By
From the * Department of Internal Medicine and the Department of Cell Biology and Physiology,
Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
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Abstract |
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Immune cell migration into and through mucosal barrier sites in general and airway sites in
particular is a critical feature of immune and inflammatory responses, but the determinants of transepithelial (unlike transendothelial) immune cell traffic are poorly defined. Accordingly, we
used primary culture airway epithelial cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells to develop a cell monolayer system that allows for apical-to-basal and basal-to-apical T cell transmigration
that can be monitored with quantitative immunofluorescence flow cytometry. In this system,
T cell adhesion and subsequent transmigration were blocked in both directions by monoclonal
antibodies (mAbs) against lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1 (LFA-1) or intercellular
adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) (induced by interferon [IFN-
] treatment of epithelial cells). The total number of adherent plus transmigrated T cells was also similar in both directions, and
this pattern fit with uniform presentation of ICAM-1 along the apical and basolateral cell surfaces. However, the relative number of transmigrated to adherent T cells (i.e., the efficiency of
transmigration) was increased in the basal-to-apical relative to the apical-to-basal direction, so an additional mechanism was needed to mediate directional movement towards the apical surface. Screening for epithelial-derived
-chemokines indicated that IFN-
treatment caused selective expression of RANTES (regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted), and the functional significance of this finding was demonstrated by inhibition of
epithelial-T cell adhesion and transepithelial migration by anti-RANTES mAbs. In addition,
we found that epithelial (but not endothelial) cells preferentially secreted RANTES through the apical cell surface thereby establishing a chemical gradient for chemotaxis across the epithelium to a site where they may be retained by high levels of RANTES and apical ICAM-1.
These patterns for epithelial presentation of ICAM-1 and secretion of RANTES appear preserved in airway epithelial tissue studied either ex vivo with expression induced by IFN-
treatment or in vivo with endogenous expression induced by inflammatory disease (i.e., asthma). Taken together, the results define how the patterns for uniform presentation of
ICAM-1 along the cell surface and specific apical sorting of RANTES may serve to mediate
the level and directionality of T cell traffic through epithelium (distinct from endothelium) and
provide a basis for how this process is precisely coordinated to route immune cells to the mucosal surface and maintain them there under normal and stimulated conditions.
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Introduction |
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Tcell trafficking into epithelial barriers (including gut,
skin, and airway) may be critical for mucosal immunity and epithelial barrier function, but the basis for T cell
movement into and through the epithelium is poorly defined. Schemes for transendothelial movement of T cells
(extravasation) have been defined that depend on the coordinated expression of cell adhesion molecules and -chemokines that interact with corresponding receptors on the
lymphocyte surface (1). Thus, it might appear reasonable to
propose that similar molecular mechanisms may regulate
transepithelial movement of T cells. However, there are
critical differences between epithelial and endothelial cell
adhesion and transmigration, the most obvious of which
may be that immune cell recruitment through endothelium and epithelium generally occur in opposite directions with
respect to the cell's luminal surface and the bloodstream.
For endothelium, the abluminal direction is apical-to-basal,
whereas for epithelium, it is basal-to-apical. In the case of
the endothelium, it appears that this directional process is
coordinated by the actions of selectins, cell adhesion molecules, and chemokines, but the driving force for T cell
movement across the epithelial barrier (if it exists at all) is
uncertain.
Accordingly, we developed a system for monitoring T
cell adhesion and transmigration through an epithelial
model in apical-to-basal and basal-to-apical directions. T cell
behavior was monitored by quantitative flow cytometry to
avoid a need for extensive leukocyte purification, culture,
and/or labelingsteps that may alter leukocyte function
and, by their nature, may eliminate heterotypic cell-cell interactions that may be important in vivo. Monolayers were
established with primary-culture human tracheobronchial
epithelial cells (hTBECs)1 that exhibit differentiated structural and functional features of polarized epithelial barriers
found in situ (2). In particular, monolayers of hTBECs emulate in vivo behavior with low basal levels of intercellular
adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 and cytokine-dependent increases in ICAM-1 expression (3, 4) governed chiefly by selective responsiveness of a specific IFN-
-driven signal
transduction pathway leading from the cell surface to the
ICAM-1 gene promoter region in the nucleus (5). Expression of epithelial ICAM-1 and consequent interaction
with T cell lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1 (LFA-1) appears to be the major determinant of T cell adhesion to the apical surface of the hTBEC monolayers (8, 9), but, as noted above, the extent to which ICAM-1-
LFA-1 interaction or other molecular interactions might
regulate T cell traffic through the epithelium and the directionality of movement was uncertain for airway and other
epithelia. These findings obtained ex vivo now provide a
molecular basis for T cell traffic into and through mucosal
barriers based on the polarized secretion of the
-chemokine RANTES (regulated upon activation, normal T cell
expressed and secreted) in the setting of uniform presentation of ICAM-1 along the cell surface. In addition, we
present immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization
data from normal and inflamed airway tissue to support the
relevance of these patterns of expression for RANTES and
ICAM-1 to mediate immune cell traffic in human subjects.
