Affiliations of authors: Y. C. Xie, C. Hwang, Z, Zeng, M. H. Eng, J. J. Mulé (Department of Surgery and the Comprehensive Cancer Center), M. J. Imperiale (Department of Microbiology and Immunology), The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; W. Overwijk, N. P. Restifo, Surgery Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD; M. G. Sanda, Department of Surgery (Urology) and the Comprehensive Cancer Center, and Department of Medicine (Oncology), The University of Michigan, and Surgery Service-Urology Section, Ann Arbor Veterans Administration Medical Center, Ann Arbor.
Correspondence to: Martin G. Sanda, M.D., Department of Surgery (Urology), University of Michigan, 1500 E. Medical Center Dr., 2916 Taubman Center, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0330 (e-mail: msanda{at}umich.edu).
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ABSTRACT |
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INTRODUCTION |
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SV40 Tag has several attributes that make it potentially useful in recombinant vaccine strategies. First, because SV40 Tag is a genuine tumor-associated antigen that is not present in normal host cells, vaccine therapies targeting this antigen need not overcome tolerance to achieve efficacy and circumvent the potential hazard of autoimmune responses against tumor-associated antigens coexpressed by tumor and normal tissue. Second, apart from its association with certain human cancers, SV40 is also pathogenic in rodent models, providing a unique setting for optimizing potentially clinically relevant recombinant vaccines in animal models (10). Third, the immunogenicity of SV40 Tag has been studied extensively (11-13), providing insight for rational approaches to the development of new therapeutic vaccine strategies targeting this tumor-associated antigen.
Despite these attributes of SV40 Tag, a cancer vaccine strategy providing safe and effective therapy for pre-established SV40 Tag-expressing tumors has previously been elusive. To determine whether recombinant poxvirus vaccines targeting SV40 Tag would provide an avenue for unprecedented therapeutic efficacy against established SV40 Tag-expressing tumors, we have made a novel recombinant vaccinia construct. This vector encodes a safety-modified SV40 Tag sequence (mTag) that excludes retinoblastoma protein binding site, p53 binding site, and the amino-terminal oncogenic CR1 and J domains to optimize potential clinical safety but that preserves immunogenic domains. After confirming expression of the expected SV40 Tag fragment by this novel recombinant vaccinia construct termed recombinant vaccinia-encoding mTag (vac-mTag), studies were undertaken to evaluate its efficacy against SV40 Tag-expressing tumors in vivo. These studies provide evidence that vac-mTag can efficiently prime the immune response to provide effective antigen-specific protection and therapy against SV40 Tag-expressing lethal tumors.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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All cell lines were maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium (Life Technologies, Inc. [GIBCO BRL], Gaithersburg, MD) supplemented with 100 U of penicillin per mL, 100 mg of streptomycin per mL, and 10% fetal bovine serum (Life Technologies, Inc.) at 37 °C in a 5% CO2 incubator. mKSA (provided by J. Butel, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX) and B6wt19 (provided by S. Tevethia, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey) are SV40 Tag-expressing cell lines derived from BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice, respectively. BSC-1 (a monkey tumor cell line that is known to be a productive host cell for vaccinia infection), YAC-1 (a murine tumor cell line that is exquisitely sensitive to cytolysis mediated by natural killer cells or lymphokine-activated killer cells), and Tag-expressing COS-1 cells were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (Manassas, VA). RM-1 (provided by T. Thompson, Baylor College of Medicine) is a prostate cancer cell line that lacks Tag and was derived from C57BL/6 mice.
Animals
Six- to 8-week-old male C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice were purchased from Harlan Sprague-Dawley, Inc. (Indianapolis, IN). All experiments were approved by the University of Michigan Committee on Use and Care of Animals and were conducted in accordance with National Institutes of Health guidelines. Mice were followed until death from cancer or were euthanized when an individual who was blinded to the immunization or therapy status of the animals determined that tumors interfered with the animal's well-being, as shown by ungroomed fur, slow movement, or cachexia (as evidenced by wasting and spinal protrusion). Death was confirmed to be tumor-related via postmortem examination by a licensed veterinarian.
