By
From the Molecular Cardiology Group, Department of Internal Medicine IV, University of Frankfurt, Germany
Physiological levels of shear stress alter the genetic programm of cultured endothelial cells and are
associated with reduced cellular turnover rates and formation of atherosclerotic lesions in vivo.
To test the hypothesis that shear stress (15 dynes/cm2) interferes with programmed cell death,
apoptosis was induced in human umbilical venous cells (HUVEC) by tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-
). Apoptosis was quantified by ELISA specific for histone-associated DNA-fragments
and confirmed by demonstrating the specific pattern of internucleosomal DNA-fragmentation.
TNF-
(300 U/ml) mediated increase of DNA-fragmentation was completely abrogated by
shear stress (446 ± 121% versus 57 ± 11%, P <0.05). This anti-apoptotic activity of shear
stress decreased after pharmacological inhibition of endogenous nitric oxide (NO)-synthase by
NG-monomethyl-L-arginine and was completely reproduced by exogenous NO-donors.
The activation of interleukin-1-converting enzyme (ICE)-like and cysteine protease protein
(CPP)-32-like cysteine proteases was required to mediate TNF-
-induced apoptosis of HUVEC.
Endothelial-derived nitric oxide (NO) as well as exogenous NO donors inhibited TNF-
-induced cysteine protease activation. Inhibition of CPP-32 enzyme activity was due to specific S-nitrosylation of Cys 163, a functionally essential amino acid conserved among ICE/CPP-32-like proteases. Thus, we propose that shear stress-mediated NO formation interferes with cell death signal
transduction and may contribute to endothelial cell integrity by inhibition of apoptosis.
One of the most striking features of atherosclerosis is
the focal nature of the disease. Atherosclerotic lesions
preferentially develop in regions such as bends and bifurcations, where blood flow is disturbed with flow separation
and, where shear stress is low and unsteady (1). The topographical association of regions with low shear stress with
increased cell turnover rates at lesion-prone sites in the arterial tree (2) suggests an important link between local hemodynamics and the associated wall shear stress and the pathobiologic processes leading to endothelial cell injury and atherosclerosis.
Cellular injury may result in either necrosis or apoptosis.
Apoptosis or programmed cell death is an essential mechanism for the maintenance of homeostasis in multicellular organisms (3). Apoptosis refers to the morphological alterations
exhibited by "actively" dying cells that include cell shrinkage, membrane blebbing, chromatin condensation, and DNA
fragmentation (3). Apoptotic cell death can result either
from developmentally controlled activation of endogenous
execution programs or from transduction of death signals
triggered by a wide variety of exogenous stimuli (4). One
major path in the cell suicide program requires the activation of cysteine proteases of the interleukin-1 We and others have previously shown, that the inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor- Human umbilical venous endothelial cells (HUVEC), endothelial basal medium, and supplements were purchased from Cell
Systems/Clonetics (Solingen, Germany) and FCS from Gibco (Berlin, Germany). [32P]dCTP was delivered by Amersham (Braunschweig, Germany). Klenow polymerase and cell death detection
ELISA were from Boehringer Mannheim (Mannheim, Germany). ICE- and CPP32-substrates and inhibitors were delivered
by Bachem (Heidelberg, Germany).
Cell Culture and Shear Stress Exposure.
HUVEC were cultured
in endothelial basal medium supplemented with hydrocortisone
(1 µg/ml), bovine brain extract (3 µg/ml), gentamicin (50 µg/ml),
amphotericin B (50 µg/ml), epidermal growth factor (10 µg/ml),
and 10% fetal calf serum until the third passage. After detachment
with trypsin, cells were grown for at least 18 h. Confluent monolayers of HUVEC were grown onto 6-cm wells and exposed to
laminar fluid flow in a cone-and-plate apparatus as previously described (12). A constant shear stress of 15 dynes/cm2 was used in
all experiments to simulate physiological shear stress (8, 12).
DNA Fragmentation.
Cells were scraped off the plates and
centrifugated at 700 g for 10 min, washed with PBS and resuspended in incubation buffer. The histone-associated DNA-fragments were linked to the anti-histone antibody from mouse and
the DNA-part of the nucleosome to the anti-DNA-peroxidase.