Taken together with comparative data for endothelial cells,
the findings offer a means for progressive movement from endothelium to environment through distinct cell-specific
mechanisms for cell adhesion molecule expression and
chemokine secretion.
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Materials and Methods |
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Materials.
Recombinant human IFN-Antibodies.
Antibodies were obtained as follows: anti-ICAM-1 (CD54) mAb R6.5 (as an F[ab] fragment; reference 12) was a gift from R. Rothlein (Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, CT); anti-ICAM mAb 84H10 was obtained from Immunotech, Inc. (Westbrook, ME); anti-Epithelial Cell Isolation and Culture.
Human tracheal tissue was obtained from lung transplant donors and routine autopsies (2-24 h postmortem). Subjects with lung disease were excluded from study. hTBECs were isolated from tracheal mucosal strips by enzymatic dissociation and then were cultured in LHC-8e medium on flasks coated with collagen/albumin as described previously (8). Cells were passaged by treatment with 0.05% trypsin/0.02% EDTA and studied up to passage 7. To prepare standard (upright) epithelial cell monolayers, hTBECs were cultured to confluence on collagen-coated polycarbonate membrane inserts (8-µm pore size, 6.5-mm diam) in Transwell cell culture chambers (Costar, Cambridge, MA). Preliminary experiments confirmed that T cells do not adhere to inserts and pass through freely if no cell monolayer is present. To create inverted monolayers, membrane inserts were inverted and the bottom side was fitted with a section of a 1.7-ml microcentrifuge tube similar to methods described previously (16, 17). Cells were cultured to confluence on this bottom side (5-6 d), and then the microcentrifuge tube was removed and the inserts were placed upright into 24-well culture plates for an additional day before assay. Monolayer confluence was verified by Diff-Quik stain (Baxter, McGaw Park, IL), and monolayer integrity was monitored using transepithelial electrical resistance (17, 18). Electrical potential difference (PD) after passage of a defined current pulse was determined using a two-electrode volt-ohm meter (World Precision Instruments, Inc., Sarasota, FL); only monolayers showing stable resistance of >120 ohm × cm2 and 100% confluency were used for assay. Cell monolayers grew only on the plated side of the filter, and under these culture conditions, maintained epithelial-specific characteristics of differentiated structure and function (19).Conditions for Adhesion/Transmigration Assay.
These conditions were modified from those described previously for determining epithelial-T cell adhesion (8, 9). The mononuclear leukocyte fraction was isolated from peripheral blood of healthy donors by a one-step gradient through Ficoll-Hypaque. The PBMC fraction was resuspended in LHC-8e, and aliquots of 3 × 105 leukocytes/ 100 µl were added to the upper compartment of each Transwell chamber. Leukocytes were pretreated with or without phorbol dibutyrate (50 ng/ml for 15 min) and epithelial monolayers were pretreated with or without IFN-Flow Cytometry Analysis of Adherent and Transmigrated Leukocytes.
Using an approach we have described previously (8, 9), aliquots from the starting mononuclear leukocyte preparation added to the monolayer and from the adherent and transmigrated leukocytes from each monolayer well were analyzed by fluorescence-activated flow cytometry in order to determine the number and percentage of adherent and transmigrated T cells for each condition. Each sample was washed and resuspended in PBS containing 1% FBS, incubated with 5 µl of anti-CD3 mAb (to distinguish T cells from other types of leukocytes or epithelial cells) for 1 h at 4°C followed by FITC-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG for 1 h at 4°C, and then washed again and resuspended in 200 µl PBS containing 0.2% BSA. Next, 104 fluorospheres (to serve as an internal standard for quantitation) were added to each sample, and the samples were analyzed using an Epics Elite flow cytometer (Coulter Cytometry, Hialeah, FL). Gating conditions were established for the clearest separation of T cells and resulted in the use of a multivariate analysis of cell side scatter versus forward scatter as described previously (8, 9). Data was acquired (Coulter Elite Version 3 software; Coulter Cytometry) using 1,024-channel resolution over a four decade log gain setting. The software was set up to calculate the percentages of T cells and fluorospheres in each sample based on 30,000 events, and the number of fluorospheres added to the sample was calculated based on the manufacturer's specifications. The number of adherent or transmigrated T cells and percent adherence or transmigration in each sample was determined by the following equations: number of adherent or transmigrated T cells = (percent T cells)/(percent fluorospheres) × (number of fluorospheres added to the sample); percent adherence or transmigration = (number of adherent or transmigrated T cells/number of T cells added to the monolayer) × 100. Preliminary experiments indicated a high correlation (r = 0.99) between measurements of leukocytes by flow cytometry versus the values obtained for manual cell counting. For experiments analyzingImmunocytochemistry for ICAM-1.
