been discovered, what tests were done to establish the diagnosis, what treatment they had received, and how often they were being seen for follow-up. For each of these steps, women were asked how much time they were away from work or their home, their mode of transport, and how far they had to travel. They were also asked about their health insurance coverage and any cash payments made for the various services. The wording of the items in the questionnaire concerning these issues, using mammography as an example, is shown in the "Appendix" section. Cash payments were for procedures that took place from 1991 through 1995 and have not been adjusted for inflation. The average rate of response to questions about time ± SD was 96.0% ± 1.6% and to those about cash payments was 73.7% ± 5.2%. Data concerning the time spent by the subject doing a breast self-examination, having a clinical breast examination, or by family members or others assisting these women were not collected.
Gasoline Cost Per Mile Driven
The average price of gasoline in the United States in 1994, including taxes, was obtained from the Energy Information Administration; it was $1.174 per gallon (16). Average gas mileage ± SD, based on the make and year of 855 vehicles parked in patient and visitor parking lots of all six hospitals in the largest community, was estimated at 25.4 ± 4.8 miles per gallon. This yielded an average cost of 4.6 cents per mile driven.
Definition of Detection by Screening
We classified a breast problem as identified through screening if a woman was without breast symptoms, and her problem was found through regular breast self-examination (17-20), by a clinical examination, or by screening mammography. We classified a mammogram as diagnostic if the woman had breast symptoms that then led to a mammogram.
Demographics
Demographic information including age, education, and household income was also
obtained. Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics for women with
breast cancer and those with benign breast disease. Overall, 53% were aged 65 years or
older, 55% had more than a high school education, 72% were married, 34%
worked outside the home, 52% had household incomes of $30 000 or more, and
17% had no insurance coverage for mammography. Five percent were nonwhite.
Compared with women with breast cancer, women with benign breast disease tended to be
younger and to have more years of education and larger household incomes; a larger proportion
worked outside the home, but a smaller proportion had full insurance coverage. When the
demographic characteristics of women whose breast problem was detected by screening were
compared with those of women whose problem was found because of symptoms, the only
significant difference was in household incomescreened women tended to have higher
incomes (P = .006).
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We have chosen to present a set of costs and consequences to represent patient-incurred costs rather than to translate all of the costs into dollar amounts (21,22). Specifically, our set includes out-of-pocket expenses for medical diagnoses and treatment and patient-incurred costs, time spent, and travel distance. We chose to do so for two reasons. First, the majority of participants were retired, making any estimates of monetary value of their time somewhat arbitrary. Second, for those who were working, we did not collect wage or salary data, again making estimates somewhat arbitrary. Thus, although others have put a monetary value on time (10,12), we prefer to use the participants' time estimates as the way to express lost opportunity costs and to use dollar values only for the cash payment estimates for medical services and for gasoline.
Data on time spent, distance traveled, and cash payments are presented in the following three categories: detection and diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up. Data for detection and diagnosis were combined because all women had a breast biopsy. Most women with benign breast disease who reported surgical treatment believed that their breast problem was removed during the surgical biopsy procedure, which they regarded as treatment. For these women, we have attributed the time spent, distance traveled, and cash payments for the surgical biopsy to treatment rather than to diagnosis.
Statistical Analyses
2 tests were used to compare differences in demographic characteristics
between women with breast cancer and women with benign breast disease and between women
whose breast problem was detected by screening and women whose breast problem was found
because of symptoms. The relationship between women's estimates of the miles they
traveled and measured distances was examined by regression analysis. The time spent away from
home or work, travel distance, and cash payments were computed for each of the detection,
diagnostic, and treatment modalities and for follow-up visits. The time spent away from home or
work, travel distance, and cash payments were also summed across modalities to obtain totals for
detection and diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up. Because the data were highly skewed,
Mann-Whitney tests (23) were used for comparisons between women
with breast cancer and women with benign breast disease, as well as between women whose
breast problems were identified by screening and women whose breast problems were identified
because of symptoms. We have used a two-sided P
.05 as the level for testing
statistical significance.
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RESULTS |
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The methods of detection, diagnosis, and treatment for women with
breast cancer and for those with benign breast disease are shown in
Table 2. Average time and average cash
payments for these procedures are also shown in Table 2
.