The amount of peroxidase retained in the immunocomplex was
determined photometrically with 2,2-converting
enzyme (ICE)1-like and cysteine protease protein (CPP)-
32-like family, homologous to the product of the Caenorhabditis elegans cell death gene ced 3 (5, 6).
(TNF-
) affects
endothelial cell viability and induces apoptosis in vitro in
bovine and porcine endothelial cells (7). Because vascular
wall shear stress alters the genetic growth program of cultured endothelial cells (8), reduces endothelial cell turnover
rates (2, 9), and the development of atherosclerotic lesions
in vivo (1, 10, 11), we hypothesized that shear stress may
interfere with apoptosis of endothelial cells. In addition,
since shear stress is closely correlated with endothelial cell
nitric oxide (NO) production, we further investigated and
identified a potential autocrine mechanism of NO for mediating the anti-apoptotic effects of shear stress.
-azino-di-(3-ethylbenzthiazoline sulfonate) as a substrate.
Determination of Cell Viability and LDH Release. Cell viability was assessed as described previously (14). HUVEC (1 × 105 cells/ml) were incubated in microtiter plates for 18 h with apoptotic stimuli. Then, cells were treated with 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)- 2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT, 0.5 mg/ml) for 4 h at 37°C, medium was removed and cells were lysed with 2-isopropanol containing 0.04 M HCl. The metabolized MTT was determined photometrically (595 nm).
For measurement of lactate-dehydrogenase (LDH) levels, a kit was used (Boehringer Mannheim, Germany). 1 × 105 cells were seeded into 12-well plates. The cell culture supernatant was incubated with pyruvate and NADH and the LDH activity was determined photometrically according to the manufacturers protocols.ICE and CPP32 Enzyme Activity.
For detection of ICE and
CPP32-activity, HUVEC (1 × 106 cells) were lysed in buffer
(1% Triton X-100, 0.32 M sucrose, 5 mM EDTA, 1 mM PMSF,
1 µg/ml aprotinin, 1 µg/ml leupeptin, 2 mM DTT, 10 mM Tris/
HCl, pH 8) for 15 min, 4°C, followed by centrifugation (20,000 g,
2 min). CPP-32-like activity was detected in resulting supernatants by measuring the proteolytic cleavage of the fluorogenic substrate 7-amino-4-coumarin (AMC)-DEVD (15) and AMC as standard in assay buffer (100 mM Hepes, 10% sucrose, 0.1% CHAPS,
pH 7.5, 1 mM PMSF, 1 µg/ml aprotinin, 1 µg/ml leupeptin, 2 mM
DTT) using an excitation wavelength of 380 nm and an emmission
wavelength of 460 nm. Similarly, ICE-like activity was measured
with 14 µM 7-amino-4-trifluoro-methylcoumarin (AFC)-conjugated YVAD-peptide as substrate and AFC as standard at an excitation wavelength of 400 nm versus an emmission wavelength of
505 nm (16). Specificity for CPP-32/ICE-like enzymatic activity
was demonstrated by inhibition with 10 nM Ac-DEVD-CHO
and 10 µM Ac-YVAD-CHO, respectively (15). Protein content was analyzed using the Biorad assay (Biorad, München, Germany). The specific activity of CPP32- and ICE-like protease activity in homogenates of control cells was 3.6 ± 0.6 pmol AMC × mg protein1 × min
1 and 2.7 ± 1.4 pmol AFC × mg protein-1 × min-1, respectively.
Cloning and Purification of ICE- and CPP-32 Subunits.
