Fast fibres in a large animal: fibre types, contractile properties and myosin expression in pig skeletal muscles
1 Department of Anatomy and Physiology, University of Padova, 35131 Padova,
Italy
2 Department of Experimental Veterinary Sciences, University of Padova,
35131 Padova, Italy
3 Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Pavia, Italy
* Author for correspondence: (e-mail: carlo.reggiani{at}unipd.it)
Accepted 17 February 2004
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Summary |
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Maximum shortening velocity (Vo) and isometric tension (Po) were measured in single muscle fibres with known MHC isoform composition. Six groups of fibres (pure: slow, 2A, 2X and 2B, and hybrid: 2A-2X and 2X-2B) with large differences in Vo and Po were identified. Slow fibres had mean Vo=0.17±0.01 length s-1 and Po=25.1±3.3 mN mm-2. For fast fibres 2A, 2X and 2B, mean Vo values were 1.86±0.18, 2.55±0.19 and 4.06±0.33 length s-1 and mean Po values 74.93±8.36, 66.85±7.58 and 32.96±7.47 mN mm-2, respectively. An in vitro motility assay confirmed that Vo strictly reflected the functional properties of the myosin isoforms.
We conclude that pig muscles express high proportions of fast MHC isoforms, including MHC-2B, and that Vo values are higher than expected on the basis of the scaling relationship between contractile parameters and body size.
Key words: myosin heavy chain, isoform, shortening velocity, pig
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Introduction |
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Among large domestic mammals, the pig has received increasing attention in
the last few years. From the most traditional point of view, pork meat is an
important component of human food and several studies have examined the
relationship between meat quality and muscle characteristics in various breeds
(Huff-Lonergan et al., 2002;
Davoli et al., 2003
). The
impact of feeding and breeding has been investigated and attention paid to the
appearance of diseases related to intense selection, for example the halothane
gene and malignant hyperthermia (MH) or porcine stress syndrome (PSS;
Nelson, 2002
;
Depreux et al., 2002
).
Recently, the pig has become important in medicine, not only as a model for
studying human disease, but also for the development of xenotransplantation
(see, for example, Halperin,
2001
; Dooldeniya and Warrens,
2003
) and for the use of a small size variant (mini-pig) as a
valuable pharmacological model (Bollen and
Ellegaard, 1997
). The amount of information on genes and gene
expresssion in the pig is quickly growing
(Hawken et al., 1999
;
Yao et al., 2002
) and makes
the pig a candidate for complete genome sequencing.
Whereas excitationcontraction coupling in porcine muscles has been
extensively investigated with respect to MHC (for reviews, see
Mickelson and Louis, 1996;
Meltzer and Dietze, 2001
), no
information is available on the relationship between contractile performance
and myosin isoforms. Fibre typing has been done using several methods:
histochemistry based on mATPase, immunohistochemistry, electrophoresis and,
more recently, molecular biology. The results are partially controversial:
expression studies based on RT-PCR clearly demonstrated that four distinct
myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms (Chang
and Fernandes, 1997
; Chikuni
et al., 2001
; Lefaucheur et
al., 2002
), identified as slow, fast 2A, fast 2X and fast 2B for
homology with other species, are expressed in adult pig skeletal muscles.
Interestingly, the fast isoform 2B, which is generally considered typical of
small mammals and marsupials (Zhong et
al., 2001
) and not expressed in large mammals such as man
(Smerdu et al., 1994
) and
horse (Serrano et al., 1996
),
or in dog (Latorre et al.,
1993
), baboon and cat (Lucas
et al., 2000
; see also
Schiaffino and Reggiani,
1996
), is clearly expressed in pig muscles. However,
electrophoresis has not achieved the separation of the corresponding four MHC
isoforms (Bee et al., 1999
),
whereas the results from histochemistry and immunohistochemistry are
controversial (Lefaucheur et al.,
2002
) due to the lack of reliable antibodies specific for pig
MHC-2X and MHC-2B and the presence of a high proportion of hybrid fibres. The
existence of large populations of hybrid fibres in pig muscles, where more
than one MHC is expressed, was confirmed by in situ hybridization
experiments, which also showed a mismatch between mRNA and protein expression
(Lefaucheur et al., 2002
).
The aim of this study was to analyse the contractile properties of pig muscle fibres in order to (i) extend our knowledge on the relationship between MHC isoforms and maximum shortening velocity in a large animal, and (ii) analyse, in a large animal, the contractile behaviour of fibres expressing MHC-2B. To this end we strengthened the identification criteria of myosin isoforms in pig skeletal muscle fibres by combining several approaches and established a clear relationship between each myosin isoform and the contractile parameters of the fibres where it is expressed. We also determined the speed at which actin filaments are translocated by each myosin isoform in an in vitro motility assay to assess whether single fibre shortening velocity is dependent only on myosin isoform composition or is also influenced by other myofibrillar proteins.
