From the Physiologisches Institut, Universität Zürich, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
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ABSTRACT |
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The voltage dependence of the rat renal type II Na+/Pi cotransporter (NaPi-2) was investigated by
expressing NaPi-2 in Xenopus laevis oocytes and applying the two-electrode voltage clamp. In the steady state, superfusion with inorganic phosphate (Pi) induced inward currents (Ip) in the presence of 96 mM Na+ over the potential range 140
V
+40 mV. With Pi as the variable substrate, the apparent affinity constant (KmPi) was
strongly dependent on Na+, increasing sixfold for a twofold reduction in external Na+. KmPi increased with depolarizing voltage and was more sensitive to voltage at reduced Na+. The Hill coefficient was close to unity and the
predicted maximum Ip (Ipmax) was 40% smaller at 50 mM Na+. With Na+ as the variable substrate, KmNa was weakly
dependent on both Pi and voltage, the Hill coefficient was close to 3 and Ipmax was independent of Pi at
50 mV.
The competitive inhibitor phosphonoformic acid suppressed the steady state holding current in a Na+-dependent
manner, indicating the existence of uncoupled Na+ slippage. Voltage steps induced pre-steady state relaxations typical for Na+-coupled cotransporters. NaPi-2-dependent relaxations were quantitated by a single, voltage-dependent exponential. At 96 mM Na+, a Boltzmann function was fit to the steady state charge distribution (Q-V) to give
a midpoint voltage (V0.5) in the range
20 to
50 mV and an apparent valency of ~0.5 e
. V0.5 became more negative as Na+ was reduced. Pi suppressed relaxations in a dose-dependent manner, but had little effect on their voltage dependence. Reducing external pH shifted V0.5 to depolarizing potentials and suppressed relaxations in the
absence of Na+, suggesting that protons interact with the unloaded carrier. These findings were incorporated into
an ordered kinetic model whereby Na+ is the first and last substrate to bind, and the observed voltage dependence
arises from the unloaded carrier and first Na+ binding step.
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INTRODUCTION |
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The reabsorption of inorganic phosphate (Pi)1 at the
epithelial brush border membrane lining the proximal
tubule lumen of the mammalian kidney is the result of
a secondary active transport process. This is mediated
by a substrate-specific, cotransporter protein that couples a downhill Na+ flux to inward transport of Pi (reviewed in Murer et al., 1991, 1994
; Murer and Biber,
1997
). Two renal Pi cotransporter types have been
identified so far. The type II Na+/Pi cotransporter is
distinguished from the type I both at the molecular
level and functionally by its higher Pi affinity, sensitivity to pH, regulation by external Pi, and strong dependence on external Na+ (Murer and Biber, 1997
). Moreover, under physiological conditions, type II Na+/Pi
transport kinetics are electrogenic, whereby each transport cycle involves a net transmembrane charge transfer (Busch et al., 1994
). As a consequence of electrogenicity, if any step in the transport cycle carries charge
across the membrane, then that step must be sensitive
to the membrane potential, thereby giving rise to voltage-dependent kinetics.
Evidence for electrogenic Na+/Pi cotransport was
first reported by Hoffmann et al. (1976) and later confirmed by Béliveau and co-workers (Béliveau and Ibnoul-Khatib, 1988
; Béliveau and Strévey, 1991
) using
tracer flux techniques applied to isolated renal brush
border membrane vesicles (BBMVs). Furthermore,
Burkhardt et al. (1981) demonstrated that Pi induced a
change in membrane potential by preloading vesicles
with a voltage-sensitive fluorescent dye. However, in all
these studies the lack of direct control of the BBMV
transmembrane potential has prevented precise characterization of the electrogenicity of Na+/Pi cotransport.
Direct evidence for electrogenicity was obtained
from microelectrode studies on intact proximal tubules, whereby addition of Pi to the luminal perfusate
caused a depolarization of the epithelial membrane
(Samarzija et al., 1980), consistent with a net inward
flux of positive charge. More recently, Busch et al.
(1994)
characterized the electrogenicity by expressing
the type II Na+/Pi cotransporter (NaPi-2), cloned from
rat kidney in Xenopus laevis oocytes. They showed that
in the mandatory presence of extracellular Na+, Pi induced an inward current (Ip) for membrane potentials
(V) in the range
80 < V < +10 mV. Consistent with
the findings from BBMVs, the magnitude of Ip depended on the substrate concentrations, the extracellular
pH, and membrane potential. However, in contrast to
the 2:1 stoichiometry for Na+/Pi at pH 7.4 proposed
from BBMV studies, a finding of a Hill slope close to 3 for
the Na+ dose response at saturating Pi suggested a 3:1
stoichiometry for type II Na+/Pi cotransport at
50 mV.
To develop comprehensive kinetic models of type II
Na+/Pi cotransport, account must be taken of the modulation of transport function by membrane potential,
thereby necessitating identification of voltage-dependent partial reactions in the transport cycle. We now
address this need by characterizing both the steady
state and pre-steady state behavior of the NaPi-2 isoform over a wide membrane potential and substrate
concentration range. We show that this mammalian isoform functions in a kinetically similar way to the flounder isoform (NaPi-5) recently described by Forster et al.
(1997a), but with significant differences in the detailed kinetics. Moreover, we have identified and characterized a Na+-slippage component in type II Na+/Pi
cotransport.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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Oocytes
Stage V-VI oocytes from the clawed frog Xenopus laevis were prepared according to standard procedures and injected with 10 ng/oocyte of cRNA encoding for the NaPi-2 protein (Werner et
al., 1990) 24-48 h after defolliculation. Cells were incubated at
16-18°C in modified Barth's solution (see below) and tested for
expression 2-5 d after injection. Only cells having a resting membrane potential below
20 mV and a steady state leakage current
<100 nA at
50 mV were used.