Epithelial cell monolayers were cultured in Transwell chambers and treated with or without IFN-Immunoassay for RANTES.
Epithelial cell monolayers were cultured in Transwell chambers and treated with or without IFN-Epithelial Tissue Procurement.
Endobronchial biopsy tissue was obtained by fiberoptic bronchoscopy using a University-approved protocol for healthy nonasthmatic control subjects (six male and four female aged 20-54 yr) and stable asthmatic subjects (three male and eight female aged 22-60 yr). Nonasthmatic subjects had no clinical history of asthma, normal spirometry (forced expiratory volume in 1s; FEV1 = 108 ± 14% predicted; range = 81-129% predicted), and normal airway reactivity to inhaled methacholine (provocative concentration for 20% decrease in FEV1; FEV1 PC20 > 16 mg/ml). Asthmatic subjects met clinical diagnostic criteria for asthma (24) and had more variable spirometry (FEV1 = 90 ± 12% predicted; range 66-111% predicted) and hyperreactivity to inhaled methacholine (FEV1 PC20 = 1.40 ± 1.20 mg/ml; range, 0.12-2.80 mg/ml). Positive prick skin test reactivity to a panel of allergens (house dust, trees, grasses, fungi, and dog and cat dander) was present in nine of the asthmatic subjects and three of the control subjects. Asthmatic subjects were treated with inhaled triamcinolone (1,600 µg/d) or fluticasone (1,760 µg/d) for 30 d before the first endobronchial biopsy. Glucocorticoid treatment was then discontinued, and subjects were monitored for an additional 6 wk or until peak expiratory flow had decreased by 20% at which time a second endobronchial biopsy was obtained.Immunohistochemistry for ICAM-1 and RANTES.
For ICAM-1 immunostaining, endobronchial biopsies were frozen in OCT/ TBS (optimum cutting temperative/Triangular Biomedical Science) and cut into 6-µm thick sections that were washed in Tris-buffered saline, blocked by treatment with 2% gelatin, and incubated with anti-ICAM-1 mAb (1 µg/ml) for 18 h at 4°C. Primary Ab binding was detected with an FITC-conjugated donkey anti- mouse IgG secondary Ab and viewed by laser confocal microscopy as described above. In addition, some endobronchial biopsies were incubated in 8-well LabTek chambers containing LHC-8e media without and with IFN-In Situ Hybridization for RANTES.
For RANTES riboprobe synthesis, a 0.41-kb human cDNA fragment (nt 1-410) was positionally cloned into the EcoRI and HindIII sites of pBluescript (Promega Corp., Madison, WI) in order to generate pBluescript-RANTES (1-410). Radiolabeled 35S-UTP sense and antisense cRNA transcripts were transcribed in vitro by T3 and T7 RNA polymerases, respectively, using the Gemini Riboprobe system (Promega Corp.). Riboprobes were subsequently precipitated with ethanol/acetate, washed, and counted, and an average of 3.0 × 106 cpm/µl were generated for each probe. In situ hybridization was performed as described previously (25). In brief, formalin-fixed tissue sections were deparaffinized, digested with proteinase K, and washed in 0.1 M triethanolamine buffer containing 0.25% acetic anhydride. Sections were incubated in 50 µl of hybridization solution containing 35S-labeled riboprobe (2 × 104 cpm/µl) at 60°C for 18 h in a humidified chamber and then washed under stringent conditions and processed for autoradiography for 15 d. Formalin-fixed preparations of IFN-Statistical Analysis.
Values for leukocyte adherence were analyzed for statistical significance using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for a factorial experimental design. The multicomparison significance level for the one factor analysis of variance was 0.05. If significance was achieved by one-way analysis, post-ANOVA comparison of means was performed using Scheffe F tests. ![]() |
Results |
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Epithelial
cell monolayers (hTBECs) cultured on the underside of a
Transwell insert (to measure basal-to-apical transmigration) exhibited consistent confluency (by microscopy) and constant transepithelial resistance (by potential difference) that
was identical to that observed for standard upright culture
conditions (for measuring apical-to-basal transmigration).