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Materials and methods |
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Single fibre mechanics
Single fibres were manually dissected under a stereomicroscope
(1060x magnification). At the end of the dissection, fibres were
bathed for 1 h in a skinning solution containing 1% Triton X-100 to ensure
complete membrane solubilization. Segments of 12 mm length were then
cut from the fibres and light aluminium clips were applied at both ends.
Skinning, relaxing, pre-activating and activating solutions employed for
mechanical experiments with single fibres were prepared as previously
described (Pellegrino et al.,
2003). Protease inhibitors (E64 10 µmol l-1 and
leupeptin 40 µmol l-1) were added to all solutions.
Once the clips had been applied, the fibre segment was mounted in the
experimental set-up in a drop of relaxing solution between the force
transducer (AME-801 SensorOne, Sausalito, California) and the electromagnetic
puller (SI, Heidelberg, Germany) equipped with a displacement transducer. All
details of the set-up and the recording system were as described previously
(Pellegrino et al., 2003).
Diameters and sarcomere length were measured at 320x magnification. The
contractile properties of each fibre were determined by measuring (i)
isometric tension (Po) during maximal activation
(pCa=4.6), (ii) unloaded shortening velocity (Vo) and
series compliance (SE) according to the `slack test' procedure
(Edman, 1979
). All experiments
were performed at 12°C. The experimental procedure has been described
fully (Pellegrino et al.,
2003
). At the end of the experiment each fibre was immersed in
Laemmli solution for electrophoretic analysis (see below).
Myosin extraction and in vitro motility assay
Myosin was extracted and purified from single muscle fibres dissected from
pig diaphragm and longissimus muscle as previously described
(Canepari et al., 1999). A
fragment of each fibre was immersed in Laemmli solution for electrophoretic
identification of MHC isoforms (see below). Sliding velocity of actin
filaments labelled with rhodaminephalloidin was determined for the
myosin prepared from each fibre in an in vitro motility assay, as
previously described (Pellegrino et al.,
2003
).
Histochemistry and immunohistochemistry
Muscle samples alone or combined into composite blocks were frozen in
isopentane cooled with fluid nitrogen, and serial sections (10 µm) cut in a
cryostat. Serial sections were stained for myofibrillar ATPase (mATPase) as
previously described in detail (Latorre et
al., 1993). ATPase staining followed either alkaline
pre-incubation at increasing pH values (method 1, pH 10.2, 10.3, 10.4 and
10.5, incubation times 715 min) or acid pre-incubation (method 2,
sodium acetate 0.2 mol l-1; method 3, sodium acetate 0.1 mol
l-1 at pH 4.6, 4.5, 4,4); see
Table 1. All methods well
distinguished type 1 from type 2 fibres, but the separation of the different
fast type 2 fibres was critical. mATPase activity after alkaline
pre-incubation at increasing pH values allowed us to distinguish fast
(positive) from slow (negative) fibres at pH 10.2, to separate 2A (weakly
positive) from other fast fibres (positive) at pH 10.310.4 with a
preincubation time of 710 min and to achieve an uncertain and weak
differentiation between 2X and 2B fibres (pH 10.4 or 10.5 for 710 min).
After 15 min of pre-incubation at pH 10.5, the mATPase activity disappeared in
all fibres. The best results with mATPase activity after acid pre-incubation
were obtained using method 2 (0.2 mol l-1 sodium acetate adjusted
with acetic acid at pH 4.6, 4.55, 4.5, 4.4 for 5 min, see
Table 1). In any case, the
conditions in which 2X fibres are stained differently from 2B fibres are very
critical.
|
Additional serial sections were stained with the following monoclonal
antibodies: BAF8, BFD5, SC71, BF35, BFF3. The binding of the primary antibody
was detected with a peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody and visualized
with the Envision method (Dako, Milano, Italy). The antibodies were purchased
at DSM (Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen, Braunschweig,
Germany) and had been previously characterized in rat muscles
(Schiaffino et al., 1989;
Bottinelli et al., 1991
). The
specificity of the mATPase reaction and the reactivity of the antibodies are
shown in Table 1.
Electrophoretical analysis and western blot
The MHC isoform composition of muscle samples (fibre bundles) or single
muscle fibres was determined on 8% polyacrylamide slab gels after denaturation
in SDS (SDS-PAGE) using a procedure derived from Talmadge and Roy
(1993). Slabs 18 cm wide, 16
cm high and 1 mm thick were electrophoresed in the cold room (4°C) for a
total of 26 h (at 70 V for the first 1.5 h and 230 V for the remaining time).