Electrophysiology and Data Acquisition
Oocytes were placed in a small recess in a plexiglas superfusion
chamber (0.2 ml vol) and continuously superfused (5 ml/min) with ND96 control solution (see below). Computer controlled
valves allowed fast and reproducible solution changes. All superfusates were cooled to 20-22°C before entering the chamber.
Dose-response protocols were run with increasing concentration
of the test substrate and the application time for Pi never exceeded 20 s to avoid possible loading of the cell. Long-term stability of the preparation was monitored using a chart recorder
and each new test solution application was made only after the
holding current had returned to the previous control value, with
the test application always preceded by recording the response to
the control solution. Oocytes were voltage clamped using a custom-built two-electrode voltage clamp with active series resistance
compensation to improve the clamping speed. Furthermore, for
the steady state recordings using the staircase protocol, an electronic transient subtraction stage was used to increase the ADC
dynamic range to avoid overloading the data acquisition system.
Cells were normally clamped at a holding potential of 50 mV to
reduce possible contamination from Ca2+-activated Cl
currents
at depolarized potentials. Current recordings were filtered using
an eight-pole Bessel filter (902; Frequency Devices, Haverhill, MA) at a cut-off frequency less than twice the sampling frequency used. Data acquisition, voltage command generation, and solution valve control were done using laboratory built PC-compatible hardware and programmed using DATAC software (Bertrand
and Bader, 1986
).
Solutions and Chemicals
All reagents were obtained from Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis,
MO) or Fluka (Buchs, Switzerland). Solutions were prepared as
follows (mM/liter). (a) Oocyte incubation (modified Barth's solution): 88 NaCl, 1 KCl, 0.41 CaCl2, 0.82 MgSO4, 2.5 NaHCO3, 2 Ca(NO3), 7.5 Tris, pH 7.6, supplemented with antibiotics (10 mg/liter penicillin, streptomycin). (b) Control superfusate (ND96): 96 NaCl, 2 KCl, 1.8 CaCl2, 1 MgCl2, 5 HEPES, titrated to pH 7.4 with NaOH. Isomolar BaCl2 was routinely substituted for CaCl2 to
reduce contamination from endogenous Ca2+-activated Cl currents that were observed for V >
10 mV and allow a greater range of Pi concentrations, except for experiments involving
phosphonoformic acid (PFA), which otherwise complexes with
Ba2+. For Na+-substitution experiments, N-methyl-D-glucamine
replaced Na+ at the appropriate concentration to maintain isoosmolar external solutions. Solutions were titrated with HCl or
KOH to pH 7.4. (c) Test superfusate: inorganic phosphate such
as Na2HPO4.6H20, was added to the solutions in b, and pH was
adjusted to 7.4. For the Na+-substitution experiments, a
KH2PO4/K2HPO4 buffer (pH 7.4) was used to minimize changes
in Na+ concentration. (d) PFA experiments: to take account of
PFA being a trisodium salt, Na+ was added in the appropriate
concentration to the control solutions to give equal final Na+
concentrations.
Data Analysis and Curve Fitting
Preliminary data analysis was performed using macro routines
written in the DATAC language (Bertrand and Bader, 1986).
Nonlinear regression analysis was performed using Inplot v. 4.0 or Prism v. 2.0 software (Graphpad Inc., San Diego, CA). All data
are shown as mean ± SEM (n), where n is the number of oocytes
for a particular protocol. Experimental protocols were repeated
at least twice on different batches of oocytes from different frogs.
Exponential curve fitting was performed using a Chebychev
transform routine written in C.
Dose-response curves. Responses with respect to a variable substrate S, were quantified as peak Pi-induced current and a form of the Hill equation was fit to the dose response:
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(1) |
Two-state Eyring-Boltzmann model for transmembrane charge movements. For a two-state system in which N charged entities, each having an apparent valency z, can translocate independently between two states within the transmembrane field, the macroscopic steady state charge distribution as a function of transmembrane voltage V, is given by:
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(2) |
Simulations.
To simulate pre-steady state and steady state currents, the differential equations describing the state transitions
were solved for the state occupancies by using matrix methods to
find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors (e.g., Press et al., 1992).
For any transition between states i and j involving an apparent
charge movement ze, the forward and backward rate constants
were expressed as kij = Kijexp(
ze
V/kT) and kji = Kjiexp[ze(1
)V/kT], respectively, where Kij and Kji are the corresponding
forward and backward rate constants, respectively, at V = 0 and
is an asymmetry factor (0
1) that defines the relative position of the energy barrier within the transmembrane electric
field (e.g., Adrian, 1978
). For transitions involving substrate
binding, the rate constant was scaled by the factor Sn, where S is
the substrate concentration and n the number of ions involved in
the binding reaction. Simulation routines were written in C and
adapted from those given in Press et al. (1992)
. For simulations,
the temperature was assumed to be 20°C.
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RESULTS |
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Voltage Dependence of Pi Dose Response in the Steady State
Fig. 1 A shows the typical phosphate-induced current at
two holding potentials (Vh) recorded from an oocyte
expressing NaPi-2 when the control superfusate was
rapidly switched to a test solution containing 1.0 mM
Pi. The dependence on Vh of the maximum steady state
response confirmed that NaPi-2 exhibited electrogenic
behavior. Such currents were not observed when the
same protocol was applied to water or noninjected oocytes (data not shown), as reported previously (Busch
et al., 1994). With fast superfusion of the oocyte, the Pi-induced response gave a rapid initial phase, the rise
time of which was limited by the recording bandwidth.
