Affiliations of authors: M. Robson, K. Offit (Departments of Human Genetics and Medicine), D. Levin (Department of Human Genetics), M. Federici, F. Bogolminy, A. Heerdt, P. Borgen (Department of Surgery), J. Satagopan (Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics), B. McCormick (Department of Radiation Oncology), C. Hudis, L. Norton (Department of Medicine), J. Boyd (Departments of Human Genetics and Surgery), Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY.
Correspondence to: Mark Robson, M.D., Clinical Genetics Service, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Ave., New York, NY 10021 (e-mail:robsonm{at}mskcc.org).
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ABSTRACT |
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INTRODUCTION |
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PATIENTS AND METHODS |
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Review of databases maintained by the Departments of Radiation Oncology and Surgery identified 1248 patients who received breast-conserving treatment at the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center for breast cancer diagnosed during the period from January 1, 1980, through December 31, 1990. Of the 415 women in the databases who identified themselves at the time of hospital registration as being Jewish, 393 were treated for early-stage invasive breast cancer. Archival pathology material and follow-up were available for 314 women who underwent treatment for 338 cancers.
Data Collection
The study was performed in an anonymized manner according to guidelines regarding the conduct of genetic research on stored tissue samples (4). After confirmation of the diagnosis of invasive breast cancer, archival pathologic material was accessioned from hospital tissue banks, and clinical records were reviewed. A limited amount of clinical information was extracted, including age at diagnosis, histologic description of the tumor, tumor size, extent of lymph node involvement, estrogen receptor status (if available), and basic treatment information (if available). To prevent a unique data pattern from identifying individual patients after anonymization, clinical information for each variable was recorded as a range rather than as a discrete value. Time to development of local or distant disease was recorded, as was the time to development of contralateral breast cancer, if any. The time to last follow-up and vital status were determined by reviewing clinical records and contacting the patient, her next of kin, or her primary physician by telephone. The tissue specimen and clinical information for each patient were associated through a unique study number. Samples were made anonymous by removal of all connection between the unique study number and patient identifiers before the linkage of genetic test results to clinical information. This anonymization obviated the need for specific informed consent for this study (4). The design and procedures of the study were approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center.
Genetic Analysis
Genomic DNA was isolated from archival tissue specimens by standard protocols (5). In nearly all cases, normal lymph node tissue from axillary dissection
was used for analysis. All specimens were analyzed for the presence of three BRCA founder
mutations common in individuals of Ashkenazi descent (BRCA1 185delAG, BRCA1 5382insC,
and BRCA2 6174delT) (6-8). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products
encompassing the site of each mutation were generated with the primers
5'-TCTGCTCTTCGCGTTGAAGAA-3' and
5'-CACTCTTGTGCTGACTTACCA-3' for BRCA1 185delAG (90-base-pair
[bp] product), 5'-CAGCATGATTTTGAAGTCAG-3' and
5'-AGGGAGCTTTACCTTTCTGTC-3' for BRCA1 5382insC (99-bp product),
and 5'-GGGAAGCTTCATAAGTCAGTC-3' and
5'-TTTGTAATGAAGCATCTGATACC-3' for BRCA2 6174delT (97-bp
product). Radiolabeled products were produced with a forward primer, end-labeled with
[-33P]adenosine triphosphate, and then visualized by denaturing
polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis followed by autoradiography as previously described in detail
(9,10). The detection of characteristic variant bands indicated the
presence of the mutation being studied. In two previous studies using this technique to screen
archival ovarian cancer tissue for mutations (10,11), all 129 samples with
variant bands were confirmed by sequencing to have the corresponding BRCA mutations, with
no discordant results. In the current study, all mutations were confirmed by an independent PCR
amplification from the corresponding DNA sample and repeat analysis. There were no discordant
results upon repeat analysis.
Statistical Analysis
DNA samples from nine patients failed to yield PCR products, despite repeated attempts. Therefore, the final study group consisted of 305 women undergoing treatment for 329 invasive breast cancers. The median follow-up from first diagnosis for surviving patients is 124 months.