Whereas the compositions of the stacking and separating gels were identical to
those described by Talmadge and Roy
(1993
), the increased gel
thickness (1 mm instead of 0.75 mm, in order to reduce resistance) and the
lower voltage associated with a prolonged running time allowed us to achieve
the resolution required for the separation of all four adult MHC isoforms.
Gels were stained using Bio-Rad silver stain plus. For western blot, proteins
were transferred to nitrocellulose sheets according to the semidry transfer
procedure (Towbin and Gordon,
1984
) by applying a current of 0.8 mA cm-2 for 6 h.
Nitrocellulose sheets were first reacted with primary anti-MHC antibodies and
then with a peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody. MHC bands were
visualized by an enhanced chemiluminescence method in which luminol was
excited by peroxidase in presence of H2O2 (ECL Amersham
Products, Milano, Italy).
Preparation of cDNAs and RT-PCR
RNA samples were extracted from pig muscle samples using TRIZOL Reagent
(GibcoBRL, Life Technologies, Paisley, UK). The first-strand cDNAs were
synthesised with random hexamers using Superscript RNase H-reverse
transcriptase (GibcoBRL, Life Technologies) from the same amount of total RNA
(1.5 µg). Qualitative PCR reactions were standardised for each single
isoform (i.e. cycle numbers and annealing temperature). The following
optimised PCR conditions (27 cycles for 45 s at 94°C, 45 s at 55°C and
45 s at 72°C) were adopted for the MHC isoform specific primers shown in
Table 2. Forward primers were
designed from the coding regions (sequences available on GenBank, accession
numbers: MHC-2A, AB025260; MHC-2B, AB025261; MHC-2X, AB025262; MHC-1,
AB053226). Reverse primers were designed on the 3' untranslated regions
(UTRs), which have been sequenced by Chikuni et al.
(2001,
2002
). The sequence of the
3' UTR of MHC-1 is available on GenBank (accession number, AB053226);
the sequences of the 3'UTR of the fast isoforms were kindly provided to
us by the authors
|
All PCR were performed in 20 µl of PCR mix: 1x PCR buffer (Gibco,
BRL), 1.8 mmol l-1 MgCl2, 0.1 mmol l-1 of
each dNTPs, 0.5 µmol l-1 of each primer, 0.5 U Taq DNA
polymerase and 1 µl cDNA. PCR products were electrophoresed on a 1.8%
agarose gel, stained with ethidium bromide, and visualised under UV light. A
fragment of the pig -actin gene was amplified as an internal control to
test the quality of extracted RNA and the efficiency of RT reaction (data not
shown).
Statistical analysis
Data are expressed as means ± S.E.M. Statistical
significance of the differences between means was assessed by analysis of
variance (ANOVA) followed by the StudentNewmanKeuls test. A
probability of less than 5% was considered statistically significant.
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Results |
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RT-PCR
Qualitative RT-PCR performed on several samples of masseter, diaphragm, red
and white portions of semitendinosus, longissimus dorsi and rectractor bulbi
showed clear differences in MHC isoform expression
(Fig. 1). All four adult
sarcomeric MHC isoforms were expressed in adult porcine muscles; in particular
(i) the fast type 2A (fragment of 142 bp) was found in all muscle samples
analysed, (ii) the slow type 1 (fragment of 573 bp) was expressed in every
muscle sample tested except for the retractor bulbi, (iii) the fast MHC-2X
(fragment of 541 bp) was expressed in all muscles examined with the exception
of the masseter, (iv) the isoform 2B (fragment of 416 bp) was absent in
masseter and diaphragm but was expressed in longissimus dorsi, white
semitendinosus and retractor bulbi.
|
Histochemistry and immunohistochemistry
Histochemistry and immunohistochemistry were used to confirm the results of
RT-PCR at the protein level. Samples of masseter, diaphragm, longissimus dorsi
and red and white portions of semitendinosus were stained for mATPase after
acid and alkaline pre-incubation, using appropriate incubation time, pH and
molarity of pre-incubation solution, which permitted identification of the
different fibre types (see Table
1).