This was followed by a slower relaxation phase before
finally reaching a steady state level after ~10-15 s.
Washout of Pi was also accompanied by a similar biphasic return to the baseline. At all potentials tested, the
magnitude of the fast phase was proportional to Vh. We
attributed the slower phase to the electrogenic response of regions of the oocyte membrane that did not
experience an initial rapid exchange of superfusate
due to unstirred layer effects. These oocyte-dependent
response kinetics were not investigated further in this
study. Once the maximum was reached, Ip usually remained constant for intervals exceeding 20 s.
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To obtain the steady state current-voltage (I-V) relationship, it was convenient to apply a voltage staircase
in the range 140 to +40 mV after the current at Vh
had stabilized. The duration of each step (50 ms) was
chosen so that a steady state was reached before the
next voltage transition. This was also confirmed by checking that Ip at different holding potentials was the
same as the step current corresponding to the same potential (data not shown). Some preliminary experiments were also performed using a continuous ramp of
1-s duration and the results were indistinguishable from the staircase (Forster et al., 1996
).
Fig. 1 B shows the typical response to a voltage staircase, starting after Ip had stabilized, in the absence and
presence of 1.0 mM Pi in the superfusate. The small
transient at each transition indicates incomplete suppression of the endogenous oocyte capacitive transient
(see MATERIALS AND METHODS) due to Pi suppression
of the pre-steady state response. The I-V relationship
for the Pi-dependent current was obtained directly
from the difference between these records, as shown in
the bottom trace. In the physiological range of potentials (60 < V <
20 mV), the I-V relation was linear, whereas at strong depolarizing and hyperpolarizing potentials, it deviated from linearity. This behavior suggested the presence of rate-limiting, voltage-independent steps in the transport mechanism.
To characterize further the NaPi-2 voltage dependency in the steady state, we applied the staircase protocol with different Pi and fit Eq. 1 to the dose-response
data at each potential. The resulting family of I-V data
for a typical cell at 96 mM Na+ is shown in Fig. 2 A for
six Pi values in the range 0.006-1 mM. Typically, no current reversal was observed, although with some oocytes
at low Pi (<0.01 mM) the Pi-induced current did show
reversal at potentials <0 mV. This behavior was not reproducible, but appeared to be dependent on the oocyte batch/donor frog. These apparent outward currents at 140 mV typically did not exceed 5% of the peak induced current at 1 mM Pi and most likely reflect
the instability of the preparation as they would become
more apparent when subtracting two quantities of similar magnitude. We derived the steady state Pi dose response with respect to the magnitude of Ip from these data at the same Vh (
50 mV) for two Na+ concentrations (96 and 50 mM) and the same oocyte (Fig. 2 B). The form of the dose-response relationships resembled
a rectangular hyperbola with clear evidence of saturation at high Pi. Fitting Eq. 1 to these data indicated
that, for a reduction in Na+ from 96 to 50 mM, the predicted maximum induced current (Ipmax) was significantly reduced by 38 ± 5% (N = 5) at 50 mM Na+,
when comparing the responses from the same five oocytes. Moreover, the fit indicated that the half-maximum concentration for Pi (KmPi) increased from 0.057 ± 0.006 mM at 96 mM Na+ to 0.35 ± 0.03 mM at 50 mM Na+ for the same five oocytes. The shift in KmPi is
seen more clearly by normalizing the data to Ipmax and
plotting on a semilogarithmic scale (see Fig. 2 B, inset).
Finally, in agreement with previous results (Busch et
al., 1995; Hartmann et al., 1995
), the estimated Hill coefficient (n) was close to unity for both concentrations
(at 96 mM Na+, n = 0.96 ± 0.05 and at 50 mM Na+, n = 0.92 ± 0.06).
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From the Hill equation fits, we determined the potential dependence of the estimates for n, KmPi, and Ipmax,
pooled from representative cells from different donor frogs (Fig. 2 C). Reliable estimates of current were restricted to voltages <0 mV for both Na+ concentrations. The Hill coefficient was close to unity for each Na+ concentration and showed little dependence on V
(over the range 140
V
0 mV, at 96 mM Na+, n = 1.0 ± 0.01 and at 50 mM Na+, n = 0.87 ± 0.03) (Fig. 2
C, top). At 50 mM Na+, n was significantly smaller than
at 96 mM Na+, particularly at higher V. At 96 mM Na+,
KmPi (Fig. 2 C, middle) was weakly voltage dependent
and increased by ~60% over the voltage range from V =
140 to V = +20 mV. At 50 mM Na+, the increase in
KmPi was fourfold over the same range of V, with a significant change occurring in the physiological range
(
70 < V <
20 mV). Finally, the voltage dependence
of Ipmax for the two Na+ concentrations superimposed
when normalized to the current at
100 mV (Fig. 2 C,
bottom), indicating that the voltage dependence of Ipmax
was the same for the two Na+ concentrations tested at
saturating Pi.