Construction of Recombinant Vaccinia Encoding an SV40 Tag Fragment
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to amplify mTag from the pBSV-1 plasmid (provided by J. Butel), with 5' (5'-GGAAGATCTGTCGACCATGGTGTCTGCTATTAATAACTAGC-3') and 3'(5'-ATACCAATTAATTAACCCGGGTACCTTATTACTCACTGCGTTCCAGGCAATG-3') primers to adapt the mTag fragment for cloning. The PCR product was electrophoresed in a 1% agarose gel (Boehringer Mannheim Corp., Indianapolis, IN), purified by use of a QIAEX II gel extraction kit (QIAGEN, Santa Clarita, CA), and subcloned in a site adjacent to the synthetic E/L promoter (pS.E/L) in pSC65 (14-16) that had been digested with PacI and BglII. The pSC65-mTag ligation product was used to transform DH5a cells, and pSC65-mTag plasmid DNA was obtained by use of the QIAGEN plasmid preparation kit. Orientation of the mTag insert was confirmed by HindIII digestion, and DNA sequencing confirmed the expected sequence.
vac-mTag was generated by homologous recombination in BSC-1 cells transfected by pSC65-mTag as described (14), with recombinant BSC-1 plaques identified by immunocytostaining with Tag-specific monoclonal antibody Pab204 (provided by J. Pipas, University of Pittsburgh, PA). For immunocytostain, BSC-1 cells were infected with vaccinia control or vac-mTag at a multiplicity of infection of five for 48 hours in eight-well chamber slides and then fixed with a solution of acetone and methanol followed by incubation with Pab204 (1 : 400 dilution). After a 2-hour incubation at room temperature with primary Pab204 anitbody, samples were washed twice and incubated with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated rabbit anti-mouse immunoglobulin G1 antibody (1 : 200 dilution) for 1 hour, after which the substrate diaminobenzidine was added for 5 minutes. Isolation and titer determination of both vac-mTag and control vaccinia vector V69 (encoding influenza nuclear protein) were performed as previously described (14-16).
Reverse Transcription-Coupled PCR
BSC-1 cells were infected with either the control vaccinia vector (V69) or vac-mTag at a multiplicity of infection of five for 48 hours. Total cellular RNA was prepared from infected and uninfected BSC-1 cells, mKSA cells, and B6wt19 cells with the use of RNAzolB (Tel-Test, Friendswood, TX) and quantified by spectrophotometry. Reverse transcription was performed with the Promega reverse transcription system (Promega Corp., Madison, WI). PCR amplification was performed with mTag cloning primers (see above). PCR products were electrophoresed in 1% agarose gels (Boehringer Mannheim Corp.) and visualized with ethidium bromide.
Western Blot Analysis
BSC-1 cells infected with either the control vaccinia vector (V69) or vac-mTag (as described for reverse transcription-coupled PCR above) were harvested and resuspended in protein lysis buffer (1% deoxycholate, 1% Nonidet P-40, 0.1% sodium dodecyl sulfate, 0.15 M NaCl, 10 mM NaH2PO4 [pH 7], and 1 mM dithiothreitol; Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO) with protein inhibitors phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, leupeptin, and aprotinin (Boehringer Mannheim Corp.). Protein concentration was determined with Bio-Rad protein assay kit (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA). Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in 8% gels was carried out at 250 V for 4 hours at 4 °C with 50 µg of total protein per lane and transferred to nitrocellulose (Hoefer Semi-PhorTM system; Hoefer Scientific Instruments, San Francisco, CA). After blocking with 5% milk for 1 hour at room temperature, the filter was incubated with primary antibody Pab204 (1 : 5000 dilution), washed three times in Tris-buffered saline containing 0.1% Tween 20, incubated with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-mouse immunoglobulin G antibody (1 : 10 000 dilution), and visualized by use of ECL detection reagents (Amersham Life Science Inc., Arlington Heights, IL).
SV40 Tag-Specific Cytotoxic T-Lymphocyte (CTL) Activity
Splenocytes from C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice were harvested 3 weeks after intravenous injection of vac-mTag or control vaccinia V69 (5 x 106 plaque-forming units/mouse). CTL activity was evaluated by chromium (51Cr) release assay after 1 week of splenocyte stimulation with mitomycin C-treated syngeneic Tag-expressing tumor cells in vitro. 51Cr-labeled target cells were incubated with splenocytes at ratios of 100, 20, 4, and 0.8 for 4 hours, and lysates were harvested and analyzed as described previously (17). Percent specific lysis was calculated from triplicate samples as follows: [(experimental cpm - spontaneous cpm)/(maximal cpm - spontaneous cpm)] x 100, where cpm = counts per minute. Data included in this report represent all assays in which spontaneous release of labeled target cells was less than 20% of maximal release, and standard deviation of triplicate values were less than 15%.