Type 1 (strong acid-stable) and 2A (the most acid-labile fibre type, negative at pH lower than 4.6) fibres were easily identified, as can be seen in Fig. 2A, left (masseter at pH 4.55). The presence of type 1 and type 2A fibres in the masseter was in full agreement with RT-PCR data. In Fig. 2A, right (longissimus dorsi) another type of fibre was clearly detectable. This type, histochemically classified as conventional 2B (2* in the figure), showed a moderate acid-stable and strong alkaline-stable mATPase activity. This third type of fibre (conventional 2B or 2*) was also found in the red semitendinosus and in diaphragm (not shown). Whereas in longissimus dorsi RT-PCR revealed expression of both MHC-2X and MHC-2B, in diaphragm and in most samples of the red semitendinosus RT-PCR did not show MHC-2B expression (see above and Fig. 1), implying that histochemical methods could not distinguish 2X from 2B fibres, as both appeared as conventional 2B. One sample of longissimus dorsi muscle (see Fig. 3A,D), taken from a very deep portion, near the lumbar vertebra and multifidus lumborum, showed fibres with gradual levels of acid or alkaline stable mATPase activity, probably indicating a distinction of the conventional 2B fibres in 2X and 2B (see Materials and methods): it was not possible, however, to distinguish 2X and 2B pure fibres from hybrid 2A/X, 2X/B fibres.
|
|
The immunohistochemical staining with the monoclonal antibodies BAF8 and
the SC71 confirmed the histochemical identification of slow and 2A fibres and
the results of RT-PCR (see Figs
2B,E and
3B,E). Staining with BF35 gave
results similar to those reported in a previous study
(Sciote and Rowlerson, 1998):
BF35 did not react with type 1 and 2A (see masseter, longissimus dorsi and
semitendinosus in Figs 2C,F and
3F) but was reactive with other
type 2* fibres classified histochemically as conventional 2B. These
fibres, positive to BF35, might be either 2B (in longissimus and white
semitendinosus muscles) or 2X (in red semitendinosus and diaphragm) or hybrid
2A/X and 2X/B. The 2B conventional fibres were also generally negative to BFF3
specific for MHC-2B in rat muscles. However, in the sample of longissimus
dorsi (taken from a very deep portion, near the lumbar vertebra, described
before, see Fig. 3), some
fibres were not reactive with BF35 and showed a moderate acid stable and
strong alkaline stable mATPase activity. These latter fibres were also
moderately positive to BFF3 and probably corresponded to pure 2B type (fibres
indicated as B in Fig. 3).
Taken together these results suggest that BF35 is specifically reactive with
MHC-2X since: (i) it is negative in type 1 and 2A fibres (as seen in
masseter), (ii) it is negative in 2B pure fibres as shown in one sample of
longissimus dorsi, (iii) it is positive with fibres of diaphragm and red
semitendinosus where MHC-2X but not MHC-2B is expressed. This view is well
supported by results in longissimus dorsi and white semitendinosus muscles,
where the MHC-2X and MHC-2B are expressed. In fact the co-expression of hybrid
2X/B hybrid was the rule, as shown by single fibre electrophoresis (see
below). Pure 2B fibres were very rare. Hybrid 2A/X fibres were frequent:
actually some SC71 positive fibres were also moderately positive or positive
to BF35 (see longissimus dorsi and red semitendinosus,
Fig. 2C).
Electrophoresis and western blot
The improved electrophoretic protocol designed for separation of porcine
MHC isoforms (see Materials and methods) was validated by comparing the
results obtained in various muscle samples (i.e. fibre bundles) with the
results of RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry in the same samples.
Two bands in the MHC region were found in most masseter samples (see
Fig. 4A) in full agreement with
the results from RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry that masseter only contains
MHC-1 or slow and MHC-2A. In accordance with the migration rates observed in
other animal species (Pellegrino et al.,
2003), the fast migrating isoform was identified as MHC-1 and slow
migrating with 2A. The identification was fully confirmed by western blot (see
below) and by the measurements of maximum shortening velocity (see below). A
third band located above the 2A band was observed in the diaphragm and in the
red semitendinosus where, from RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry, MHC-slow,
MHC-2A and MHC-2X are expressed. Thus, this third band was identified as
MHC-2X. RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry showed that white semitendinosus and
longissimus dorsi expressed four different MHC isoforms. The comparison of the
migration patterns clearly showed the presence of a band slightly but clearly
lower than the intermediate band detected in diaphragm or in red
semitendinosus. This band found in longissimus and in white semitendinosus was
therefore identified as MHC-2B. In conclusion the four MHC isoforms migrate in
the following order: the fastest migrating, MHC-slow (type 1), followed by
MHC-2B, MHC-2A and MHC-2X, the slowest migrating.
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Attempts to display all three fast isoforms together in the same gel in
longissimus and white semitendinosus were not successful, because resolution
decreased if the amount of protein loaded was increased and, if the amount
loaded was reduced, the less abundant isoform, MHC-2A, became undetectable.
The separation was, however, clearly confirmed by electrophoresis of single
fibres. Many fibres (see Fig.