Voltage Dependence of Na+ Dose Response in the Steady State
Next we studied the voltage dependency of NaPi-2
transport as a function of external Na+ with fixed Pi, using the same methods as above. Fig. 3 A shows a typical
set of I-V curves for the same oocyte with 1 mM Pi and six Na+ concentrations. For Na+ > 25 mM, the I-V
curves showed no current reversal up to +40 mV. For
this particular cell at 10 mM Na+, the Pi-induced current reversed at 40 mV. As noted above, the variability
of this apparent reversal reflects the precision of the
subtraction/recording procedure and should not be
taken as a true indication of current reversal. We generated I-V curves in response to the staircase protocol at
two Pi concentrations: 1 mM (close to saturating Pi)
and 0.1 mM (close to KmPi). We were unable to make
reliable determinations of the I-V relations at Pi < 0.1 mM and Na+ < 50 mM because of the small magnitude
of the induced currents (typically < 10 nA), the estimation of which was sensitive to any drift in the endogenous holding current during the course of the experiment.
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Fig. 3 B shows the typical steady state dose response
for the same cell with the two Pi concentrations at 50
mV holding potential. Plotted on a linear abscissa, the
dose-response relationship was sigmoidal with an inflection at low Na+, typical for cooperative substrate
binding and consistent with our previous results
(Busch et al., 1994
, 1995
). Fitting Eq. 1 to these data
was less reliable than for the Pi dose dependency determination because of the absence of clear saturation at
the maximum Na+ concentration possible, particularly
at 0.1 mM Pi. We attempted to superfuse the oocytes
with Na+ > 120 mM for short periods, but the hyperosmotic conditions resulted in significant holding current instability. Despite this limitation, the results of fitting Eq. 1 to these data suggested that the predicted Ipmax
was independent of Pi (at Vh =
50 mV, the ratio Ipmax[1
mM Pi]/Ipmax[0.1 mM Pi] = 1.08 ± 0.03, N = 5). Furthermore, at Vh =
50 mV, the estimated Hill coefficient was close to 3 in both cases (at 0.1 mM Pi, n = 2.9 ± 0.1 and at 1 mM Pi, n = 2.9 ± 0.2, N = 5), whereas the
apparent affinity constant for Na+ (KmNa) was clearly Pi
dependent. For the same five cells at Vh =
50 mV with
1 mM Pi, KmNa = 52.0 ± 2.2 mM and with 0.1 mM Pi,
KmNa = 81.8 ± 2.3 mM.
Fig. 3 C shows the voltage dependence of the three fit parameters (KmNa, n, and Ipmax) for the two Pi concentrations, pooled from oocytes from different donor frogs. For both Pi, n (Fig. 3 C, top) remained approximately voltage independent over the physiological range of potentials (at 1.0 mM Pi, n = 2.81 ± 0.04 and at 0.1 mM Pi, n = 2.89 ± 0.08). Furthermore, at 0.1 mM Pi, KmNa (Fig. 3 C, middle) increased monotonically with depolarizing membrane potential, whereas at 1 mM Pi the voltage dependence was less marked and the normalized voltage dependence of Ipmax for the 10-fold reduction in Pi showed a small but consistent deviation as V approached 0 mV (Fig. 3 C, bottom). This suggested that the voltage sensitivity of the rate limiting step(s) was reduced at the lower Pi for saturating Na+.
Suppression of Ip by Phosphonoformic Acid Reveals a Na+-dependent Current in the Absence of External Pi
We tested for the presence of slippage in the type II
Na+/Pi system using PFA, a competitive inhibitor of
Na+/Pi cotransport (Busch et al., 1995; Kempson,
1988
). Fig. 4 A shows measurements of the holding current (Ih) at Vh =
50 mV made at 5-s intervals for a typical oocyte expressing NaPi-2 and a noninjected oocyte
from the same batch, in response to the application of substrate combinations indicated. For NaPi-2, in 105 mM Na+, 0.3 mM Pi induced an increase in Ih of 89 nA,
whereas in the presence of 3 mM PFA, Ih increased by
only ~9 nA, which confirmed the inhibitory effect of
PFA. In contrast, the noninjected oocyte showed a 2-nA
change in the presence of 0.3 mM Pi, which might be
attributable to an endogenous Na+/Pi cotransporter,
and a similar change also occurred in the presence of
PFA. For both cells, in the absence of Pi, switching Na+
between 9 and 105 mM led to a concomitant change in
Ih. This would be expected if a component of Ih were
due to a Na+ conductance, although in the case of
NaPi-2, the change was fivefold larger. Moreover, for
cells expressing NaPi-2, 3 mM PFA suppressed Ih at 105 mM Na+ by ~50% and induced the same relative decrease at 9 mM Na+, whereas no measurable shift in Ih
occurred for the noninjected cell. This behavior would
be consistent with the PFA-sensitive component (IPFA)
being due to a Na+ conductance. If this were the case,
we would predict a shift in the reversal potential (Er)
for IPFA in response to a change in external Na+. Fig. 4
B shows a typical I-V relation for IPFA for two external Na+ (109 and 59 mM), obtained by subtracting the response to a staircase voltage protocol in the presence of
3 mM PFA from the response in the absence of PFA.
The expected shift towards a more negative Er was
found and, moreover, this behaved in a Nernstian manner for the three Na+ concentrations tested, giving a
slope of 64.4 ± 1.7 mV. We were unable to determine
Er reliably for Na+ < 50 mM due to the small magnitude IPFA. The Na+ dependence of this component was
characterized further by determining the dose dependency at
50 mV, as shown in Fig. 4 C for a typical cell
expressing NaPi-2. The relation was nonlinear, indicating saturation of this pathway and, when Eq. 1 was fit to
these data, we obtained a Km = 128 mM and a Hill coefficient of 0.92 (n = 1). Finally, the magnitude of IPFA
correlated linearly with the Pi-induced current for a
number of oocytes from different batches and with different levels of expression, indicating that IPFA was
~12% of the Pi-induced current at 1 mM Pi. (Fig. 4 D).
