Correspondence to: Klaus Benndorf, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Institut für Physiologie, Herz-Kreislauf-Physiologie, D-07740 Jena, Germany. Fax:49-3641-933202 E-mail:kben{at}mti-n.uni-jena.de.
![]() |
Abstract |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
The subunits of CNG channels of retinal photoreceptors (rod) and olfactory neurons (olf) are proteins that consist of a cytoplasmic NH2 terminus, a transmembrane core region (including the segments S1S6), and a cytoplasmic COOH terminus. The COOH terminus contains a cyclic nucleotide monophosphate binding domain NBD) that is linked by the C-linker (CL) to the core region. The binding of cyclic nucleotides to the NBD promotes channel opening by an allosteric mechanism. We examined why the sensitivity to cGMP is 22 times higher in olf than in rod by constructing chimeric channels and determining the [cGMP] causing half maximum channel activity (EC50). The characteristic difference in the EC50 value between rod and olf was introduced by the NH2 terminus and the core-CL region, whereas the NBD showed a paradoxical effect. The difference of the free energy difference
(
G) was determined for each of these three regions with all possible combinations of the other two regions. For rod regions with respect to corresponding olf regions, the open channel conformation was destabilized by the NH2 terminus (
(
G) = -1.0 to -2.0 RT) and the core-CL region (
(
G) = -2.0 to -2.9 RT), whereas it was stabilized by the NBD (
(
G) = 0.3 to 1.1 RT). The NH2 terminus deletion mutants of rod and olf differed by
(
G) of only 0.9 RT, whereas the wild-type channels differed by the much larger value of 3.1 RT. The results show that in rod and olf, the NH2 terminus, the core-CL region, and the NBD differ by characteristic
(
G) values that do not depend on the specific composition of the other two regions and that the NH2 terminus generates the main portion of
(
G) between the wild-type channels.
Key Words: ion channel, ligand, cyclic nucleotide, gating
![]() |
INTRODUCTION |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Modulation of the activity of CNG channels generates the light-induced electrical response of rod photoreceptors and the odor-induced electrical response in olfactory cells. Native rod CNG channels are heteromultimers formed from and ß subunits (
subunit only is sufficient to produce functional homomultimeric channels (
Opening of CNG channels is strongly promoted by the binding of cyclic nucleotides to a binding domain that is 120 residues long (
90 residues linking the cyclic nucleotide monophosphate binding domain to the S6 transmembrane segment (C-linker) plays a key role for the different sensitivity to cyclic nucleotides among the CNG channels (
Despite growing insight into the role of the different channel regions, our present knowledge about the molecular events underlying the gating is only poor. Herein, we screen CNG channels for regions determining the EC50 by constructing chimeric channels between the subunits of bovine retinal photoreceptors (rod) and olfactory neurons (olf). We show that multiple regions along the sequence between NH2 terminus and C-linker determine the characteristic difference in the EC50, whereas the cyclic nucleotide monophosphate binding domain has a surprising paradoxical effect. Systematic swap of the NH2 terminus, the core region including the C-linker, and the cyclic nucleotide binding domain shows that the difference of the free energy difference
(
G) between corresponding rod and olf regions is characteristic, independent of the composition of the channel background.
![]() |
MATERIALS AND METHODS |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Composition of the Chimeras
The subunits of bovine rod and olfactory channels (accession No. 51604 and 55010, respectively) and most of the chimeras between these channels were provided by U.B. Kaupp (Institut für Biologische Informationsverarbeitung, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Germany). Fig 1 summarizes the name, cartoon, and splice sites of all chimeras used. Chimera r1o3r was constructed by a recombinant PCR approach. For this purpose, plasmids encoding r1o and rod were used as templates for the primary amplification of the desired DNA fragments. PCR products were excised from an agarose gel and coupled in frame in a second PCR reaction. The resulting product was subcloned into the SalI/AsuII sites of the plasmid encoding chimera o5r. For the construction of r5oLr, a BstXI site was introduced at the olf/rod splice site of a chimera oLr (the amino acids M1-I367 of olf and V391-D690 of rod; not shown in Fig 1), which was finally used to combine respective fragments of a chimera r5o (amino acids M1-I295 of rod and F273-P663 of olf; not shown in Fig 1) and the modified sequence of oLr. The successful exchange of nucleotide sequences was verified by DNA sequencing.
|
The name of the chimeras was specified in the following way: "o" indicates an olf sequence and "r" indicates a rod sequence. The transmembrane helices, the C-linker, and the NBD are indicated by the abbreviations "1...6," "L," and "B," respectively. Reading from the left roughly indicates the composition of the chimeras in the direction from the N- to the COOH terminus. One of the abbreviations "1...6," "L," or "B" before an "r" or "o" indicates that the splice site is located before the respective rod or olf region. For example, "o1rBo" means that the chimera contains an NH2 terminus from olf, the transmembrane segments S1S6 plus the C-linker from rod, and a nucleotide binding domain from olf.