4B) were hybrid and in these fibres the isoform associations were
2A-2X or 2X-2B and never 2A-2B, in accordance with the `nearest neighbour
rule' based on sequential MHC isoform transition: 12A
2X
2B
(Schiaffino and Reggiani,
1996
).
Although hybrid fibres were very abundant in porcine muscles (see also
Lefaucheur et al., 2002), many
`pure' fibres, i.e. fibres containing only one MHC isoform, were found,
particularly fibres containing MHC-slow and fibres containing MHC-2A in
masseter and in diaphragm, and fibres containing MHC-2X in longissimus (not
shown). Surprisingly, no pure fibres containing MHC-2B were found in
longissimus or in white semitendinosus, although the total amount of this
isoform was high (2530%) and some 2B fibres were detected by
immunohistochemistry (see Fig.
3F).
To find pure 2B fibres expressing only MHC-2B, extrinsic eye muscles were
examined. Previous studies had shown that in many animal species retractor
bulbi is a completely fast muscle (Sartore
et al., 1987; Mascarello and
Rowlerson, 1992
): in porcine retractor bulbi
(Fig. 1B) RT-PCR revealed the
expression of all three fast MHC isoforms and SDS-PAGE showed two bands
corresponding to MHC-2X and MHC-2B and an additional band corresponding to
MHC-Eo or extraocular. The band corresponding to MHC-2A was undetectable due
to the low amount of this isoform: some single fibres containing MHC-2A were,
however, identified (not shown). The identification of the extra-ocular
isoform was confirmed by the comparison with rectus lateralis, where MHC-Eo
was expressed together with all three fast MHC isoform and MHC-slow (see
Fig. 4C). Several pure 2B
fibres were dissected from retractor bulbi (see one example in
Fig. 4C).
The interpretation of the electrophoretic separation was based on muscle sample comparison and was further supported by western blot analysis. The fastest migrating band was stained with BFD5, which is specific for MHC-slow. The upper bands corresponding to fast MHC isoforms were stained by SC71, which reacted with MHC-2A, and BF35, which reacted with MHC-2X. However, under denaturating conditions, the specificity was reduced and SC71 also crossreacted with MHC-2X and BF35 with MHC-2B (data not shown).
Contractile properties of single muscle fibres
A total of 172 single fibres, dissected from five muscles (masseter,
diaphragm, red and white semitendinosus, longissimus dorsi and rectractor
bulbi), were analysed in mechanical experiments and classified on the basis of
their MHC isoform composition as determined by SDS-PAGE. The origin of the
fibres was as follows: masseter 30, diaphragm 59, semitendinosus 47,
longissimus 16, retractor bulbi 20. On the basis of their MHC isoform
composition the following groups (number of fibres in parentheses) were
formed: slow (36), fast 2A (43), mixed 2A-2X (23), fast 2X (19), mixed 2X-2B
(36) and fast 2B (11); four fibres from retractor bulbi contained more than
two MHC. In agreement with the indications of histochemistry and
immuno-histochemistry, single fibre electrophoresis showed that (i) fast
fibres were more abundant than slow fibres, (ii) hybrid fibres were very
abundant, and (iii) no mixed 1-2A fibres were found. Although MHC-2B was
abundantly expressed in longissimus and semitendinosus and few pure 2B fibres
were immunohistochemically detected in the deepest part of longissimus (see
Fig. 3), pure 2B fibres were
only dissected from retractor bulbi. Large groups of 2X-2B fibres were
obtained from longissimus and semitendinosus.
The mean values of cross sectional area (CSA) of single fibres grouped according to their MHC isoform composition are shown in Fig. 5A. For each fibre type cross sectional area was rather variable, depending on the muscle of origin. For example, for slow fibres (type 1) CSA (mean ± S.E.M.) ranged from 6523±246 µm2 in masseter to 9150±531 µm2 in diaphragm and to 17368±3579 µm2 in the red portion of semitendinosus. The CSA of fast 2A fibres was 3362±274 µm2 in masseter, 7823±837 µm2 in diaphragm and 8167±789 µm2 in semitendinosus. The thickness of fast 2X fibres was 16074±2851 µm2 in diaphragm, 14441±1367 µm2 in red semitendinosus and 9559±1591 µm2 in white semitendinosus. Among the fibres and the muscles studied the largest fibres were 2X-2B type: 19474±1576 µm2 in red semitendinosus, 11093±1129 µm2 in white semitendinosus and 14862±1088 µm2 in longissimus, whereas the thinnest fibres were pure 2B fibres dissected from retractor bulbi (1097±131 µm2).
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The slack sarcomere length was not significantly different among fibre types: slow fibres 2.28±0.06 µm, 2A fibres 2.35±0.05 µm, 2X fibres 2.22±0.09 µm, 2B fibres 2.43±0.06 µm. The fibres were stretched by approximately 20% at rest and activation was induced at sarcomere lengths between 2.77±0.09 µm for 2X fibres and 2.89±0.08 µm for 2B fibres.