Freedom from ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence was defined as the time from initial diagnosis to diagnosis of cancer in the treated breast or last follow-up. Because of the difficulty in retrospectively differentiating true recurrence from an ipsilateral second primary breast cancer, all ipsilateral breast cancers were considered ipsilateral breast cancer recurrences. This end point was analyzed for all 329 invasive cancers. All other end points were analyzed in 305 patients. Distant disease-free survival was calculated as the time from first conservatively treated breast cancer to detection of any distant recurrence or last follow-up. The development of metachronous contralateral breast cancer was recorded as a separate end point. Women who had previously been diagnosed with breast cancer and had undergone a contralateral mastectomy before the breast cancer diagnosis for which they underwent breast conservation therapy were excluded from the analysis of metachronous contralateral breast cancer (n = 7). Breast cancer-specific survival was defined as the time from the diagnosis of the first conservatively treated cancer to death from breast cancer or last follow-up. Overall survival was the time from diagnosis of first conservatively treated cancer to death from any cause.
Patients were censored if they had not experienced the end point of interest at the time of last follow-up. Some patients died without experiencing any breast cancer-related end point (ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence, distant relapse, contralateral breast cancer, or death due to breast cancer). Hence, all survival probabilities presented in this report were calculated by use of a competing risk approach, and the comparison was done by use of the method of Gray (12). All P values were calculated with two-sided tests.
Prognostic variables considered were age at diagnosis (<50 years versus 50 years),
mutation status (founder mutation present versus no mutation detected), tumor (T) stage
[T1 versus T2; American Joint Committee on Cancer (13)],
and lymph node (N) status [N0 versus N1; American Joint Committee on Cancer (13)]. Hormone receptor status was not evaluated because this
information was not available for 166 specimens. Details of adjuvant chemotherapy were not
available for 53 (16.1%) of 329 cancers. Information regarding the use of adjuvant
tamoxifen was not available for 59 (17.9%) of 329 cancers. Because of the missing data
points and potential biases in treatment assignment, adjuvant treatment was not evaluated as a
separate prognostic variable.
Multivariate models were fit by using the Cox proportional hazards model. If only one variable was statistically significant in univariate analysis, a Cox model was fit by using this single variable to generate risk ratios and confidence intervals (CIs). Patients with missing information regarding tumor stage (17 patients) or lymph node status (14 patients) were excluded from the multivariate analysis. For the identification of factors associated with ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence, values for one or the other of these variables were missing for 31 of 329 breast carcinomas, leaving data from 298 breast carcinomas for multivariate analysis. For breast cancer-specific survival and overall survival, information was missing on 31 of 305 patients; thus, multivariate analysis for these end points was based on data from 274 patients.
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RESULTS |
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BRCA mutations were identified in 28 (9.2%) of 305 women (19 with
BRCA1 185delAG, two with BRCA1 5382insC, six with BRCA2 6174delT, and
one with both BRCA1 185delAG and BRCA2 6174delT). These 28 women
underwent conservative treatment for 35 invasive breast cancers.
Therefore, of the 329 breast cancers in the series, 35 (10.6%) were
associated with mutations (24 with BRCA1 185delAG, two with BRCA1
5382insC, eight with BRCA2 6174delT, and one with BRCA1 185delAG and
BRCA2 6174delT). The clinical characteristics of the 329 cancers in
women with or without founder mutations are shown in Table
1. Women with BRCA mutations were more likely to be
diagnosed before the age of 50 years (62.9% versus 26.2%;
P<.001) and to have axillary lymph node involvement (48.6%
versus 32.3%; P = .04). There was no statistically
significant difference between the groups with respect to tumor stage.
All but two cancers associated with BRCA mutations were of the
infiltrating ductal histology, and none were tubular, colloid, or
papillary carcinomas. When hormone receptor status was known, breast
cancers associated with BRCA mutations were more likely to be negative
for estrogen receptor (14 of 18 versus 54 of 145; P =
.001). Among those women for whom details of adjuvant therapy were
available, systemic chemotherapy was used in 15 (51.7%) of 29 episodes
of cancer associated with BRCA mutations and 78 (31.6%) of 247
episodes in women without mutations (P = .03). Among women for
whom details of systemic therapy were known, adjuvant tamoxifen was
given after local treatment of seven (24.1%) of 29 episodes of breast
cancers associated with BRCA mutations and 92 (38.2%) of 241 women
without mutations (P = .14).