Oocyte Preparation
Oocytes of Xenopus laevis were prepared as described previously (
Recording Technique
The oocytes were transferred to the experimental chamber that was mounted on the stage of an inverted microscope. The patch pipettes were pulled from borosilicate glass tubing. The glass tubing had an outer diameter of 2.0 mm and an inner diameter of 1.0 mm. The pipette resistance after fire polishing was 13 M. The bath solution contained the following (in mM): 140 KCl, 10 NaCl, 1 EGTA, and 5 HEPES, pH 7.4 (KOH). The pipette solution contained the following (in mM): 145 NaCl, 5 KCl, 1 EGTA, and 5 HEPES, pH 7.4 (NaOH). The currents were recorded in inside-out patches with a conventional patch-clamp technique (
Recording was performed with an amplifier (model Axopatch 200A; Axon Instruments). The currents were filtered at a cut-off frequency of 10 kHz. The holding voltage was generally 0 mV. The membrane voltage was first stepped to -100 mV and then to +100 mV. The pulse duration and the repetition rate of the pulses were chosen such that, at the end of the pulses, the current amplitude was constant. All measurements were performed at room temperature (2224°C).
Data Acquisition and Analysis
Recording and analysis of the data was performed on a Pentium PC with the ISO2 software (MFK Niedernhausen). All currents were corrected for the capacitive and the very small leak components by subtracting respective currents in the absence of cGMP in the bath solution. The currents considered herein are averages of 530 consecutive recordings. The sampling rate was 210 kHz. Doseresponse relationships were determined from the steady-state current at +100 mV by normalizing the current I at the actual [cGMP] with respect to the current Imax at saturating [cGMP] and fitting the data points with a Hill equation of the form
![]() |
(1) |
yielding values for EC50 and H, the [cGMP] of half maximum activity of the channels and the Hill coefficient, respectively. The curves were fitted to the data with appropriate nonlinear approximation algorithms. The Hill coefficients varied between 2.0 and 3.3. In the present report, they were not further considered because we did not detect a systematic dependency.
Statistics
Statistical data are given as mean ± SEM. SEM of (
G) (see below) was calculated according to the error propagation law. t test with a significance level P < 0.05 was used to detect significant differences between data.
![]() |
RESULTS |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
The Different EC50 Value in rod and olf Is Determined by Multiple Regions between NH2 Terminus and C-linker, Whereas the Cyclic Nucleotide Binding Domain Has a Paradoxical Effect
Fig 2 shows doseresponse relationships and a plot of the resulting EC50 values obtained from chimeras containing rod regions in an olf background. The chimeras r3o, o3r5o, and o5r were designed to probe the influence of the regions S1S2 (plus the respective NH2 terminus; NT), S3S4, and S5-P-S6 (plus the respective C-linker [CL], cyclic nucleotide monophosphate [cNMP] binding site, and the adjacent COOH-terminal sequence). Herein the combination of the cNMP-binding site and the respective COOH-terminal sequence is lumped to the cNMP-binding domain (NBD). Transplanting the rod NT-S1-S2 region (chimera r3o) to olf also transfers a large portion of the higher EC50 of rod. This result agrees with findings for a similar chimera between catfish olf and bovine rod (
|
In Fig 3, the first six chimeras illustrate effects of olf regions in a rod background. The first four of these chimeras probe the contributions of the NH2 terminus (chimera o1r), S3S4 region (chimera r3o5r), S5-P-S6 region (chimera r5oLr), and CL-NBD region (chimera rLo). The S1S2 region is not included because the respective chimera r1o3r did not produce functional channels. Along with the olf NH2 terminus (chimera o1r), a considerable portion of the lower EC50 is transferred from olf to rod. Smaller, but significant effects were generated by the transfer of the CL-NBD region (chimera rLo) and the S5-P-S6 region (chimera r5oLr). As in the reverse chimera, the transfer of the S3S4 region was without effect (chimera r3o5r). We also tested for the individual effects of the C-linker (chimera rLoBr) and the NBD (chimera rBo). The transfer of the C-linker (chimera rLoBr) lowered the EC50 value much more than the transfer of the larger CL-NBD region (chimera rLo). With respect to the NBD (chimera rBo), we again observed a paradoxical finding: the chimera rBo had a larger EC50 value than rod.