The determination of the isometric tension (Po) and of
the unloaded shortening velocity (Vo) revealed large
diversity among fibres with different MHC isoform composition. Slow fibres
developed significantly less tension than fast fibres, with the exception of
pure 2B fibres, which also developed low isometric tension (see
Fig. 5B). In accordance with
previous observations in other species
(Pellegrino et al., 2003),
Vo values increased from slow to fast 2A, 2X and 2B fibres
(see Fig. 5C). The difference
between fast 2A and fast 2X fibres was statistically significant, but hybrid
fibres 2A-2X and 2X-2B fibres had Vo values similar to
those of pure 2X fibres. Fibres with the same MHC isoform composition had
similar values of Vo (measured in fibre segment length
s-1) regardless of the muscle of origin. Vo of
slow fibres was 0.172±0.049 (mean ± S.E.M.) in
masseter, 0.176±0.017 in diaphragm, 0.163±0.025 in red
semitendinosus. Vo of fast 2A fibres ranged from
1.798±0.283 in diaphragm to 2.024±0.326 in masseter and to
2.208±0.224 in white semitendinosus. Vo of fast 2X
fibres was 2.611±0.415 in diaphragm, 2.67±0.236 and
2.762±0.207 in red and in white semitendinosus respectively. As
mentioned above, pure fast 2B fibres were only found in one muscle: the
retractor bulbi. Series compliance (expressed relative to fibre segment
length) was not significantly different among the six groups of fibres,
ranging from 0.045±0.006 in fast 2B fibres to 0.057±0.008 in
fast 2A fibres.
In vitro motility assay
Myosin was prepared from slow fibres, pure fast 2A fibres and pure fast 2X
fibres. The velocity of actin filaments (Vf) in the
motility assay showed large and significant differences.
Vf values (means ± S.E.M.) were
0.26±0.01 µm s-1 (N=11) for slow myosin,
0.99±0.10 µm s-1 (N=8) for fast 2A myosin and
1.31±0.12 µm s-1 (N=7) for fast 2X myosin, all
differences being statistically significant (P<0.01). Linear
regression analysis showed a highly significant correlation
(P=0.0018) between Vf and Vo
of corresponding fibre types: the slope (with Vo expressed
in µm s-1 half sarcomere and Vf expressed in
µm s-1) was 0.525±0.022, a value not significantly
different from 0.529±0.015 calculated by Pellegrino et al.
(2003) for various myosin
isoforms from mouse, rat, rabbit and human muscles.
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Discussion |
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As demonstrated by many previous studies (for a review, see
Schiaffino and Reggiani,
1996), myosin isoforms are the main determinants of the
contractile performance: maximum shortening velocity, peak power output and
ATP consumption rates all depend on myosin isoform composition and
particularly on MHC isoforms. Thus, the characterization of the contractile
properties of single muscle fibres becomes significant only if myosin isoform
composition is precisely defined. The best method for myosin isoform
identification in single fibres is gel electrophoresis (for a discussion, see
Pette et al., 1999
). Previous
attempts to separate all four adult MHC isoforms in porcine skeletal muscles
were not successful (Bee et al.,
1999
). In the present study a modification of the electrophoretic
protocol proposed by Talmadge and Roy
(1993
) and combination of
histochemical and molecular methods of MHC isoform analysis led to the
reliable separation and identification of all four adult sarcomeric MHC
isoforms.
The need to combine several methods arises from the limitations that each
method presents. Histochemical mATPase determination allows a clear
identification of slow and pure fast 2A fibres, but cannot unambiguously
separate 2X and 2B fibres, a situation that is further complicated by the
presence of a large number of hybrid fibres. Attempts to identify all four
fibre types have been performed by combining the mATPase reaction with
metabolic enzyme reactions (Gil et al.,
2001), but the separation between 2X and 2B fibres was only
indirectly correlated with their myosin isoform composition.
Immunohistochemistry is limited by the lack of antibodies specific for each
MHC isoform. Monoclonal antibodies are powerful tools for MHC isoform
identification, but they have two major limitations. First, their specificity
is species-dependent, as corresponding orthologous isoforms may show
structural diversities that affect the antigenic site, and second, their use
is made more difficult by the presence of a large fraction of hybrid fibres.
Antibodies specific for all fast MHC isoforms of rat, cat, rabbit and
marsupials (Lucas et al.,
2000) have been recently described; however, they are not
commercially available and have not been tested in pig muscle fibres. Among
the antibodies used in this study, the highly specific reactivity of BFD5 and
BAF8 with MHC-slow myosin was confirmed in pig muscles and SC71 was found to
be specific for MHC-2A. The slight cross reactivity of SC71 with MHC-2X
reported by Lefaucheur et al.