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The probability of ipsilateral breast cancer recurrence for patients
with BRCA founder mutations was 14.9% at 5 years and 22.0% at 10
years, compared with 4.5% and 6.9%, respectively, for patients without these
mutations (P = .25) (Table 2). Distant disease-free
survival among women with BRCA mutations was 74.1% at 5 years and 66.2% at
10 years, compared with 90.5% at 5 years and 84.3% at 10 years among women
without mutations (P = .05).
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Univariate Survival Analyses
Age at diagnosis, tumor stage, lymph node stage, and mutation status
were analyzed individually for their prognostic association with each
end point (Table 2). Age at diagnosis was the only variable associated
with time to ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence. The relative risk
(RR) of ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence associated with the
presence of a germline BRCA mutation was 1.79 (95% CI = 0.64-5.03).
Mutation status, tumor stage, and lymph node involvement were
statistically significantly associated with distant disease-free
survival, breast cancer-specific survival, and overall survival. Breast
cancer-specific survival was also associated with age at diagnosis
(P = .05). Mutation status was the only variable statistically
significantly associated with contralateral breast cancer risk.
Multivariate Survival Analysis
Variables with univariate statistical significance were entered into the multivariate regression analysis by use of a Cox proportional hazards model. Because the only variable attaining univariate statistical significance for ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence was age at diagnosis, this was the only factor retained in the Cox model. Younger patients (<50 years old at diagnosis) had an RR for ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence of 2.51 (95% CI = 1.22-5.16; P = .01).
Mutation status was the only variable associated with contralateral breast cancer risk in the univariate analysis. In the Cox model, the presence of a mutation was associated with a hazard ratio for contralateral breast cancer of 3.50 (95% CI = 1.78-8.74; P = .001).
Mutation status, lymph node status, and tumor stage were the three variables examined in a
multivariate Cox model for distant disease-free survival and breast cancer-specific survival. Age
was also examined in the model for breast cancer-specific survival (Table 3, A). Although tumor stage and lymph node status retained prognostic significance,
the hazard ratio associated with mutation status was not statistically significant for either end
point. Age at diagnosis was not statistically significantly associated with breast cancer-specific
survival in the Cox model. Therefore, the final model for both end points includes only tumor
stage and lymph node status (Table 3,
B).
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DISCUSSION |
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The impact of germline BRCA status on survival is uncertain. Initial studies of patients with breast cancer associated with BRCA1 mutations identified through linkage analysis (28-30) suggested an improved survival. The positive effect of germline BRCA1 mutations was not confirmed in later studies of patients from familial cancer clinics. Such patients were compared with cancer registry (26) or population-based (31) control subjects. Studies of patients with early-onset breast cancer have yielded divergent results, indicating either similar (32) or inferior (33) survival for women who are BRCA heterozygotes. The published studies have a potential bias because they describe the outcome of selected women who consented to undergo germline genetic testing at some time after diagnosis of their breast cancer. An adverse effect of BRCA status on outcome may be obscured in such studies by the exclusion of women who were diagnosed in the same period as the subjects of the study but who did not undergo genetic testing because of early death. In support of this hypothesis, one series of unselected patients with breast cancer described a shorter survival among patients with BRCA1 mutations (34).
In this study, women with BRCA founder mutations had a greater risk of ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence than women without these mutations. The difference did not reach statistical significance, possibly because of the limited number of events observed. The risk of ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence in BRCA heterozygotes does not appear to be great enough to contraindicate breast conservation in this group. Larger studies will be required, however, to definitively resolve whether germline BRCA status independently influences ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence risk in young women.