Initial experiments with inverted (and upright) monolayers
each indicated that maximal T cell adhesion occurred within
1 h and remained at a stable level for 4-8 h, whereas T cell
transmigration exhibited a progressive and relatively linear
increase with time (Fig. 1). The time-dependent nature of
T cell transmigration was observed during unstimulated
control conditions and under conditions where adhesion
and transmigration were augmented by phorbol dibutyrate
treatment of T cells, IFN- treatment of epithelial cells, or
a combination of the two treatments.
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In comparing epithelial-T cell adhesion and transmigration in apical-to-basal versus basal-to-apical directions, we
observed that the efficiency of transmigration (i.e., the relative number of transmigrated to adherent cells) was increased in the basal-to-apical direction (Fig. 2). Since the
total number of adherent plus transmigrated T cells was
similar in both directions, this efficiency reflected increased
retention of T cells adherent to the apical compared with
the basal epithelial cell surface, but increased transmigration of T cells adherent to the basal compared with the apical
cell surface. The same patterns for preferential apical adhesion and basal-to-apical transmigration was observed for /
and
/
T cell subsets (Fig. 3). However, the level of adhesion and transmigration was augmented in
/
compared
with
/
T cells. These findings are in accord with the requirement of LFA-1 activation for epithelial-T cell adhesion and the higher level of activatable LFA-1 on
/
compared with
/
T cells (8).
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To determine the mechanism(s) for preferential T cell retention at
the apical cell surface and transmigration via the basal cell
surface, we first examined the distribution of ICAM-1 over the epithelial cell surface. To localize ICAM-1 expression
on the apical and basolateral cell surfaces with respect to the
tight junction, we used a marker of the basolateral cell surface (Na,K-ATPase) and visualized the z-axis of the monolayer by scanning laser confocal microscopy (Fig. 4). This
technique (in contrast to monolayer embedding and mechanical transection) preserved epitopes on the basal cell
surface and allowed us to document IFN--dependent expression of ICAM-1 in a circumferential pattern with uniform distribution along both the apical and basolateral cell
surfaces. Concomitant evidence for the functional significance of apical and basolateral expression of ICAM-1 came
from measurements of ICAM-1-dependent adhesion and
transmigration in the presence of blocking mAbs directed
against ICAM-1 and LFA-1. Thus, IFN-
/phorbol dibutyrate-stimulated levels of T cell adhesion and transmigration on apical (8, 9) or basal (Fig. 5) cell surfaces are returned completely to control levels by anti-ICAM-1 F(ab)
or anti-LFA-1 mAb.
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In view of the observations that ICAM-1-LFA-1
interaction was unlikely to account for preferential movement of T cells in the basal-to-apical direction, we performed concomitant studies of chemokine function in the
airway epithelial cell model. Initial experiments indicated
that IFN- stimulation of airway epithelial cells caused selective expression of RANTES (but not macrophage inflammatory protein [MIP]-1
, MIP-1
, monocyte chemoattractant protein [MCP]-1, MCP-3, or eotaxin) (21). Accordingly,
we assessed the role of RANTES in mediating epithelial-T
cell adhesion and transmigration. As in the case of ICAM-1
and LFA-1, we assessed the contribution of RANTES for
increases in epithelial-T cell adhesion and transmigration
by treatment with a specific blocking mAb under stimulation conditions that caused maximal adhesion and transmigration. For hTBEC monolayers (using IFN-
stimulation of monolayers and phorbol dibutyrate stimulation of T cells
to achieve maximal adherence and transmigration), mean
stimulated T cell adhesion and transmigration were inhibited 58 and 80%, respectively, by anti-RANTES mAb (Fig.
5). The low level of transmigration remaining despite a
maximally effective concentration of anti-RANTES mAb
may indicate the contribution of other (as yet unidentified) chemoattractants derived from epithelial cells and/or T
cells. Nonetheless, taken together, the results indicate that
IFN-
-stimulated airway epithelial-T cell transmigration is
entirely dependent on ICAM-1-LFA-1 interaction and,
among chemokines, most significantly influenced by RANTES
interaction with its corresponding chemokine receptor
(CCR1, 4, or 5) on the T cell (26).
We next assessed the possible mechanism for RANTES to mediate a preferential directional movement of T cells across the epithelial cell
monolayer in the basal-to-apical direction. Initial experiments indicated weak immunostaining of epithelial cells
with five different anti-RANTES Ab preparations, suggesting that the secreted form of RANTES was responsible for
its functional effect. In view of this possibility, we reasoned
that transmigration might be mediated by a soluble chemical gradient for RANTES. Support for this possibility was
obtained with measurements of RANTES in media collected from the apical versus basal aspect of the monolayers.