Vaccine Protection and Therapy Against Tumor Challenge
For experiments evaluating protection against tumor challenge after immunization, BALB/c mice were immunized with V69 or vac-mTag at 5 x 106 plaque-forming units/mouse via tail-vein injection. Three weeks later, 106 mKSA tumor cells were injected subcutaneously in the right flank. Animals were monitored four to six times weekly for onset and progression of tumors that were measurable by calipers and for survival by an individual blinded to the immunization status of the animals.
To evaluate therapy of pre-established microscopic tumors in BALB/c mice, 106 mKSA tumor cells were injected subcutaneously in the right flank. Therapy was begun 2 days later by injecting into the tail vein vac-mTag or V69 (control vaccinia vector) at 5 x 106 plaque-forming units/mouse combined with intraperitoneal injection of recombinant interleukin 2 at 90 000 IU per mouse (Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., Nutley, NY) once daily for an additional 3 days. Animals were monitored four to six times weekly for onset and progression of tumors measurable by calipers and for survival by an individual blinded to the immunization status of the animals.
Statistical Analysis
Statistical significance of survival data was evaluated by Kaplan-Meier plots and logrank analysis was performed with Statistica software (StatSoft, Inc., Tulsa, OK). All P values are two-sided.
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RESULTS |
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A strategy was undertaken to construct a poxvirus vaccine that would
encode sequences from SV40 Tag, would preserve as many potential T-cell
epitopes from SV40 Tag as possible, would allow abundant expression
regulated by a vaccinia promoter, and would also have multiple safety
features for potential human use. For this purpose, a region of SV40
Tag was selected that excludes the following pivotal oncogenic domains
of SV40 Tag: the retinoblastoma protein binding site, the second site
of the bipartite p53 binding region, and the transforming CR1 and J
domains (18-21). The nononcogenic region was extended to
include defined murine CTL epitopes for relevant preclinical efficacy
testing (13); to include a majority of the 23 peptides in SV40
Tag that are candidates for presentation by common human HLA A, B, or C
subtypes based on their low dissociation rates (half-time of
dissociation >2 hours) calculated with available software (vide
infra) (22,23); and to concurrently exclude two cryptic
motifs (T5NT sites, where N is any nucleotide) that could
interfere with vaccinia-directed translation (24) (Fig.
1). These criteria delimited a fragment of SV40 Tag
encoding amino acids 205-566, and mTag, the modified SV40 Tag gene
encoding this region, was positioned under the control of the vaccinia
synthetic early and late promoter (pS.E/L in pSC65), which has been
shown to have favorable capacity for inducing tumor-associated
antigen-specific antitumor immune responses compared with other
vaccinia promoters (14,16). After cloning mTag complementary
DNA into pSC65 plasmid, which was then integrated into vaccinia virus,
plaques of BSC-1 cells producing vac-mTag were identified by
immunocytostaining with anti-Tag monoclonal antibody Pab204 (data not
shown). This monoclonal antibody specifically binds to amino acids
453-469 of the Tag protein (25). Expression of the expected
mTag transcript was confirmed by reverse transcription-coupled PCR
(Fig. 2,
A). Primers corresponding to sequences
flanking the ends of the 1070-base-pair transcript were used to amplify
a complementary DNA of the expected size in vac-mTag-infected BSC-1
cells; this transcript was not detected in uninfected or control
vaccinia-infected BSC-1 cells. Translation of the truncated Tag protein
fragment was confirmed by western blotting with anti-Tag antibody
Pab204, which demonstrated the expected 40-kd band in vac-mTag-infected
BSC-1 cells (Fig. 2
, B). Thus, a unique recombinant vaccinia virus
encoding an SV40 Tag region has been constructed and isolated that
leads to expression in infected primate cells of a truncated SV40 Tag
protein that lacks defined oncogenic domains but preserves putative
T-cell epitopes.