The human CPP-32 p17 and p12 subunits and the human ICE p10 and
p20 subunits were amplified by PCR with oligonucleotides that were synthesized to contain BamH1 and SacI restriction sites and were cloned into the respective sites of pQE30 (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) containing a 6× histidine affinity tag. The cys 163mutated p17 was generated by amplification of pQE30-p17 by
PCR with the following primers: primer 1, 5-GGAGGATCCCCTGGACAACAG-3
and primer 2, 5
-CTCAATGCCACAGTCCAGTTCTGTACCACGGCCGGCCTGAAT (exchanged base pairs in bold) followed by an additional PCR with primer 1 and primer 3:5
-GTCGAGCTCAATGCCACAGTC containing
the SacI restriction site. Clones with verified sequence were expressed in Escherichia coli. E. coli were lysed in buffer (8 M urea,
0.1 M Na-phosphate, 0.01 M Tris/HCl, pH 8) and the subunits
were purified by metal chelate affinity chromatography with
Ni2+-nitrilo-triacetic acid (Ni-NTA) resins. After elution with
200 mM EDTA, the isolated subunits were renaturated by dialysis
overnight (18) and protein concentration was determined with
the Biorad assay with bovine serum albumine as standard. We obtained ~6 mg purified protein/120 mg crude extract. Enzymatic
activity of the reconstituted CPP-32 (p17 and p12) and ICE subunits (p10 and p20) was monitored as outlined above. The specific activity of reconstituted ICE and CPP-32 in dialyzed crude
homogenates was 720 ± 102 pmol AMC × mg protein
1 × min
1
and 318 ± 78 pmol AFC × mg protein
1 × min
1, respectively,
whereas the purified reconstituted proteins exhibited a specific activity of 7,805 ± 200 pmol AMC × mg protein
1 × min
1 and
2,838 ± 219 pmol AFC × mg protein
1 × min
1, respectively.
S-Nitrosylation.
For demonstration of S-nitrosylation, bacterially expressed CPP-32 wild-type p17 subunit (p17 wt) and Cys
163-mutated p17 subunit (p17 mt) were purified as described
above and p17 subunits were renaturated by dialysis in 10 mM
Tris/HCl, pH 7.5, overnight (18). Then, 0.5 mg protein was incubated in 30 mM Tris/HCl, pH 7.5, with NO released nonenzymatically by NaNO2 or sodium nitroprusside (SNP) (19, 20) for
the time indicated and again was dialysed overnight. S-nitrosylation was determined spectrophotometrically at 335 nm using an
extinction coefficient of 3,869 mol1 × cm
1 (19, 20), titration of
SH-groups was carried out with excess of 5,5
dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoate) (DTNB) at 412 nm with an extinction coefficient of 13,600 mol
1 × cm
1 (19).
Western Blot Analysis. For Western blotting proteins were prepared and quantified as described above and protein samples (60 µg) were resolved on 8% sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide-gels and blotted on membranes. Membranes were blocked with 2% bovine serum albumin overnight and were incubated with anti-endothelial NO-synthase antibody (1:2,500; Dianova, Hamburg, Germany) for 1 h and anti-mouse horseradish peroxidase conjugate as the second antibody. Next, the membranes were stained with enhanced chemiluminescence. The autoradiographies were scanned and semiquantitatively quantified.
TNF- triggered apoptosis in HUVEC
in a time-dependent fashion with maximum effects after 18 h
exposure (Fig. 1 A). There was no increase in lactate dehydrogenase activity by TNF-
treatment excluding the induction of cell necrosis (data not shown). Exposure of HUVEC to physiological levels (15 dynes/cm2) of laminar shear
stress dramatically reduced basal and TNF-
-triggered apoptosis. Shear stress results in an immediate increase in endothelial NO production and further chronically enhances
NO synthesis by increasing endothelial NO-synthase expression (12, 21). In our experimental setting, NO synthesis measured by cGMP levels increased more than twofold
5 min after the onset of shear stress. Furthermore, increased
protein levels of endothelial NO-synthase (eNOS) were
sustained for 18 h of shear stress exposure up to 150 ± 10%
compared with controls. Although TNF-
slightly reduced eNOS protein levels at baseline, shear stress increased eNOS
protein to a similar extent in the presence of TNF-
(132 ± 4%). Inhibition of NO formation by NG-monomethyl-
L-arginine (LNMA) significantly inhibited the effect of shear
stress on the reduction of TNF-
-mediated cell death and
completely restored basal apoptosis (Fig. 1 A). Thus, physiological concentrations of endogenous NO appear to be
capable of suppressing TNF-
-triggered apoptosis of HUVEC. To demonstrate the antiapoptotic potential of NO, we
investigated the effect of exogenous NO donors. Coincubation with SNP or S-nitrosopenicillamine (SNAP) dosedependently decreased TNF-
-triggered apoptosis (Fig. 1 B).