Thus, apical levels of RANTES were ~16-fold higher than
basal levels under standard (upright) conditions for monolayer culture (Fig. 6). This differential level of RANTES
persisted even after: (a) correcting for the smaller volume of
media on the apical side of the cell monolayer (a fourfold
difference), (b) adding unactivated or phorbol dibutyrate-
activated T cells to the system, or (c) culturing cells in the
upright or inverted manner with respect to the Transwell membrane (Figs. 6 and 7). The pattern for polarized secretion of RANTES combined with uniform expression of
ICAM-1 was distinct for epithelial cells because endothelial
(HUVEC) cell monolayers exhibited nonpolarized secretion of RANTES (Fig. 7) along with uniform expression
of ICAM-1 (27). To achieve significant endothelial cell
production (or maximal epithelial cell production) of
RANTES, it was necessary to stimulate cells with TNF-
(in addition to IFN-
; references 21, 23), but the apical
distribution of RANTES secretion for epithelial cells was
constant whether cells were stimulated with IFN-
alone or
with IFN-
in combination with TNF-
(Fig. 7). Similarly, the distribution of RANTES across the cell could not
be accounted for by diffusion of RANTES, because concentration gradients were maintained under these experimental conditions for epithelial and endothelial cell monolayers (Figs. 6 and 7).
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As discussed below, the relatively uniform distribution of ICAM-1 over the airway epithelial cell
surface was distinct for polarized epithelial cells, which (at
least in the case of colonic and alveolar epithelial cells) appear to limit expression of ICAM-1 to the apical surface (4,
28). To verify whether the pattern of ICAM-1 expression was representative of airway epithelium, we also determined the pattern of ICAM-1 presentation in endobronchial biopsies of airway epithelial tissue. The strategy was
aimed at obtaining airway epithelial tissue from healthy
control subjects that was stimulated ex vivo with IFN-
(just as was done for epithelial cell monolayers) to express
ICAM-1 or from asthmatic subjects that exhibited increased expression of endogenous ICAM-1 compared with
nonasthmatic subjects even under baseline conditions (31). In both cases, confocal microscopy indicated that the pattern of ICAM-1 expression along the airway epithelial cell
surface was identical to the one observed for epithelial cell
monolayers. Thus, ICAM-1-expressing epithelial tissue either stimulated ex vivo to express ICAM-1 or obtained
from asthmatic subjects that endogenously express ICAM-1
both exhibit expression uniformly along apical and basolateral surfaces (Fig. 8).
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We next aimed to determine whether evidence of
RANTES expression in isolated epithelial cells could also
be extended to studies of epithelial tissue from endobronchial biopsies. Initial experiments with IFN--stimulated
epithelial cells (as noted above) indicated immunostaining
was relatively weak (despite marked increases in corresponding mRNA levels by Northern blot analysis and in
situ hybridization), and detection of RANTES signal above
background in immune cells (using tonsillar tissue) required
antigen-retrieval (data not shown). Accordingly, we used a
combination of antigen-retrieval immunostaining and in
situ hybridization to detect RANTES in endobronchial biopsy tissue, but even these approaches indicated only low
levels of RANTES expression in epithelial tissue from
healthy control or asthmatic subjects under stable baseline
conditions (data not shown and Fig. 9). As discussed below,
these findings are similar to ones reported by others (32).
However, using a newly-developed protocol for controlled
exacerbation of asthma during monitored glucocorticoid
withdrawal, we observed a marked increase in expression of RANTES that was localized to airway epithelial cells (as
well as an expanded population of immune cells) in asthmatic subjects (Fig. 9). As was the case for IFN-
-stimulated epithelial cells, the asthma-associated increase in epithelial RANTES expression was more prominent by in situ
hybridization (that detects cell-associated mRNA) than
by immunostaining (that detects cell-associated protein). Taken together, these findings suggest that secretion of
RANTES by airway epithelial cells is efficiently designed
to achieve an appropriate extracellular site of action.
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Discussion |
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T cell traffic across epithelia is a critical feature of immune barrier function, but the signals for movement and
their possible relationship to other polarized cell functions
were uncertain. Our results establish a model for transepithelial T cell movement based on uniform and circumferential distribution of ICAM-1 along the cell surface and
polarized secretion of RANTES through the apical cell
surface. For ICAM-1, distribution on both apical and basolateral cell surfaces allows for efficient cell adhesion at the
basal cell surface (to aid in transmigration) and at the apical cell surface (for retention along the airway). For RANTES,
the pattern of preferential apical secretion provides for a
soluble chemical gradient for T cell movement from the
subepithelium (where levels are low) to the mucosal surface
and maintenance there (where levels are higher). These
patterns for localization of ICAM-1 expression and RANTES
secretion found in isolated epithelial cells account appropriately for the levels of T cell adhesion and transmigration found in epithelial cell monolayers and with the available
data for ICAM-1 and RANTES expression in airway epithelial tissue. Thus, ICAM-1 appears to be uniformly distributed around the mucosal epithelial cell surface under
conditions for exogenous stimulation with IFN- or endogenous expression with asthma, and RANTES appears to be abundantly expressed and efficiently secreted by the
same population of airway epithelial cells during asthmatic
inflammation.