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We next sought to evaluate the ability of vac-mTag to induce SV40
Tag-specific CTLs in vivo. These experiments were undertaken
in C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice due to the availability of syngeneic
transformed cells from these mouse strains (B6wt19 and mKSA cells) that
express Tag. SV40 Tag-specific CTL activity was evaluated with effector
CTLs derived from splenocytes of vac-mTag-immunized C57BL/6 mice
against C57BL/6-derived Tag-expressing B6wt19 target cells (Fig.
3, A). This CTL activity was major
histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I-restricted, as shown by the
absence of cytolytic activity against BALB/c-derived mKSA tumor cells.
Antigenic specificity to Tag of the CTL response induced by vac-mTag
was demonstrated as follows: Tag-expressing B6wt19 tumor cells were not
lysed by control CTLs from mice immunized with a control vaccinia
vector lacking Tag sequences (V69), syngeneic RM-1 tumor cells lacking
Tag were not lysed by Tag-specific CTLs derived from C57BL/6 mice
immunized with vac-mTag, and natural killer cell-sensitive YAC-1 target
cells were likewise not killed by the vac-mTag-primed CTLs. Conversely,
CTLs from vac-mTag-immunized BALB/c mice only killed Tag-expressing
target cells of BALB/c origin (mKSA) without substantial lysis of
B6wt19 cells, confirming MHC class I restriction of the CTL response
(Fig. 3
, B). Thus, vac-mTag immunization induced MHC class
I-restricted
Tag-specific CTLs.
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After demonstrating that vac-mTag was able to induce Tag-specific
CTL activity, we undertook studies to characterize the in vivo
antitumor efficacy of vac-mTag immunization against growth and
progression of Tag-expressing tumors. The tumorigenic and highly lethal
mKSA model system was used for these studies (10), instead of
the B6wt19 system, because B6wt19 cells were not consistently
tumorigenic in control assays. First, the protective effect of vac-mTag
immunization against subsequent tumor challenge was evaluated by
immunization of BALB/c mice with vac-mTag or control vaccinia followed
with mKSA tumor challenge 3 weeks later. Statistically significant
protection against tumor challenge was seen in vac-mTag-immunized mice
compared with control vaccinia vector-immunized mice, as measured by
survival (Fig. 4, A; P = .02). A similar
protective effect of vac-mTag immunization was seen when tumor-free
survival, reflecting time to onset of measurable tumors, was evaluated
as an end point. Survival, however, was used as the principal end point
because it was found that mKSA tumors can metastasize to distant sites
(including lung and lymph nodes; data not shown), which were not
readily measurable in the absence of postmortem examination, and
metastases render uncertain the utility of measuring changes in the
primary tumor volume in this model.
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DISCUSSION |
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Previously, immunization strategies for inducing SV40 Tag-specific immune responses have focused on delivering SV40 Tag protein, peptides, SV40-transformed cells, or recombinant vaccines in the form of full-length SV40 Tag DNA (10-13,26,27). In general, these approaches have succeeded in inducing protection against subsequent tumor challenge, but therapeutic efficacy against pre-established SV40 tumors has not been shown previously. Recombinant vaccine strategies against SV40 Tag have themselves been limited to naked plasmid SV40 Tag DNA immunization (10) and recent use of vaccinia encoding full-length Tag or murine MHC class I-specific peptides for studying mechanisms of mouse antigen presentation in vitro (28). Although immunization with these constructs encoding full-length Tag induced Tag-specific CTLs in mice, the oncogenic potential of full-length SV40 constructs hinders potential applicability in human subjects. In addition to lacking human safety modifications, such vaccinia vectors encoding short mouse MHC-specific Tag peptides or full-length Tag (though studied for their abilities of presenting and generating CTL activity in vitro) have not been reported previously to show efficacy in protecting against or treating tumor growth in vivo.
Two desirable components addressing safety optimization for potential clinical use were sought in designing a novel SV40 recombinant vaccine for the current study: first, the choice of a vector for vaccine delivery minimizing likelihood of persistent SV40 Tag oncogene expression in host cells and, second, modification of the tumor-associated antigen to exclude oncogenic components.