(2002
) might be explained by
the abundant presence of hybrid 2A-2X fibres. In the present study, however, a
cross reactivity of SC71 with MHC-2X was observed under denaturating
conditions in immunoblotting. In complete agreement with Lefaucheur et al.
(2002
), BFF3 showed a weak but
consistent reactivity with 2B fibres. The monoclonal antibody BF35 was
surprisingly found to react with MHC-2X, as indicated by immunohistochemical
staining, where pure 2X and hybrid 2A-2X and 2X-2B fibres were stained by this
antibody. The unexpected reactivity was confirmed also with rat muscles, where
BF35 was negative only with type 1 fibres (data not shown). The antibody BF35
was originally characterized in rat muscles as reactive with all MHC isoforms
except 2X (Schiaffino et al.,
1989
; Bottinelli et al.,
1991
), and the inversion of specificity observed in this study has
already been reported elsewhere (Sciote
and Rowlerson, 1998
). Preliminary unpublished results have shown
that BF35 exhibits a similar reactivity pattern in dog, cow, monkey and tiger
muscles. The presence of fibres reactive with BF35 in red semitendinosus
(where MHC 2X is expressed, but not MHC 2B) and the lack of reactive fibres
masseter (where MHC 2X is not expressed) confirm the above view.
RT-PCR is a reliable tool used to determine which MHC genes are transcribed
in a given tissue sample (for a discussion, see
Pette et al., 1999).
Expression at mRNA level, however, does not guarantee that the protein is
present in the tissue. Mismatch between mRNA and protein in porcine muscle
fibres has been recently reported
(Lefaucheur et al., 2002
). In
the present study, the comparison between the results of RT-PCR and the
results of immunohistochemistry and electrophoresis on large fibre bundles
revealed the close correlation between the mRNAs and the proteins in muscles
with distinct patterns of MHC expression. For example, both mRNA and protein
determination indicated that masseter expressed only the types 1 and 2A,
whereas longissumus dorsi expressed all four MHC. In view of the
electrophoretic demonstration of the presence of a high number of hybrid
fibres (2A/X, 2X/B), it would be interesting to extend the comparison between
mRNA and protein to single fibres. Electrophoretic separation of myosin
isoforms is the method most suited for single fibre characterization and also
for definitive assessment of myosin isoforms present in the tissue. The
resolution of a second less-abundant isoform is limited to 1%
(Bottinelli et al., 1994
), but
such an amount has hardly any detectable effects on the contractile properties
of muscle fibres (Reiser et al.,
1985
; Larsson and Moss,
1993
). The combination of electrophoresis with the other methods
helps to solve the uncertainties which arise from the facts that (i) the
sequential order of myosin isoform migration is species-specific and (ii)
different isoforms might migrate with the same speed and overlap each
other.
The picture emerging from the combined use of the various methods shows that (i) only two isoforms, MHC-slow and MHC-2A, are expressed in masseter, with the possible presence of limited amounts of MHC-2X in the most superficial layers; (ii) three MHC isoforms, namely slow, 2A and 2X are expressed in the diaphragm and the red portion of semitendinosus; (iii) four isoforms, MHC-slow and three fast MHC isoforms (2A, 2X and 2B) are expressed in longissimus dorsi and white superficial part of semitendinosus. Retractor bulbi contains three fast MHC isoforms and extraocular MHC but lacks MHC-slow, whereas rectus lateralis contains all five MHC isoforms. The analysis of rectus lateralis and retractor bulbi is far from complete, since retractor bulbi was used only as a source of pure 2B fibres and ad hoc designed studies are required for a definitive analysis of pig extrinsic eye muscles.
In accordance with previous observations
(Bee et al., 1999;
Lefaucheur et al., 1991
), fast
myosins were more abundant than slow myosins in all muscles examined and 80%
of the fibres characterized in mechanical experiments were fast fibres. The
high proportion of hybrid fibres seems to be a typical feature of porcine
muscles (see also Lefaucheur et al.,
2002
). In particular, the hybrid fast fibres, 2A-2X and 2X-2B,
were very abundant, whereas the fast-slow or 1-2A fibres were hardly found.
The latter fibres are also called 2C and are frequent in small laboratory
animals such as rat or rabbits (Staron and Pette,
1987a
,b
).