In attempting to understand the cellular mechanism for
sorting membrane proteins (such as ICAM-1) or secretory
proteins (such as RANTES), there is presently little information for airway epithelial cells. In other models of polarized epithelium (e.g., MDCK cells from kidney or CaCo-2
cells from intestine), it appears that membrane and secretory proteins are distributed to the polarized cell surface by
exocytic and endocytic routes to varying degrees in different epithelial cell types, but in both routes, sorting to the
apical domain is signal mediated and delivery to the basolateral domain represents the default pathway (36, 37).
Thus, the apical pathway from the trans-Golgi network (for
the exocytic route) or endosomal recycling (for the endocytic route) requires specific sorting signals, whereas the
basolateral pathway represents the equivalent of the default
pathway in nonpolarized cells. The definitive identification
of sorting signals for transmembrane proteins is still uncertain, but most examples are targeted via extracytoplasmic domains, and in that regard, glycosyl phosphatidylinositol
(GPI)-membrane anchoring may act as a targeting signal
(38, 39). It is uncertain to what extent ICAM-1 might
completely fit this paradigm, but analysis of the homologous neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) indicates that
GPI-anchored forms are distributed to the apical surface,
whereas transmembrane forms are targeted to the basolateral surface (40). For RANTES (or other -chemokines),
no polarized sorting has been previously documented, so
no targeting signals have been defined (41).
The patterns for ICAM-1 expression and RANTES secretion in airway epithelial cells provide initial evidence of specialization and consequent cellular heterogeneity for directing immune cell traffic. For example, other types of epithelial cells (notably colonocytes and pneumocytes) express ICAM-1 only along the apical cell surface (28). Perhaps in this setting, ICAM-1 functions mostly in cell movement along that surface or acts in concert with other cell adhesion receptors to aid in host defense (e.g., as opsonins). Endothelial cells also appear to exhibit heterogeneity in the pattern of ICAM-1 expression. Pulmonary capillary and venular endothelial cells conserve this pattern of apical (luminal) expression under basal or endotoxin- and cytokine-stimulated conditions (4, 30). However, cytokine- (IL-1-) induced ICAM-1 exhibits uniform apical and basolateral expression over the surface of umbilical vein endothelial cells and so may contribute to bidirectional movement of immune cells across endothelium (27).
As was the case for ICAM-1, we found that RANTES
was distributed to both sides of an (umbilical vein) endothelial cell monolayer. Our findings are consistent with a
report that endothelial cells are unable to generate a significant gradient for other -chemokines (MCP-1; reference
42). Endothelial cells remain polar in cell culture and exhibit polarized secretion of a number of biologically active
molecules for directing immune cell traffic (43), suggesting that these cells lack the sorting signals that are present in some types of polarized epithelial cells for directing RANTES to the apical cell surface. Instead, endothelial cells appear to
maintain proteoglycans capable of anchoring glycosaminoglycan-binding chemokines to either cell surface (44).
Presumably, chemokine sequestration at the site of production maintains a high local concentration despite potential
dilution by blood flow (47). After we submitted this report,
a study of IL-8 and RANTES indicated that binding to the
cell surface and transcytosis resulted in presentation of IL-8
and RANTES on both luminal and abluminal cell surfaces
of venular endothelium (48). Binding to the endothelial cell depended on an intact COOH terminus (the immobilization domain), but the lack of polarity for this process
(defined by administration of exogenous chemokine) indicates that it is distinct from what we have observed for endogenous RANTES production in epithelial cells. Furthermore, this nonpolar process might be expected to aid in
haptotaxis, and perhaps this is useful for movement out of
the circulation (often the predominant direction for immune cell flux) or in recirculation of immune cells. However, a polar process (such as the one we describe for
RANTES) is required for effective chemotaxis and the
consequent need to preferentially direct immune cell
movement across the epithelium in a basal-to-apical direction. In fact, epithelial cells appear programmed to efficiently release
-chemokines either in culture or in vivo.