|
It has been suggested that the NH2- and COOH-terminal regions in both rod and olf undergo an intramolecular interaction that modulates the ease by which channels are opened by cyclic nucleotides (
NH2 Terminus, NBD, and Core-CL Region Produce Characteristic Shifts of the EC50 Value Independent of the Channel Background
Fig 4 illustrates schemes of channels composed either of the rod (black boxes) or olf (white boxes) NH2 terminus, core region (S1S6) plus the C-linker (core-CL), and NBD. The eight chimeras and wild-type channels are ordered from top to bottom by increasing EC50 values (Fig 1 and Fig 2). To quantify the energetic effects of corresponding rod and olf regions, we calculated differences in the free energy difference ((
G)) between the channels/chimeras according to Equation 2:
![]() |
(2) |
where R is the molar gas constant and T is the temperature in K. EC50,1 is the EC50 value of the channel/chimera with the rod region, and EC50,2 is the EC50 value of the channel/chimera with the olf region. Hence, a negative (
G) value means that a rod region destabilizes the open channel conformation with respect to the corresponding olf region, whereas a positive
(
G) value means that a rod region stabilizes the open channel conformation with respect to the corresponding olf region. The brackets to the right of the channel schemes and the corresponding bar graphs at the bottom of Fig 4 indicate the
(
G) values for the twelve possible comparisons.
|
The three regions tested produced consistent effects on (
G) with all possible combinations of the other two regions. The rod NH2 terminus produced a
(
G) of -1.0 to -2.0 RT with respect to the olf NH2 terminus and the rod core-CL region produced a
(
G) of -2.0 to -2.9 RT with respect to the olf core-CL region. These effects correspond to the higher EC50 in rod than in olf. In contrast, the rod NBD caused a
(
G) of 0.3 to 1.1 RT with respect to the olf NBD. This effect corresponds to the paradoxical higher EC50 for channels with an olf NBD compared with otherwise equal channels with a rod NBD. The latter result is also substantiated by the 2.5 times larger EC50 in chimera rLo compared with chimera rLoBr (Fig 3). These results show that each of the three regions in rod and olf causes a characteristic
(
G) value that is largely independent of the combination of the other two channel regions. Therefore, it is suggested that the molecular interactions of these three channel regions are similar in rod and olf and largely independent of the specific composition of the channel background.
Properties of the rod and olf NH2 Terminus Deletion Mutants
CNG channels also open with deleted NH2 terminus ((
G) for -1r (EC50,1) with respect to -1o (EC50,2) results in only -0.9 RT, which is much less negative than -3.1 RT for rod with respect to olf (Fig 5). Thus, the main portion of
(
G) between the wild-type channels is introduced by the NH2 termini.
|
Fig 5 also illustrates the comparison of the (
G) values of channels/chimeras containing an NH2 terminus with respect to the corresponding deletion mutant containing no NH2 terminus. The main results are as follows. First, both the rod and the olf NH2 terminus increase
(
G) with respect to -1o. In contrast, with respect to -1r, only the olf NH2 terminus increases
(
G), whereas the rod NH2 terminus decreases
(
G). This means, that the rod NH2 terminus stabilizes the open state only in the olf background, whereas in its natural rod background it slightly destabilizes the open state. Second, beside this opposite effect of the rod NH2 terminus in the rod and olf background,
(
G) between rod and o1r (1.4 RT) is indistinguishable from that between r1o and olf (1.3 RT). This result implies that the free energy for channel opening provided by the NH2 terminus simply adds to the free energy of the channel background.
![]() |
DISCUSSION |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Effects of the NH2 Terminus and NBD on the Sensitivity of rod and olf to cGMP
Our data are in line with previous results showing that the NH2 terminus is one of the determinants of the characteristic EC50 of CNG channels (
We also observed a stabilization of the open state by the olf NH2 terminus with respect to the NH2 terminus deletion mutants of both rod and olf: In olf, the (
G) value with respect to -1o was 1.9 RT, and in the chimera o1r the
(
G) value with respect to -1r was 1.0 RT (Fig 5). In contrast, the effect of the rod NH2 terminus was opposite with respect to the two NH2 terminus deletion mutants: in rod the
(
G) value with respect to -1r was -0.4 RT, whereas in the chimera r1o the
(
G) value with respect to -1o was 0.6 (Fig 5). Despite this qualitatively different influence on the
(
G) value by the rod NH2 terminus,
(
G) between the rod and olf NH2 terminus was independent of having either a rod or an olf background, suggesting that the interactions of the NH2 terminus with the rod or olf background are similar.