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Voltage Steps Induce Pre-Steady State Relaxations Typical of Na+-coupled Cotransporters
Voltage steps induced pre-steady state relaxations in
oocytes expressing NaPi-2 (Fig. 5 A). The speed of relaxation to the steady state after a voltage step depended on the presence of Pi in the superfusate. In the
absence of Pi (Fig. 5 A, top), pre-steady state relaxations,
superimposed upon the normal capacitive charging transient, were observed when the membrane potential
of NaPi-2-expressing oocytes was stepped from a holding potential, Vh = 100 mV. Relaxations were significantly suppressed when the cell was superfused with saturating Pi (3 mM) in the presence of 96 mM Na+ (Fig.
5 A, middle) and were absent in noninjected oocytes
from the same batch (bottom). Apart from the difference in the steady state current at the test potential, the
records for the noninjected cell and NaPi-2 with 3 mM
Pi appeared very similar.
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To establish further that these relaxations were specifically related to the expression of NaPi-2, we examined the effect of superfusing with the inhibitor PFA.
Fig. 5 B compares the current induced by a voltage step
from 100 to 0 mV for superfusion with 3 mM PFA and
1.0 mM Pi. PFA suppressed the pre-steady state relaxation when compared with the control condition, analogous to the suppression by 1.0 mM Pi alone.
Exponential curve fitting allowed separation of the
intrinsic oocyte charging component from the relaxation related specifically to NaPi-2. The fits were quantitated in terms of the time constant () and charge
transfer (Q) estimated from the product of
and the
amplitude of the NaPi-2-specific component extrapolated to time of respective voltage step onset. Biexponential curve fitting consistently showed that the faster
(intrinsic)
varied little with voltage (typically 0.6 ± 0.1 ms for
140 < V < +60 mV) or with the direction of
the voltage step (data not shown). Often, however,
when tuning the voltage clamp for fastest response, we observed that the intrinsic capacitive transient displayed an additional tail component with a
1 ms
(see Fig. 7 B, inset), which was also observed in control
oocytes from the same batch. Superfusion of control
oocytes with 20 µM ouabain did not alter this component, suggesting that it did not arise from intrinsic Na/
K pump (Holmgren and Rakowski, 1994
). To ensure
that any such intrinsic components did not influence
the fit accuracy, the Pi-suppressed relaxation was characterized by fitting a single exponential, starting ~5 ms
after the step. Fig. 5 C shows the voltage dependence of
the slower
obtained from a typical oocyte for three
holding potentials (Vh). The ON transition relaxation
kinetics showed a bell-shaped relation expected for
voltage-dependent charge movements, whereas those
for the corresponding OFF transition were independent of the voltage reached before returning to the
holding potential. Moreover, the OFF transition
at
each Vh coincided with the interpolated value for the
ON transition at that test voltage.
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Fig. 5 D shows the voltage dependence of the corresponding steady state charge transfer for the same oocyte. These data indicate that the charge transfer tended to saturate at strong depolarizations. This suggested that the detected relaxation behaved as expected for movement of a fixed number of translocatable charges within the transmembrane field. Furthermore, we consistently observed that charge balance for the corresponding ON and OFF transitions occurred only over the mid-range of test potentials: the magnitude of the QON and QOFF deviated at extreme test potentials that could not be simply attributed to random error in the fit. The continuous lines in Fig. 5 D are fits using the Boltzmann equation (Eq. 2) to give parameters that facilitated comparison of the pre-steady state currents under different conditions. Although the lack of clear saturation at extreme potentials made fitting error prone, the fits at different Vh revealed several consistencies (Table I): the apparent valency was independent of Vh, and the mid-point voltage (V0.5), equivalent to the potential at which half the available charge was translocated, varied little with Vh, as did the total charge transfer, Qmax.
Finally, at Vh = 100 mV, the charge available for
translocation from
100 mV, predicted from the Q-V
fit (equivalent to the Q-V asymptote for V >> 0 and
Vh =
100 mV), correlated linearly with Ip at
100 mV
for several oocytes having different apparent NaPi-2 expression levels (Fig. 5 E). The slope was 46 s
1, and this
parameter was used to estimate the transporter turnover (see DISCUSSION).
Substrate Dependence of Pre-Steady State Relaxations
As both substrates carry charge and could influence directly or indirectly the observed charge movements, we characterized the substrate dependence of relaxation kinetics and steady state charge distribution to identify the origin of pre-steady state relaxations.
Dependence on Na+ in the absence of Pi.
Fig. 6 A shows
representative records of pre-steady state relaxations
for a cell expressing NaPi-2 with external Na+ varying
from 96 to 0 mM in response to a voltage jump from
100 to 0 mV. For comparison purposes, the pre-
steady state response for the same cell when superfused
with 3 mM Pi and 96 Na+ is also shown. These data indicate: (a) for both the ON and OFF transitions, a component of the total pre-steady state charge movement
was contributed by the presence of Na+ that appeared
to diminish with decreasing Na+; (b) in the absence of
external Na+, a NaPi-2-related charge movement was
still present; and (c) under saturating Pi, the residual
charge was further suppressed. This residual component was most likely not an oocyte-intrinsic charge
movement since it was not observed in recordings from
noninjected cells from the same oocyte batch (data not
shown).
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Dependence on Pi with 96 mM Na+.