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Time and Travel Distance
Virtually all travel was by automobile. Only 11 (2%) of 465 women ever used public transportation for any of their visits for medical services. For a small random sample of women (n = 19), we compared their mileage estimate with the most direct route measured on street maps of the study communities. The correlation coefficient between the women's estimates, which ranged from 1 mile to 50 miles round trip, and the measured distances was r = .9 (P<.001). Respondents tended to overestimate the measured distance by 2.0 miles, but there was no tendency for longer distances to be more greatly overestimated than shorter ones.
The time spent and the round-trip distance traveled for detection, diagnosis, treatment, and
follow-up are shown in Table 3. As would be expected, women found to
have breast cancer spent, on average, substantially more time away from home or work (89
hours) and traveled more miles (369 miles) than women with benign breast disease, who spent
about 13 hours away from home or work and traveled 56 miles. Time spent and distance traveled
for detection and diagnosis did not differ between women with breast cancer and those with
benign breast disease. The largest difference for time spent and distance traveled was seen for
treatment, although time spent and distance traveled for follow-up was also statistically
significantly greater. Overall, for women with breast cancer, the average time spent and distance
traveled for detection, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up was about sevenfold greater than those
for women with benign breast disease.
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At 4.6 cents per mile, the average cash payment for gasoline for detection, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up for women with breast cancer was about $17; for women with benign breast disease, it was about $2.50.
Time Off Work
Most women (67%) were not working outside the home. Among women who took time off work, the proportion not paid for this time varied for each procedure and ranged from 34% of the 88 women who took time off for surgical biopsies to 60% of the 30 women who took time off to have needle biopsies.
Cash Payments for Medical Services
The large SDs for all of the average reported cash payments (Table
2) reflect differences in insurance coverage, as well as charges, with
many women having no cash payments. This resulted in a median of $0 for
all cash payments except for tamoxifen, for which the median cash
payment was $5. The average cash payment for a screening mammogram ±
SD was $19 ± $35; however, for women with no insurance coverage for
this procedure, this average was $82 ± $35.
Table 4 shows the average cash payments for medical services for
women with breast cancer or benign breast disease separated by method of detection, screening,
or because of symptoms. No statistically significant differences were seen between women
whose breast problems were found by screening and women whose breast problems were
detected because of symptoms. To examine overall cash payments related to screening, we
combined the data for women with breast cancer and benign breast disease. The cash payments
for detection, diagnosis, and treatment (mean ± SD) were statistically significantly lower
(P = .045) among women whose breast problem was found by screening, $453
± $1139 (median = $16), compared with $749 ± $1417 (median
= $100) for symptomatic women.
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DISCUSSION |
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To put the reported cash payments of women with breast cancer in perspective, we have compared them with recent estimates of first year costs of diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of breast cancer from Medicare and from two health maintenance organizations in the United States (24-26). Adjusted to 1994 dollars by use of the medical care component of the consumer price index, these estimates range from $10 990 to $19 290. Our estimate of the average total cash payment for medical services and gas mileage for detection, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up for breast cancer, about $800, amounts to 4%-7% of these first year costs.
For the women in our study, time spent away from home or work for mammography averaged 1.5 hours. Cash payments averaged about $22 for the mammographic examination and gas mileage and amounted to 23% of the average charge for a screening mammogram. These compare to almost 2 hours (117 minutes) and $15 (United States) in 1994 dollars ($16 [Australian] in 1989) for the monetary value of attendance and travel time for an Australian breast screening program (10), which was 14% of the cost per screened woman ($112 [United States] in 1994 dollars or $119 [Australian] in 1989). The Australian costs for screening mammography also included investigations and biopsy for problems detected by screening (10,27). Our participants' cash payments were also greater than the estimate of $15 (United States) in 1994 dollars (£6.20 in 1986) for the monetary value of attendance and travel time from one of the centers in the U.K. trial of the early detection of breast cancer (12). If a monetary value were placed on time and included with the cash payments, the cost for mammography incurred by women in our study would clearly be greater in the United States than either of the estimates from Australia or the U.K.
It is important to realize that our results are based on recall of events that took place, on
average, about 11 months earlier and are, thus, subject to error. The reliability of self-reported
breast screening information has been reported for low-income women from these same coastal
communities (28). For mammography, reliabilities were =
.82 for "ever had a mammogram" and
= .68 for
"mammogram in the last year" and were comparable to reliability estimates for
other health behaviors (29-32).