The finding that in rod channels deletion of the NH2 terminus caused a small but significant reduction of the EC50 (30.5 ± 1.1 µM compared with 45.0 ± 1.6 µM) does not agree with the result of
The paradoxical effect of the NBD on the EC50 (and thus on (
G)) is new and surprising. Although the absolute values of
(
G) between the rod and olf NBD are typically smaller (0.31.1 RT; Fig 4) than those between rod and olf NH2 terminus (1.12.0 RT; Fig 4), the effects of the NBD are consistent with all combinations of the NH2 terminus and the core-CL region. This consistency supports the idea that also this region interacts with well preserved parts of the protein.
Regions within the Core-CL Region Determining the Sensitivity of rod and olf to cGMP
Within the core-CL region, we observed that besides the S1S2 region and the C-linker, also the S5-P-S6 region determines the larger EC50 value in rod compared with olf. This conclusion has been derived from two results: (1) the S5-P-S6 region of olf in rod (chimera r5oLr) caused a small but significant reduction of the EC50 value compared with rod (Fig 3); and (2) taking into account the fact that the NBD of olf paradoxically increases the EC50 value, the similarity of the EC50 values of chimera o5r (S5-NBD region of rod in an olf background) and chimera oLrBo (C-linker of rod in an olf background) may be explained only by a decreasing effect of the S5-P-S6 region on the EC50, balancing the effect of the olf NBD.
The S1S2 region has been reported first by
The C-linker has been shown repeatedly and with different approaches to contribute to the characteristic EC50 values of CNG channels. These approaches include studies on chimeric channels between catfish olf and bovine rod (
Implications for the Interactions of the Channel Regions in the Gating Process
The experimental results summarized in Fig 4 can be explained by assuming that the open probability of rod and olf CNG channels is governed by the balance of the action of three relatively independent regions: the NH2 terminus, the NBD, and the core-CL region. Corresponding regions in rod and olf show characteristically different actions. These actions may be summarized as follows. First, the NBD exerts the leading effect on channel opening. This effect is strongly promoted by increasing the [cGMP]. The NBD of rod has a slightly larger opening effect than the NBD of olf at all [cGMP]. Second, the core-CL region has a much weaker and cGMP-independent effect on the channel opening compared with the NBD. The core-CL region of olf favors opening more than the core-CL region of rod. Finally, the NH2 termini have differential effects on channel opening: the olf NH2 terminus promotes channel opening with both olf and rod core-CL region. In contrast, the rod NH2 terminus promotes opening only with the olf core-CL region, whereas it promotes closure with the rod core-CL region. All effects of the NH2 terminus are weak compared with the leading effect of the NBD.
Now consider the two extreme cases: at zero cGMP, the open probability is extremely low. Typical reported values are 2.25 x 10-3 for catfish olf and 1.25 x 10-4 for RO133, a rod chimera with the catfish olf pore (
The assumption of an independent action of the three regions can also explain the effects of the NH2 termini in complete channels/chimeras with respect to the corresponding NH2 terminus deletion mutants. Consider first the NH2 terminusdeleted rod (-1r): the EC50 would be lower than in rod because of the lacking closing force of the rod NH2 terminus, but it would be higher than in chimera o1r (olf NH2 terminus in a rod background) because of the lacking opening force of the olf NH2 terminus. In the NH2 terminusdeleted olf (-1o), the EC50 would be much higher than in olf because of the lacking opening force of the olf NH2 terminus, and it would be only slightly higher than in chimera r1o (rod NH2 terminus in an olf background) because of the lacking smaller opening force of the rod NH2 terminus (Fig 5). An independent action of the regions also explains why the (
G) between rod and o1r is similar to that between r1o and olf.
![]() |
Footnotes |
---|
* Abbreviations used in this paper: CL, C-linker; cNMP, cyclic nucleotide monophosphate; EC50, [cGMP] causing half maximum channel activity; NBD, cNMP-binding domain; NT, NH2 terminus; olf, olfactory channel; rod, rod channel.
![]() |
Acknowledgements |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
We are indebted to U.B. Kaupp for providing the clones of the channels and most of the chimeras and to K. Schoknecht, S. Bernhardt, A. Kolchmeier, and B. Tietsch for excellent technical assistance.
This work was supported by the grants B301-96078 of the state of Thüringen and Be1250/14-1 of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft to K. Benndorf.