Pre-steady state relaxations induced by a voltage step from Vh = 100 to
0 mV, observed in the absence of Pi, were progressively suppressed with increasing Pi (Fig. 7 A). The voltage
dependence of the NaPi-2 relaxation was not affected
by increasing Pi up to 0.1 mM with no consistent shift in
V0.5 and no change in the
-V (data not shown). For
Pi
0.1 mM, the relaxations were too small to fit reliably over the entire voltage range. To characterize the
effect of Pi further and facilitate quantification of the relaxations, we subtracted the corresponding relaxation under saturating conditions (3 mM Pi) from the
record at the test Pi for test potentials in the range
100 to +80 mV (Fig. 7 B). The validity of this procedure was based on the assumption that a saturating concentration of Pi would fully suppress the relaxations
(see Fig. 5 A). The resulting difference record should
then have the oocyte endogenous charging transient
eliminated and provide a measure of the amount of
charge suppressed by the respective Pi superimposed
on the steady state Pi-induced current. When we attempted to fit a single exponential to the Pi-dependent
relaxations, this gave a significantly worse fit compared
with a bi-exponential fit, although at large Pi, where
most of the apparent translocatable charge was suppressed, the concomitantly poorer signal-to-noise ratio
made such fitting more ambiguous. The fitting revealed a fast component (typical
= 700-1,000 µs)
with a weak voltage dependence and a slower component that corresponded to the main relaxation observed in the unmanipulated records. We were unable to detect any significant dependence on Pi for either
component. The rapid speed of capacitive charging for
this cell (see Fig. 6 B, inset) with a main
= 191 µs, indicated that after 1 ms most of the membrane charging
was complete and that the faster relaxation, revealed by
the subtraction procedure, was most likely a true component of the total pre-steady state relaxation. To quantify the associated charge transfer, we integrated
the total relaxation, commencing 1 ms after the voltage
step. We also noted that the charge balance over the
whole voltage range was consistently improved with the
subtraction technique, resulting in <10% error in
charge balance for
140
V
+60 mV. The charge
suppressed by Pi for four target potentials is shown in
Fig. 7 C, and a competition curve (Eq. 1, with n =
1)
was fit to the data points to give an apparent KdPi as a
function of the target potential (Fig. 7 D). This indicated that the Pi concentration required to suppress
50% of the available charge at Vh =
100 mV was relatively voltage independent.
Dependence on pH.
H+ ions might also contribute to
the pre-steady state relaxations since, for some Na+-coupled cotransporters, they are also known to act as a
substrate (e.g., Hirayama et al., 1994). To test this hypothesis, we first investigated the effect of varying pH
on pre-steady state relaxations with 96 mM Na+. As
shown in Fig. 8 A for voltage steps to three test potentials, a reduction in external pH from 7.4 to 6.2 caused
a clear suppression of the relaxations both for the ON
and OFF transitions, and the corresponding reduction
in Ip was 81%. Quantification of the relaxations by single exponential curve fitting to the main relaxation revealed a consistent change in the relaxation voltage dependence as pH was reduced from 7.4 to 6.2: V0.5 of the
Q-V curve shifted towards depolarizing potentials (Fig.
8 B) and the relaxations slowed significantly for V > 0 in the
-V data (Fig. 8 C). As shown in Fig. 8 D, when
Na+ was removed from the external medium changing
pH from 7.4 to 6.2 further suppressed the relaxations;
however, their small magnitude under these conditions
prevented further quantification. No Pi-induced transport was detected in the steady state in the absence of
external Na+ at these pH values (data not shown).
|
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DISCUSSION |
---|
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---|
Steady State Behavior
Comparison with previous results.
Our characterization of
the steady state kinetics of the rat Na+/Pi cotransporter
isoform, NaPi-2, gave findings consistent with those reported in previous electrophysiological studies (Busch et al., 1994, 1995
; Hartmann et al., 1995
). In these studies, kinetic parameters were determined over a limited
potential range and no definitive conclusions regarding the voltage dependence of kinetics could be drawn.
At Vh =
50 mV, we consistently measured a sixfold
lower KmPi compared with the value (0.31 mM) previously reported by Busch et al. (1994)
. The reason for
this is unclear, although subsequent papers by this
group characterizing other mammalian isoforms have also reported lower KmPi (Busch et al., 1995
; Hartmann
et al., 1995
), in agreement with our present findings.
For both isotope flux and electrophysiological measurements, a Hill coefficient of unity at neutral pH for
the Pi dose response is a consistent finding, providing
strong evidence for a 1:1 stoichiometry for Pi. In the
present case, we observed a Hill coefficient <1 at 50 mM Na+, which may reflect a systematic error in estimating Ip at levels close to or smaller than the endogenous oocyte currents.
Order of substrate binding.
Two limitations of the intact oocyte preparation for studying cotransport function restrict the information obtained from steady state
dose-response measurements: (a) there is no direct control of trans substrate concentrations, and (b) the
normal osmolarity of ~200 mosM places an upper limit
on the usable substrate concentrations, particularly in
the case of Na+, where we were only able to measure
the kinetics just above the predicted KmNa. Given these
limitations, we can nevertheless draw tentative conclusions about the order of substrate binding on the cis
face. For Pi as the variable substrate, both "V" and "K"
kinetics are found, where V kinetics refers to a maximum transport rate dependency on the fixed substrate
and K kinetics refers to an apparent affinity constant
dependency on the fixed substrate (e.g., Stein, 1990). This is indicated here by the dependency of both Ipmax
and KmPi on Na+. With K kinetics alone, random binding schemes can most likely be excluded, such as proposed by Béliveau and Strévey (1988)
for Na+/Pi
cotransport in BBMVs. Furthermore, having V kinetics
for the Pi dose dependency would be consistent with either Pi or Na+ being the last substrate to bind before
translocation. On the other hand, although the maximum Na+ was 120 mM, our fits to the Na+ dose-dependency data suggest that only K kinetics are involved in
the apparent Na+ binding. Taken together, this behavior would indicate that Na+ is the last substrate to bind.