Thus, endothelial cells may use nonpolarized expression of
proteoglycans to permit chemokine-dependent haptotaxis
of immune cells, whereas epithelial cells use polarized secretion of chemokine to generate a soluble chemokine-dependent gradient that mediates chemotaxis of immune cells across the epithelium. In all cases, it appears that a cell type-specific mechanism for directing RANTES secretion
(and ICAM-1 expression) works in combination with specific determinants in the chemokine (or cell adhesion molecule) structure to achieve specialized direction of immune
cell traffic.
We are unaware of other reports of transepithelial T cell
traffic, but several groups have studied neutrophil traffic
across epithelia. This work indicates that neutrophil transmigration across cultured airway epithelial and peritoneal
mesothelial cells also occurs preferentially in the basal-to-apical direction and under some conditions may be mediated by IL-8 production (17, 49). In the case of mesothelial
cells, IL-8 appears to be secreted at a slightly higher (onefold) rate towards the apical cell surface, but these determinations are influenced by back diffusion for this chemokine. Nonetheless, the findings suggest that directionality of chemokine secretion may also be used for parenchymal
cells to direct neutrophils into inflammatory sites. In that
regard, there are several reports describing the preferential
migration of neutrophils across cultured enterocytes. Surface attachment of bacteria (Salmonella typhimurium) to intestinal T84 epithelial cells causes basolateral secretion of
IL-8 (four- to fivefold), indicating that this -chemokine is
more likely responsible for recruiting neutrophils to the
subepithelial space rather than directing the final movement
of neutrophils across the epithelium in this cell system (50).
Intestinal T84 cells also respond to bacterial infection and
cytokines (including IFN-) with expression of ICAM-1 on
the apical cell surface, and this pattern of expression is preserved in vivo (28, 29). The investigators noted that apical
expression of ICAM-1 by intestinal epithelial cells was a
sign that ICAM-1 (like IL-8) was not involved in the transmigration of neutrophils (28, 29). This position was supported by the finding that ICAM-1 blockade did not influence basal-to-apical transmigration of neutrophils through
intestinal epithelial monolayers in response to IFN-
(29),
presumably because neutrophils (unlike T cells) depend on
the interaction of Mac-1 (instead of LFA-1) with an alternative Mac-1 ligand such as heparan sulfate glycans (instead of
ICAM-1) (51). In this context, our results indicate that controls for transepithelial T cell movement are distinct
from those controlling neutrophils and instead depend on
coordinated interaction of epithelial ICAM-1 and RANTES
with their corresponding immune cell receptors. The precise basis for the difference in T cell versus neutrophil transepithelial migration will require defining the nature of the
chemokine stimulus for neutrophil transmigration. Similar
uncertainty accompanies the nature of the soluble factor that regulates ICAM-1-dependent movement of monocytes across epithelium or endothelium (27).
Our experiments focus on the epithelial determinants
(ICAM-1 and RANTES) of T cell transmigration, but
present (and previous) results indicate that T cells also contain regulated determinants for adhesion and transmigration. Thus, a hierarchy for 1- and
2-integrin expression
among T cell subsets is linked to TCR gene usage and emphasizes
/
T cell adhesion (8), and accordingly transmigration (our results). In particular, the higher levels of activatable LFA-1 on
/
versus
/
T cells result in higher rates of adhesion and consequent transmigration. The findings also confirm the importance of ICAM-1-LFA-1 interaction in regulating T cell transmigration as well as adhesion. Analogous to the variable level of integrin expression,
the level of RANTES responsiveness also varies among T
cell subsets (52, 53). Initial studies indicate a higher level of
responsiveness in memory relative to naive T cells, although responsiveness appears preserved among unactivated and activated as well as CD4+ and CD8+ T cells (53).
The lack of preferential responsiveness to RANTES may
be a reflection of its capacity to use multiple
-chemokine receptors, but the expression levels of receptors in relation to T cells subsets (or TCR gene usage) is still only partly
defined (26). After we submitted this work for publication,
a report appeared indicating that RANTES may cause preferential chemotaxis of Th1 type (IFN-
-producing) T cells
in vitro (54). As discussed below, this data may be taken together with our findings for induction of RANTES expression during asthma exacerbation to explain the seemingly paradoxical enrichment of Th1 type T cells (detectable after pharmacologic stimulation) in this disease (55). The
data also fit well with possible autoamplification of Th1
type T cell immune responses during conditions associated
with IFN-
production (such as respiratory viral infection;
reference 56). In support of this possibility, we find that increases in ICAM-1 and RANTES expression localized to
airway epithelial cells are consistently detected in a mouse
model of viral bronchitis and hyperreactivity (57).
The relationship of RANTES responsiveness to transmigratory capacity may be further complicated by the capacity of RANTES to activate T cells (including activation of
1- and
2-integrins on the T cell surface) as well as cause
chemotaxis (58). In fact, RANTES capacity for LFA-1
activation most likely accounts for the increased level of
ICAM-1-dependent adhesion of unactivated T cells (Fig.