We have no way of validating the time estimates; however, for procedures such as mammography, ultrasound, needle aspiration, and breast biopsy, the estimates have face validity. For the surgical treatment of breast cancer, the average time spent away from home, 52 hours (2.2 days), compares with a mean time of 3.4 days in the hospital for initial care for breast cancer in the period from 1987 through 1991 at Kaiser Permanente in Northern California (27) and, given the increasing use of ambulatory surgery, lends some credibility to these time estimates.
Distance traveled was based on women's estimates of the round-trip mileage, which, on average, tended to be about 2 miles more than the measured distance.
Although the average response rate to questions about cash payments was 74%, the missing data reduce the reliability of these estimates. The majority of payments were based on recall, although about one third of the women had some record of their payments available for the interviewer. During the time that we were conducting these interviews, average charges ± SD for diagnostic and screening mammography, obtained from each facility in the four counties, were $96 ± $23, although at certain times there were various promotional activities when lower prices were available for screening mammograms. Thus, the uninsured women's recall of their cash payments for mammography, which averaged $82, also have face validity.
It is difficult to estimate how generalizable our observations are. In two respects, age and breast cancer stage, the randomly selected participants were representative of women with breast cancer in the four communities. These participants were also similar with regard to stage distribution but were older than women with breast cancer in the SEER dataset. We note that, in the 1990 U.S. Census, 25% of women in these four communities were aged 65 years or more compared with 12% of women in the United States as a whole. Other factors affect generalization. Patterns of health care show regional variations (33,34). For the Medicare population, these women have been reported as more marked for excision of benign breast lesions than for mastectomy (35). There has also been a substantial increase in managed care throughout the United States since we undertook this study (36). The distance people must travel for health care and the availability of systems of public transportation vary substantially for large cities, predominantly suburban communities, and rural areas. Thus, caution should be used in applying our findings to other populations and settings.
We did not include time for others who might have assisted study participants or the participant's time spent for breast self-examination or clinical breast examination, making our time estimates conservative. For a screening program, in addition to the costs we have estimated, costs for women with normal findings and also for those with abnormal findings that lead to further tests but do not require a biopsy should also be included in a cost-effectiveness analysis.
We conclude that there are substantial personal costs for women who are found to have a breast problem, whether through screening or because of symptoms. Time spent and distance traveled for detection and diagnosis for women with breast cancer and for women with benign breast disease were similar, but cash payments were lower for women with breast cancer. Most of the personal costs for women with breast cancer were incurred during treatment and to a lesser extent during follow-up. Cash payments for detection, diagnosis, and treatment were less for all women whose breast problems were identified through screening. Further consideration should be given to including estimates of women's personal costs when undertaking cost-effectiveness analyses of breast screening.
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NOTES |
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Supported by Public Health Service grants CA46456 and CA22435 from the National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services.
We thank the many women who freely gave of their time to participate in this study. We are grateful to Violet Hacker, Mary Ann Huber, Danielle Landis, Christine Lapinsky, and Catherine Olivero for their skilled help in conducting the interviews. We also thank Dr. Donald L. Weaver for his helpful advice concerning breast biopsy pathology. We extend our thanks to the following pathologists, surgeons, and organizations and their office staffs for their assistance with inviting women to take part in this study: Mark S. Beatty, M.D., David M. Bernstein, M.D., Eric C. Borock, M.D., Gordon D. Burtch, M.D., Michael J. Costello, M.D., Dale E. Fell, M.D., Paul A. Graham, M.D, Jacob H. Goldberger, M.D., Hiedi D. Gorsuch, M.D., Warren E. Hagen, M.D., Stuart S. Harrison, M.D., William A. Kokal, M.D., Thomas E. Kowalsky, M.D., James W. Large, M.D., Alan Levin, M.D., Jeffrey W. Lewis, M.D., Steven Lofton, M.D., Arun K. Penukonda, M.D., Luis A. Ruilova, M.D., Abraham Sadighi, M.D., Edward J. Scheel, M.D., Roger D. Scott, M.D., Charles P. Shook, M.D., Robert L. Sonn, D.O., Kalkunte R. Suresh, M.D., Michael J. Sweeney, M.D., John H. Terry, M.D., James J. Vopal, M.D., Roger B. Ward, M.D., Leonard Walker, M.D., Virginia A. White, M.D., Gulf Coast Pathology, and Seldenstein, Levine and Associates.
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APPENDIX |
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Manuscript received March 9, 1998; revised January 8, 1999; accepted February 18, 1999.
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