Yet, based on the steady state data alone, we cannot exclude the possibility that an additional Na+ binding
step precedes Pi binding, as has been proposed for the Na+/glucose cotransporter by Restrepo and Kimmich
(1985)
, and Bennett and Kimmich (1992)
. Our finding
of a Na+-dependent slippage component, which was directly related to the expression level of functional NaPi-2, also suggested that Na+ can interact with NaPi-2 in
the absence of Pi (see also Béliveau and Strévey, 1988
).
|
Voltage dependence of substrate binding.
The apparent affinity constants for both substrates increased with membrane depolarization, but, as shown in Table III, the relative voltage sensitivity of Km was itself dependent on
the concentration of the fixed substrate. For example,
for V in the range 100 to 0 mV, the apparent Pi binding at 96 mM Na+ increased by 60%, whereas at 50 mM
Na+ it increased more than threefold. In contrast, the
relative voltage dependence of KmNa showed <50% increase over a 10-fold range of Pi. These data suggest that the apparent binding of Na+, rather than Pi, is a
determinant of voltage dependence. This conclusion
should be treated with caution since in any analytical expression for the steady state transport expressed in
the form of Eq. 1, the apparent Km will be a function of
all the rate constants, including the unloaded carrier.
Therefore, the voltage dependence of the apparent affinity for any substrate does not necessarily reflect the
voltage dependence of the true affinity constant (Restrepo and Kimmich, 1985
; Bennett and Kimmich,
1996
).
|
The effect of slippage on steady state kinetics.
The relatively
high endogenous current in typical oocytes, compared
with the Pi-induced component, necessitated subtraction of the endogenous background current from the
total Pi-induced current under the assumptions that (a)
the background current is only due to endogenous effects, and (b) it is Pi insensitive. Our finding of a Na+-dependent slippage component similar to that first reported by Umbach et al. (1990) for the Na+/glucose
transporter, SGLT1, means that the validity of these assumptions must be reevaluated. The presence of slippage could lead to errors in interpreting steady state kinetic data, particularly at saturating Pi. If this component were suppressed in the presence of Pi due to a
faster rate constant for the Pi binding step as Pi increases, an underestimate of the true coupled current
by ~10% at saturating Pi would result, since both the
endogenous component and a NaPi-2-related component are subtracted from the test response.
Pre-Steady State Kinetics
Pre-steady state relaxations are a common feature of
cation-coupled cotransporters that exhibit electrogenicity, being first reported by Birnir et al. (1990) for
the cloned Na+/glucose cotransporter (SGLT1). Subsequent detailed kinetic studies of the SGLT family
(e.g., Parent et al., 1992a
, 1992b
; Loo et al., 1993
; Mackenzie et al., 1996
; Hazama et al., 1997
) and studies of
other Na+-coupled cotransporters (e.g., Mager et al.,
1993
; Hager et al., 1995
; Wadiche et al., 1995
; Eskandari et al., 1997
; Forster et al., 1997a
) have established
this technique as an important tool for identification of
partial reactions in the transport cycle. In the present
case, we have demonstrated that oocytes expressing NaPi-2
exhibit pre-steady state relaxations with properties
qualitatively similar to those previously reported for the
flounder isoform, NaPi-5 (Forster et al., 1997a
) despite
a four- to fivefold lower expression.
Transport turnover.
The slope of the Ip(100)-Q(
100)
relation can be used to estimate the apparent turnover
of NaPi-2 at
100 mV, assuming that (a) the charge
translocation is a single step having an apparent valence z, and (b) the same number of transporters contribute to Ip(
100) in the presence of saturating Pi, as
contribute to translocatable charge (Q(
100)) in the absence of Pi. The transporter turnover,
, is then
given by:
![]() |
(3) |
Voltage-dependent steps.
Like NaPi-5 (Forster et al.,
1997a), in 0 mM Pi, reducing Na+ resulted in a negative
shift of V0.5 for the Q-V distribution without significantly affecting the total charge. However, if the charge
movement were solely due to an "ion-well" effect, a much larger change in the voltage dependence of the
-V relation would be expected (Forster et al., 1997a
).
Moreover, in 0 mM external Na+, a relaxation was still
observed that was only suppressed if both substrates
were present at the maximum concentrations used (96 mM Na+, 3 mM Pi). These findings suggested that (a)
the unloaded carrier itself contributes significantly to
the pre-steady state relaxations, and (b) Na+ is able to
bind first, as deduced from the steady state analysis since, in the alternative binding scheme Co
CoPi
CoPiNa, no Na+-dependent influence on the steady state
charge distribution would be expected with 0 mM Pi.