NO donors did not affect apoptosis in the absence of TNF-
(Fig. 1 B). Low concentrations up to 50 µM of NO-donors
were shown to be protective, whereas higher concentrations (>300 µM) revealed the known proapoptotic effect
(22) (data not shown). TNF-
-induced apoptosis correlated with a decrease of cell viability by 22 ± 6%, which was
completely prevented by NO donors. The inhibition of
TNF-
-induced apoptosis by NO appeared to be independent of elevated cGMP levels, since the cGMP analogue
8-bromo-cGMP did not affect DNA fragmentation (Fig. 1 C).
TNF-
To identify the antiapoptotic mechanism of NO, we investigated the involvement of ICE/
CPP32-like proteases in TNF--mediated apoptosis in
HUVEC. Addition of the tetrapeptide inhibitors Ac-YVADCHO and Ac-DEVD-CHO, which are specific inhibitors
of ICE-like (6, 17) and CPP-32-like (17, 23) proteases, respectively, abrogated TNF-
-triggered apoptosis in HUVEC in a dose-dependent manner with maximum effects at
100 µM (Fig. 1 C). The inhibition of TNF-
-triggered apoptosis by NO donors was equipotent to the effects of
the specific tetrapeptide protease inhibitors as assessed by densitometric measurement of DNA fragmentation (Fig. 1 C).
Next, we measured ICE/CPP-32-like proteases activity
in HUVEC incubated for 18 h in the presence of TNF-
(300 U/ml) and SNP or SNAP (10 µM). ICE- and CPP32-like protease activities were directly determined in the
homogenate. Exogenous NO completely suppressed the increase in CPP-32-like protease activity induced by TNF-
(Fig. 2 A). Similarly, endogenous NO, induced by shear stress, also inhibited TNF-
stimulation of both proteases
(P = 0.04), an effect completely reversed by addition of the
NO-synthase inhibitor LNMA (99 ± 3% of TNF-induced
CPP-32-like activity).
NO Inhibits ICE/CPP-32-like Protease Activity.
Having
demonstrated that both endogenous as well as exogenous
NO inhibits the TNF--induced activation of ICE/CPP32-like proteases in intact cells, we next sought to examine
potential mechanisms, by which NO interferes with CPP32 activity. TNF-
increased the steady state expression of
CPP-32 mRNA in HUVEC after 6 h of incubation. However, neither the basal level of CPP-32 mRNA nor the
TNF-
-induced increase was affected in the presence of
NO donors (Fig. 2 B) suggesting a posttranscriptional mechanism responsible for NO-mediated inhibition of CPP-32
activation. Therefore, we investigated the CPP-32 protein
as a potential direct target for NO-mediated interference.
In the next set of experiments, we treated homogenates of
TNF-
-stimulated endothelial cells with SNP and SNAP.
Both NO donors led to a dose-dependent decrease in
TNF-
induced CPP-32-like protease activity with an
IC50 value of about 50 µM for SNP (Fig. 3 A), when
added 3 min before starting the enzymatic reaction. This effect
was due to the NO-releasing capacity of the compounds
used, since controls with sodium cyanide (300 µM) did not
affect CPP-32-like enzyme activity (83 ± 17% of control).
Similarly, ICE-like proteases activity was inhibited with
equal efficiency (Fig. 3 A).
Direct S-Nitrosylation of ICE/CPP32-like Proteases Downregulates Enzyme Activity.
ICE- and CPP-32-like proteases possess a highly conserved and functionally essential cysteine within their active center (5, 6, 23). Since S-nitrosylation is a well-established mechanism, by which NO can inhibit enzyme activity (19, 24, 25), we biochemically analyzed a potentially direct interaction of NO with CPP-32. Upon activation, proteolytical cleavage of CPP-32 releases two subunits, p12 and p17, which heterodimerize to form the active protease (23). The p17 subunit contains the reactive cysteine group at position 163 in its active center (23). Therefore, both subunits were separately cloned, bacterially expressed, and purified to homogeneity as demonstrated by silver staining (Fig. 4 A). S-nitrosylation of the p17 subunit was performed and detected according to Stamler (20). Table 1 illustrates that NO released by NaNO2 or SNP timedependently S-nitrosylated one thiol group per molecule p17. The S-nitrosylation correlated with the reduction of one thiol-group per molecule p17 detectable by DTNB (Table 1). These findings were further substantiated by demonstrating that the isolated p17 subunit, but not the p12 subunit NO-dependently incorporated [32P]NAD, a reaction being mediated by S-nitrosylation (19, 26) (data not shown). Similar results were obtained for the corresponding p10/p20 subunits of ICE (data not shown).