Pure 2B fibres were very rare or absent in trunk and limb muscles, although
MHC-2B is abundantly expressed. Fibres containing MHC-2B alone were only found
in retractor bulbi. The functional significance of hybrid fibres is not yet
completely understood. As discussed in a recent review
(Stephenson, 2001
), hybrid
fibres can be seen (i) as a means to obtain a fine functional tuning since
their contractile properties lie between those of pure fibres, (ii) as the
results of incomplete differentiation, (iii) as an indication of differential
responsiveness of individual myonuclei to contrasting signals. The last
interpretation is intriguing as in pigs raised for meat production muscles
appear well developed and almost hypertrophic although virtually no physical
activity is allowed.
Pig single muscle fibres showed an impressive heterogeneity in contractile properties (Vo values ranged from 0.1 to 5 fibre segment length s-1 in individual fibres), which could be largely resolved by grouping the fibres on the basis of their MHC isoform composition. Large differences between slow and fast fibres were found not only in unloaded shortening velocity but also in isometric tension.
The values of Vo and Po obtained in
pig muscle fibres can be compared with recently published data
(Pellegrino et al., 2003)
obtained in other animal species (mouse, rat, rabbit and man) under the same
experimental conditions. The comparison is shown in
Fig. 6. Whereas isometric
tension of pure 2A and 2X fibres is not significantly different from that
measured in corresponding fibres of other animal species, both slow fibres and
fast 2B fibres exhibit lower tension values. The low isometric tension of slow
fibres seems to be the result of a trend to decreasing tension with increasing
animal size: actually the highest value for slow fibres is reached in the
mouse (see Fig. 6B and
Pellegrino et al., 2003
). The
low value of tension developed by 2B fibres might be related to the specific
features of retractor bulbi, a muscle with very limited functional tasks.
Previous studies have found that isometric tension developed by extraocular
muscles is lower than that developed by limb muscles
(Close and Luff, 1974
;
Asmussen and Gaunitz, 1981
),
although a recent paper has reached opposite conclusions
(Frueh et al., 2001
).
Interestingly, whereas hybrid 2X-2B were the largest fibres found in pig
muscle samples, the pure 2B fibres from retractor bulbi were the thinnest and
the 2B fibres identified by immuno-histochemistry in sections of longissimus
dorsi (see Fig. 3F) were also
rather thin.
|
Hill (1950) first observed
that, comparing different animal species, the maximum speed of locomotion is
largely independent of animal size. This requires that the speed at which
muscles shorten during locomotion be inversely related to limb length or to
the cubic root of body mass. If the shortening velocity at which muscles are
used represents a constant fraction of maximum shortening velocity
(Vo),Vo will also scale in proportion
to a power of body size. The scaling relation between Vo
and body mass (Fig. 6) shows
that pig slow fibres perfectly conform to the value expected from the scaling
equation obtained with other animal species: in other words, the scaling
equation predicts the variation of Vo of slow fibres from
mouse (about 30 g) to pig (about 160 kg) without exceptions. The results
concerning fast fibres are surprising as the values measured in the pig are
higher than those obtained in human fibres and similar to those of rabbit
fibres (Pellegrino et al.,
2003
), i.e. pig fast fibres do not follow the scaling equation. To
our knowledge, shortening velocity was measured in muscle fibres of only three
species among large mammals: horse (Rome
et al., 1990
), sheep and cow
(Seow and Ford, 1991
).
Although the orthologous myosin identification and the comparison between
corresponding fibre types were not completely precise, the trend to decrease
shortening velocity with increasing body size was found in all cases. The pig
seems therefore to represent a unique exception. The results of the in
vitro motility assay confirmed the conclusions based on
Vo measurements. Actin filament sliding velocity
(Vf) was strictly proportional to Vo
of fibres containing the same MHC isoform, in agreement with the view that
Vo of single fibres is directly determined by myosin
isoforms. Statistical comparison of Vf values between pig
and human corresponding myosins showed that Vf was
significantly lower in pig slow myosin than in human slow myosin, whereas for
fast 2A myosin no significant difference was present and for fast 2X myosin
Vf was significantly higher in pig than in man.
In conclusion, the present results represent the first complete and systematic analysis of the relationship between muscle fibre contractile properties and myosin isoform composition in the pig. They also provide the first determination of the contractile properties of fast fibres expressing MHC-2B in a large mammal. The results raise interesting biological questions: why do pig muscles not only express the fastest myosin isoform 2B, which is not present in other large mammals, but are also composed of fibres that are faster than expected from the scaling equation? A possible answer is that the pig varieties available today, including the `large white' examined in this study, are the results of a selective pressure aiming only to increase fertility and muscle size, without any attention to locomotion activity. In this respect the pig might be different from the cow and the sheep where the breeding conditions (grazing) require movement and, more obviously, from the horse, a species where the locomotion performance has become the reference parameter for selection.
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