In this study of unselected Ashkenazi women with breast cancer, women with BRCA founder mutations were at increased risk for distant recurrence, contralateral breast cancer, and breast cancer-related death when compared with women who did not carry the mutations. Only tumor stage and lymph node status retained statistical significance in the multivariate analysis of prognostic factors for distant disease-free and breast cancer-specific survival, although there was a statistically nonsignificant trend for mutation status to have an independent effect on breast cancer-specific survival. This result suggests that women with BRCA mutations in this series were at increased risk for death due to breast cancer because of presentation with more advanced disease. In this regard, axillary lymph node involvement was more common in women with BRCA mutations than in women without such mutations, as was extensive lymph node involvement (metastases in four or more lymph nodes). Alternatively, the observed worse outcome may result from adverse biologic features that have been described in BRCA-associated breast cancers. Such features include high histologic grade and proliferation rates (35-40), aneuploidy (28,40), lack of hormone receptor expression (26,39-42), and somatic p53 mutations (43-45). The differences in outcome observed in the current study could result from an excess of such features in breast cancer arising in women with BRCA mutations. There is no evidence that differences in adjuvant treatment contributed to the observed differences in outcome because women with BRCA mutations were more likely to receive chemotherapy and were not statistically significantly less likely to receive tamoxifen. Furthermore, women receiving adjuvant therapy did not have an improved survival compared with women not receiving such therapy, whether or not a mutation was present (data not shown).
Women with germline BRCA mutations were at a nearly fourfold increased risk for contralateral breast cancer. Nearly 30% of surviving women developed metachronous contralateral breast cancer 10 years after diagnosis. Comparison of contralateral cancer rates in heterozygotes treated with mastectomy alone will be required to discern whether radiation scatter contributes to the risk of contralateral breast cancer among BRCA heterozygotes undergoing breast conservation therapy.
A potential limitation of this study relates to the restriction of genetic testing to the three recurring mutations described among individuals of Ashkenazi descent. Women were selected for inclusion in this study on the basis of their self-declared religious preference. Because the great majority of American Jews are of Ashkenazi descent, the use of religious preference as a surrogate for ethnicity is unlikely to result in substantial misclassification. Unique BRCA mutations other than those analyzed in this study have been described in this population (46-48). We would not expect that the frequency of such mutations in the Jewish patients with breast cancer would be any greater than that in the population of patients with breast cancer as a whole. Because the frequency of BRCA1 mutations in all women in the United States who have breast cancer has been reported to be only 2.6% (49), the number of women with unique BRCA mutations included in the control group is likely to be small. The presence of such women among the control subjects would tend to lessen observed differences between the two groups.
Although the women in this series were members of a specific ethnic group, the results are likely to be valid for BRCA heterozygotes in the general population. To our knowledge, there are no data to suggest that women of Ashkenazi descent have a different clinical outcome than women of other ethnic groups after treatment for breast cancer. Moreover, to our knowledge, there are presently no data indicating that the outcome among BRCA heterozygotes is gene specific or allele specific. The breast cancer risks associated with BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations appear to be similar (50,51), and the gene products interact in the same biologic pathway (52). Large collaborative trials will be required to achieve the sample size necessary to address potential differences in outcome conferred by specific BRCA alleles.
Our study indicates that women with breast cancer associated with BRCA mutations experience a different clinical outcome after breast conservation therapy than women without germline mutations. Women with mutations are more likely to experience distant relapse and to die of breast cancer. The risk of ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence in such women is also increased, but larger studies will be necessary to determine whether this effect is independent of age. Mutation status was not an independent predictor of outcome, suggesting that the shorter survival of women with cancers associated with BRCA mutations results from an association with known negative prognostic factors, such as axillary lymph node involvement. The presymptomatic identification of women with germline BRCA mutations and the implementation of intensified surveillance strategies may mitigate the prognostic impact of such mutations by facilitating cancer detection at the earliest most curable stage.
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NOTES |
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We acknowledge the technical assistance of Ms. Nita Arroyo. We are also indebted to Colin Begg for assistance with study design and to Joan Marks.
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Manuscript received June 28, 1999; revised September 30, 1999; accepted October 6, 1999.
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