5). The relatively weak effect of RANTES on adhesion (compared with transmigration) is consistent with the relatively weak effect on integrin (including
2-integrin) activation in other systems (59, 61). Thus, in the case of the
epithelium, the RANTES signal may confer some level of
adherence (via basal secretion), but it is predominantly
chemotactic (as a result of a more potent effect and a higher
level of agonist at the apical surface). The requirement for a
dual signal from ICAM-1 and RANTES is underscored by
findings that blockade of either signal blocks T cell transmigration, and delivering either signal alone (e.g., by treatment with exogenous RANTES in the absence of IFN-
-stimulated ICAM-1 expression) is insufficient to mediate
transepithelial T cell traffic (Taguchi, M. and M.J. Holtzman, unpublished observation).
Our findings in isolated cells and in tissue now provide
for a more complete picture of immune cell traffic during
airway immunity and inflammation. In the setting of respiratory viral infection, the stimulatory effect of IFN- may
complement direct effects of the virus on epithelial cells to
augment ICAM-1 and RANTES expression and consequent immune cell traffic (57, 62). In the setting of asthma,
we and others have also observed higher than normal expression of ICAM-1 in the airway epithelium (31, 63),
although the present and distinct use of confocal laser microscopy and frozen tissue appears to provide a more precise image of ICAM-1 localization in epithelial tissue. Most
reports indicate that RANTES is also expressed in the airway epithelium of normal and asthmatic subjects with mild
disease, but only at low basal levels in each group (32).
Accordingly, we sought an experimental protocol for endogenous exacerbation of asthma that might reflect natural
flares of the disease. In that context, we developed a protocol for controlled glucocorticoid withdrawal that in some
subjects results in asthma exacerbation characterized by increases in airway obstruction and immune cell infiltrate and
that is associated with a marked increase in expression of RANTES localized to airway epithelial cells as well as immune cells. Thus, the epithelial system for cell adhesion
and chemoattractant molecules appears engineered for host
defense, but the same molecular systems appear abnormally
activated in asthma depending on the severity of disease
and treatment conditions.
The molecular basis for overexpression of epithelial
ICAM-1 or RANTES in asthma is uncertain, since IFN-
levels derived from Th1 type T cells are expected to be low
in this condition compared with viral infection (67). Concomitant work has confirmed that there is little detectable
IFN-
production in asthmatic subjects under baseline or
glucocorticoid-withdrawal conditions (Sampath, D., M. Castro, and M.J. Holtzman, unpublished observation).
Even when airway tissue levels of IFN-
appear to be low,
however, there may be overactivation of IFN-
signal
transduction as evidenced by higher than normal levels of
signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (Stat1) activation (31). Thus, airway epithelial cells may be programmed for constitutive ICAM-1 expression (mediated by Stat1-dependent transcription; references 5) and inducible RANTES production (mediated by transcriptional
and post-transcriptional events; references 68, 69) even in
the apparent absence of viral infection or IFN-
production. In the case of RANTES, inducible expression may
reflect a coincidental and subliminal response to virus that
does not result in IFN-
production, or perhaps more
likely may suggest an inherited or acquired propensity for overexpression of the RANTES gene in these subjects in
response to a wider variety of inhaled stimuli. Defining
these relationships of RANTES expression to exogenous
and endogenous stimulation will require additional work
on the molecular basis for RANTES expression as well as
correlative protocols in human subjects. In the context of the
present work, however, the pattern of epithelial ICAM-1 expression and RANTES production appears consistent in
vitro and in vivo in healthy and diseased tissue, suggesting
that this combination of cell adhesion and chemoattractant
activities may efficiently regulate traffic of mucosal immune
cells during normal host defense and abnormal inflammatory disease in the airway.
![]() |
Footnotes |
---|
Address correspondence to M.J. Holtzman, Washington University School of Medicine, Box 8052, 660 South Euclid Ave., St. Louis, MO 63110. Phone: 314-362-8970; Fax: 314-362-8987; E-mail: holtzman{at}im.wustl.edu
Received for publication 27 June 1997 and in revised form 9 March 1998.
The authors gratefully acknowledge valuable help and advice from Lisa Looper, Bill Parks, Jill Roby, and Theresa Tolley.Abbreviations used in this paper HUVEC, human umbilical vein endothelial cell; hTBEC, human tracheobronchial epithelial cell; ICAM, intercellular adhesion molecule 1; LFA, lymphocyte function-associated antigen; LHC, Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis; MCP, monocyte chemoattractant protein; RANTES, regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted.
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