In vitro reconstitution of both the p17 with the separately expressed and purified p12 subunit of CPP32 as well as the p20 and p10 subunit of ICE exhibited potent CPP32 and ICE enzyme activity, respectively. S-nitrosylation of the p17-CPP32 or the p20-ICE subunit performed before reconstitution led to a complete inhibition of enzyme activity after SNP (500 µM)-induced S-nitrosylation for 60 min. Enzyme activity of both reconstituted heterodimers was dose-dependently reduced by NO donors with equal efficiencies (Fig. 4 B). Thus, S-nitrosylation of the p17 subunit of CPP-32 or the p20 subunit of ICE is associated with profound inhibition of enzyme activity.
The p17 subunit of CPP32 contains five cysteine groups. To identify the NO acceptor amino acid, we mutated the highly reactive Cys 163 to Ala 163 by PCR-cloning. No reactive SH group was detectable, when titrating the SH groups of the bacterially expressed p17 mutant (Table 1), suggesting that Cys 163 is the main cysteine group which is S-nitrosylated by NO. Interestingly, another mutant, Ser 120 to Gly 120, which abolished enzyme activity, but still contains all five cysteine residues, was not S-nitrosylated (data not shown), indicating that the ability to react with NO depends on the formation of an active center.
NO, produced at low levels, has been previously shown
to inhibit apoptosis of human B cells, albeit the mechanisms involved have not been elucidated (27, 28). In contrast, other studies have found that high levels of NO induce apoptosis of macrophages (22). These effects of NO
activity as a double-edged sword can be well rationalized.
High concentrations of NO lead to direct DNA damage or
exhibit cytotoxic effects (29), whereas low levels of NO inhibit apoptosis via posttranslational modification of ICE/
CPP-32-like proteases by S-nitrosylation. The constitutively expressed endothelial cell nitric oxide synthase produces low levels of NO (12, 21, 29) suggesting that endothelial cell NO production may render endothelial cells resistant
to a major trigger of apoptosis. Although low concentrations
of exogenous NO were sufficient to prevent TNF--triggered apoptosis, the pharmacological inhibition of shear
stress induced NO production did only partially reverse the
TNF-
effect (see Fig. 1 A). This result suggests that shear
stress utilizes additional NO-independent antiapoptotic mechanisms, which remain to be identified. Shear stress has previously been shown to modulate phosphorylation of tyrosine kinases (8) indicating activation of second messengers,
which might interfere with cell death signal transduction.
In addition, shear stress alters F-actin organization through
regulation of focal adhesion-associated proteins in endothelial cells (8), which might play an additional role in mediating apoptosis (3, 4).
The function of NO to act as an intracellular control
mechanism to protect endothelial cells from being driven
into apoptosis under stimulation with TNF- may have important pathophysiological implications. The endothelium
plays a pivotal role as a gate keeper regulating recruitment
of blood-borne cells during inflammation, atherosclerosis,
and immune surveillance. Since TNF-
is a major inflammatory and/or immune cytokine, protection of TNF-
-induced apoptosis of endothelial cells by NO might importantly
contribute to the integrity of the endothelial cell layer.
Moreover, since ICE-like and CPP-32-like proteases
play a crucial role not only in TNF- and APO-1/FAS-
triggered apoptosis, but turn out to be of general importance in the apoptotic-signaling cascade (5, 17, 23), the potential of low level NO to modulate ICE/CPP-32-like
proteases activity might have a general impact on the response of cells to death signals.
Address correspondence to Andreas M. Zeiher, Department of Internal Medicine IV, Division of Cardiology, University of Frankfurt, Theodor Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany.
Received for publication 29 August 1996
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