Submitted: 2 February 2001
Revised: 3 July 2001
Accepted: 5 July 2001
![]() |
References |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Bönigk, W., Bradley, J., Muller, F., Sesti, F., Boekhoff, I., Ronnett, G.V., Kaupp, U.B., and Frings, S. 1999. The native rat olfactory cyclic nucleotide-gated channel is composed of three distinct subunits. J. Neurosci. 19:5332-5347
Broillet, M.C., and Firestein, S. 1996. Direct activation of the olfactory cyclic nucleotide-gated channel through modification of sulfhydryl groups by NO compounds. Neuron. 16:377-385[Medline].
Brown, R.L., Snow, S.D., and Haley, T.L. 1998. Movement of gating machinery during the activation of rod cyclic nucleotide-gated channels. Biophys. J. 75:825-833
Bucossi, G., Nizzari, M., and Torre, V. 1997. Single channel properties of ionic channels gated by cyclic nucleotides. Biophys. J. 72:1165-1181[Abstract].
Chen, T.-Y., Peng, Y.-W., Dhallan, R.S., Ahamed, B., Reed, R.R., and Yau, K.-W. 1993. A new subunit of the cyclic nucleotide-gated cation channel in retinal rods. Nature. 362:764-767[Medline].
Chen, T.-Y., Illing, M., Molday, L.L., Hsu, Y.-T., Yau, K.-W., and Molday, R.S. 1994. Subunit 2 (or ß) of retinal rod cGMP-gated cation channel is a component of the 240-kDa channel-associated protein and mediates Ca2+-calmodulin modulation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 91:11757-11761
Finn, J.T., Grunwald, M.E., and Yau, K.-W. 1996. Cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels: an extended family with diverse functions. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 58:395-426[Medline].
Gordon, S.E., and Zagotta, W.N. 1995a. A histidine residue associated with the gate of the cyclic nucleotide-activated channels in rod photoreceptors. Neuron. 14:177-183[Medline].
Gordon, S.E., and Zagotta, W.N. 1995b. Localization of regions affecting an allosteric transition in cyclic nucleotide-activated channels. Neuron. 14:857-864[Medline].
Gordon, S.E., Varnum, M.D., and Zagotta, W.N. 1997. Direct interaction between amino- and carboxyl-terminal domains of cyclic nucleotide-gated channels. Neuron. 19:431-441[Medline].
Goulding, E.H., Tibbs, G.R., and Siegelbaum, S.A. 1994. Molecular mechanism of cyclic-nucleotide-gated channel activation. Nature. 372:369-374[Medline].
Hamill, O.P., Marty, A., Neher, E., Sakmann, B., and Sigworth, F.J. 1981. Improved patch-clamp techniques for high-resolution current recording from cells and cell-free membrane patches. Pflügers Arch. 391:85-100[Medline].
Kaupp, U.B., Niidome, T., Tanabe, T., Terada, S., Bönigk, W., Stühmer, W., Cook, N.J., Kangawa, K., Matsuo, H., and Hirose, T. et al. 1989. Primary structure and functional expression from complementary DNA of the rod photoreceptor cyclic GMP-gated channel. Nature. 342:762-766[Medline].
Körschen, H.G., Illing, M., Seifert, R., Sesti, F., Williams, A., Gotzes, S., Colville, C., Müller, F., Dosé, A., and Godde, M. et al. 1995. A 240 kDa protein represents the complete ß subunit of the cyclic nucleotide-gated channel from rod photoreceptor. Neuron. 15:627-636[Medline].
Paoletti, P., Young, E.C., and Siegelbaum, S. 1999. C-linker of cyclic nucleotide-gated channels controls coupling of ligand binding to channel gating. J. Gen. Physiol. 113:17-33
Shabb, J.B., and Corbin, J.D. 1992. Cyclic nucleotide-binding domains in proteins having diverse functions. J. Biol. Chem. 267:5723-5726
Shapiro, M.S., and Zagotta, W.N. 1998. Stoichiometry and arrangement of heteromeric olfactory cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 95:14546-14551
Tibbs, G.R., Goulding, E.H., and Siegelbaum, S.A. 1997. Allosteric activation and tuning of ligand efficacy in cyclic-nucleotide-gated channels. Nature. 386:612-615[Medline].
Varnum, M.D., and Zagotta, W.N. 1996. Subunit interactions in the activation of cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels. Biophys. J. 70:2667-2679[Abstract].
Varnum, M.D., and Zagotta, W.N. 1997. Interdomain interactions underlying activation of cyclic nucleotide-gated channels. Science. 278:110-113
Zong, X., Zucker, H., Hofmann, F., and Biel, M. 1998. Three amino acids in the C-linker are major determinants of gating in cyclic nucleotide-gated channels. EMBO J. 17:353-362