An Ordered Kinetic Model for NaPi-2
Fig. 9 depicts the state diagram for a model that can account for the kinetic properties we have deduced for
NaPi-2. This scheme is derived from that proposed for
the cloned Na+/glucose cotransporter (SGLT1) by Parent et al. (1992b), but includes a second Na+ binding
step to account for the dependence of Ipmax on Na+ in
the steady state. Restrepo and Kimmich (1985)
and
Bennett and Kimmich (1996)
have proposed a similar
scheme, which also includes a second Na+ binding
step, to describe Na+/glucose cotransport characterized
in LLC-PK1 epithelia cells. To simplify the model, we
assumed the binding of the two Na+ ions (step 3
4)
occurs with strong positive cooperativity to give an apparent simultaneous binding (Falk et al., 1998
; Weiss, 1997
). As for Pi binding (step 2
3), this is assumed to
occur external to the transmembrane field, so that it
does not contribute to pre-steady state charge movements with finite Pi. With the two voltage-dependent
steps identified from the pre-steady state data (6
1 and 1
2), the model successfully accounts for a number of the features observed in both the pre-steady
state and steady state.
|
Two pre-steady state components.
Fig. 10 A shows simulated pre-steady state relaxations induced by a voltage
step for two nominal Na+ concentrations (50 and 100 mM) in the absence of Pi. The corresponding -V and
Q-V curves are shown in Fig. 10, B and C, respectively. As predicted from a three-state model, the total relaxation comprises two components that are visible in the
simulation. In practice, because the fast component
has a
comparable with that of the intrinsic oocyte
charging, its detection would be difficult with biexponential fitting to the total relaxation. Moreover, the inherent low-pass filtering by the passive membrane would
further distort this component (Forster and Greeff,
1992
). We obtained evidence for the second component by subtraction of the transient under saturating
conditions (3 mM Pi, 96 mM Na+), whereby we assumed that all endogenous relaxations were fully suppressed. Further characterization of the fast component would require the cut-open oocyte technique
(e.g., Chen et al., 1996
) to improve the recording bandwidth and rise time.
|
Voltage dependence of -V and Q-V relations.
For a reduction in external Na+, our data suggested that the main
ON
became slightly faster. With the translocation of
the empty carrier (6
1) as the rate limiting voltage-dependent step and external Na+ debinding faster
than binding (i.e., k21 > k12), the simulation also predicts a small downward shift in the
-V curve as external Na+ is reduced. Moreover, the Na+-dependent shift of
V0.5 for the ON Q-V distribution is also predicted by the
model. Note that as the steady state charge distributions of both components are influenced by external
Na+ (Fig. 10 C), a shift in V0.5 would still be expected
even if the fast component were not detected by single
exponential curve fitting.
Charge imbalance in total relaxation.
Our inability to
detect the faster component in the complete relaxation
can account for the charge imbalance of the apparent ON and OFF charge estimated from single exponential
curve fitting. The voltage dependence of the fast component means that for depolarizing (ON) steps from
Vh = 100 mV, single exponential fits commencing after the capacitive transient will accurately detect the
slower component. However, for the corresponding
OFF step, the fitted record now includes part of the fast
component, thus giving a larger apparent charge for
the OFF transition. The converse would apply for steps
from a more positive Vh, since the ON charge transfer results from a hyperpolarizing step. The good agreement between QON and QOFF, by integrating the charge
remaining after subtraction of the relaxation with saturating Pi, also supports this interpretation.
pH effects.
We found the observed changes in the -V
and Q-V could be simulated by assuming that H+ ions
interact with the unloaded transporter to cause a reduction of the rate constant K16. The
-V relation (Fig.
10 D) shows the observed slowing of the main relaxation for depolarized potentials, and the corresponding Q-V curve (Fig. 10 E) predicts a positive shift in the
steady state charge distribution as we observed.
Steady state behavior.
For the Pi dose dependency (Fig.
11 A, inset), the predicted I-V curves indicate rate limiting behavior at extremes of membrane voltage and saturation at high Pi as observed experimentally. Furthermore, at hyperpolarizing potentials, the subtraction
procedure used to obtain the apparent Pi-induced current results in more pronounced rate limiting behavior
due to the subtraction of the slippage component
present in the control (0 mM Pi) response. Fitting Eq. 1
to the simulated data gave a voltage-independent Hill
coefficient 1 that was independent of Na+ (data not
shown) and an apparent KmPi (Fig. 11 A) that increased
monotonically with depolarizing voltage and was sensitive to Na+. For the Na+ dose response, the simulated I-V
curves (Fig. 11 B, inset) are also qualitatively similar to
the experimental data whereby, after subtraction of the
response at 0 mM Pi, the Hill coefficient predicted from fitting Eq. 1 to the simulated I-V data was 2.4 and
the apparent KmNa varied weakly with potential for a 10-fold change in Pi (Fig. 11 B).
|
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FOOTNOTES |
---|
Address correspondence to Dr. Ian C. Forster, Physiologisches Institut, Universität Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland. Fax: +41 1 635 6814; E-mail: forster{at}physiol.unizh.ch
Received for publication 19 February 1998 and accepted in revised form 4 May 1998.
The authors acknowledge the helpful comments and critical reading of the manuscript by Prof. E. Wright and Dr. Don Loo.This work was supported by grants to H. Murer from the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNF: 31-46523), the Hartmann Müller-Stiftung (Zurich, Switzerland), the Olgar Mayenfisch-Stiftung (Zurich), and the Schweizerischer Bankgesellschaft (Zurich) (Bu 704/7-1).
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Abbreviations used in this paper |
---|
BBMV, brush border membrane vesicles; Ih, oocyte holding current; Ip, Pi-induced inward currents; IPFA, PFA-sensitive component; I-V, current-voltage; NaPi-2 rat type II Na+/Pi cotransporter, PFA, phosphonoformic acid; Pi, inorganic phosphate; Vh, oocyte holding potential.
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