In selecting a viral vector, several unique properties of poxvirus vectors such as vaccinia are desirable for an oncogene-specific recombinant vaccine such as one targeting SV40 Tag. Poxvirus carries its own transcription machinery for RNA synthesis and does not integrate into the host cell genome. Viral transcription factors are thus required to express the inserted gene (29). Persistent oncogene expression when an oncogene tumor-associated antigen is delivered by vaccinia is, therefore, expected to be highly unlikely, and this rationale has been applied previously to support the clinical development of recombinant vaccinia encoding human papillomavirus E6/E7 genes as a cervical cancer vaccine (30,31). Despite these hypothetical attributes, however, prior reports of therapeutic efficacy of vaccinia vectors targeting oncogenic tumor-associated antigens have been previously accomplished only in a rodent polyoma model that lacks human clinical correlates (32). These rationale supported the use of vaccinia as the base vector for an SV40 Tag-specific recombinant vaccine.
The oncogenic capacity of SV40 Tag is largely due to its ability to bind and inactivate the products of a number of tumor suppressor genes, including p53 and members of the retinoblastoma family. In addition, the region of SV40 Tag encoded by the first exon can contribute to transformation via a mechanism independent of p53 and retinoblastoma protein (18-21). Safety concerns regarding these oncogenic domains were addressed by selecting a region of SV40 Tag (amino acids 205-566) that excludes the retinoblastoma protein binding site and the transforming CR1 and J domains in the amino terminus and excludes the second site of the bipartite region required for p53 binding (18-21). In addition, two T5NT sequences in Tag gene were excluded to avoid premature termination of transcripts by the vaccinia RNA polymerase (24). A complete SV40 Tag open reading frame between these oncogenic sites was included in vac-mTag to maximally preserve nononcogenic tumor-associated antigen epitopes. We found that in the mKSA tumor model in syngeneic BALB/c mice, the resulting vac-mTag vector showed statistically significant antitumor efficacy in vivo.
The suggestion that vac-mTag may be useful for clinical studies targeting human tumors expressing SV40 Tag requires comment regarding the relevance of vac-mTag with regard to candidate peptides in the mTag sequence for specific human HLA types. For this purpose, the predicted dissociation rates of Tag peptides for the most common HLA types in three North American races (Caucasian, black, and Oriental) were calculated with software from Parker et al. (22,23). The most common North American HLA types (based on prevalence >20% in a specific racial group) are as follows: Caucasians, A1, A2, A3, B7, B44, and Cw3; blacks, A2, A30, Bw53, and Cw4; and Orientals, A2, A11, A24, B13, Bw60, and Cw3 (33). An earlier study (34) suggests that peptides with half-times of dissociation from MHC class I equal to 2 hours or greater are associated with effective antigenic function when delivered by vaccinia vectors. Analysis of the entire SV40 Tag sequence identified 23 candidate antigenic peptides fitting these dissociation rate criteria for the HLA subtypes common in North Americans. Fourteen of these 23 peptide motifs are present within the Tag fragment encoded by vac-mTag. Moreover, a recent study evaluating Tag-specific T cell activity in a patient with a Tag-expressing mesothelioma has identified a dominant Tag peptide at Tag position 285 (Bright R: personal communication), a motif that is also encoded within the vac-mTag vector. These findings support the concept that vac-mTag is a rational substrate for clinical studies targeting Tag-expressing human cancers.
Accumulating evidence that there is an association between SV40 Tag and human mesotheliomas, osteosarcomas, ependymomas, and choroid plexus tumors indicates potential clinical utility for a SV40 Tag-specific recombinant vaccine that can be administered practically and safely to human subjects. As many as 60% of these human tumors have been found to carry SV40 sequences in contemporary studies (1-7,9) and up to two thirds of evaluable specimens have been found to express SV40 Tag messenger RNA or protein (7). In this paper, we have demonstrated that vac-mTag, a novel recombinant vaccinia construct encoding mTag DNA, can induce a potent SV40 Tag-specific immune response in vivo, suggesting a possible therapeutic effect in a lethal SV40 Tag-associated murine cancer model and providing evidence of a potentially preventive and therapeutic approach for treating SV40-associated human cancers.
Note: While this manuscript was in review, the presence of SV40 Tag in human mesothelioma was confirmed in a multi-institutional study reported by Testa et al. (35).
Supported by Public Health Service grant CA71532 from the National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services. M. G. Sanda is the recipient of an American Cancer Society Clinical Career Development Award.
We thank Linda Charles for her technical assistance, Drs. John Lednicky and Janet Butel (Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX) for their helpful discussions of T-antigen cloning strategies, and Cathy Schleif for her expert assistance in the preparation of the manuscript.
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Manuscript received July 21, 1998; revised November 6, 1998; accepted November 16, 1998.
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