Division of Physical Biochemistry, National Institute for Medical
Research, Mill Hill, London NW7 1AA, UK
* Present address: Department of Biophysics, Max Planck Institute for Medical
Research, Jahnstrasse 29, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
Author for correspondence (e-mail:
pbayley{at}nimr.mrc.ac.uk
)
Accepted 12 March 2002
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Summary |
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Key words: Calmodulin-EGFP, Antimitotic drugs, Calmodulin-targets
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Introduction |
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Antimitotic drugs perturbing the cytoskeletal system
(colchicine-nocodazole-podophyllotoxin, vinca alkaloids and taxoids) have been
widely used to study cellular processes dependent on the microtubule network
integrity. These affect microtubule polymerisation and dynamics by different
molecular mechanisms and with different sensitivities. The first two classes
are highly effective as microtubule depolymerising agents, in vitro and in
vivo. In the latter case this can lead to dispersal of the pericentriolar
material (PCM), which surrounds centrioles in the centrosome. However, at low
concentration, the same drugs inhibit the dynamic instability of microtubules
and can stabilise the spindle in vivo
(Wadsworth and McGrail, 1990;
Jordan et al., 1992
;
Martin et al., 1993
;
Sellitto and Kuriyama, 1988
;
Jordan and Wilson, 1998
;
Jordan and Wilson, 1999
;
Ngan et al., 2001
).
Four stages of the time- and concentration-dependent disruption of
microtubule distribution in the mitotic spindle have been distinguished by
treatment of mitotic cells with nocodazole and vinca-alcaloids
(Jordan et al., 1992). Stage I
is characterised by the arrest of spindle growth and dynamics due to
inhibition of microtubule dynamic instability. Stage II shows a shortening of
spindle due to loss of labile microtubules. Stage III is defined by the
appearance of `star-like' structures in mono- or poly-aster shape with some
apparently drug- (or cold-) resistant microtubule structures, and stage IV,
showing full disassembly and loss of organisation of the mitotic spindle, is
characterised by punctate distribution of tubulin and few residual
microtubules.
The third class of drugs, the taxoids, act as microtubule-stabilising
agents, favouring microtubule polymerisation. At high concentration,
microtubule mass increases and bundling occurs with severe spatial disruption,
and the creation of multiple spindles compromises the organising capacity of
centrosomes and kinetochores (De Brabander
et al., 1981). At low concentration, the spindle is stabilised
since its microtubule dynamics are suppressed
(Jordan and Wilson, 1998
;
Jordan and Wilson, 1999
).
Pulsed treatment of synchronised interphase HeLa cells with taxoids causes
aberrant mitotic structures and catastrophic exit from mitosis
(Paoletti at al., 1997
).
In the present work, we have stably transfected cells with CaM-EGFP, and used epifluorescence microscopy and deconvolution to follow the CaM redistribution in fixed or in live cells. This approach allows quantification of the continuous redistribution of the fusion protein in a given cell and, by further mutation of CaM-EGFP, one can study the calcium sensitivity of calmodulin-cytoskeletal interactions. To validate the approach, we established that CaM-EGFP fusion protein preserves the properties of wtCaM, and that the expression of CaM-EGFP does not interfere with normal mitotic behaviour of the cell. We have then used typical antimitotic drugs, namely nocodazole, vinblastine, paclitaxel (taxolTM) to study the distribution of CaM-EGFP in different stages of mitotic spindle impairment, comparing their actions with mitotic spindle disruption by cold treatment.
We show that classes of drugs that act in opposite directions, either polymerising or depolymerising microtubules, both release distinctive subclasses of CaM-target complexes from mitotic structures. A major part of this CaM redistribution in the mitotic spindle derives from the pericentriolar matrix. Under microtubule perturbation this divides into calmodulin-containing subcomponents, seen distinctively either as small `star-like' structures in treatment with microtubule disruptive drugs, or as multipolar `ring-like' structures in treatment with paclitaxel.
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Materials and Methods |
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Protein expression and purification
Bacterial cell cultures, E. coli BL21 DE3 (Stratagene),
transformed with pET24d-XeCaM-EGFP were induced with 1 mM IPTG for 4 hours.
The cultures were centrifuged and the pellet resuspended in PBS and lysed by
sonication for 5 minutes, 4°C, at half power on 50% cycle with a Vibra
Cell Sonicator (Sonics and Materials, Danbury, CT). After centrifugation the
6His-GST-CaM-EGFP fusion protein contained in the supernatant was further
purified using a GST column following the manufacturer's instructions
(Pharmacia-Biotech). The protein was dialysed overnight at 4°C and
concentrated using the Amincon Diaflow system with a 10 kDa cut-off membrane.
The 6His-GST fragment was cleaved using Tobacco Etch Virus protease
(Gibco-BRL). Separation of CaM-EGFP and 6His-GST was obtained by further
purification on Ni-NTA column. CaM-EGFP was present in the flow through. The
protein was concentrated and desalted on PD10 for in vitro experiments. Purity
was tested on SDS-PAGE and Western blot. The final concentration of CaM-EGFP
was 31.8 µM.
Spectroscopic measurements
Calcium binding to CaM-EGFP was studied using the chromophoric calcium
chelator 5,5'-Br2BAPTA as described
(Linse et al., 1988;
Linse et al., 1991
;
Martin et al., 1996
).
Absorption measurements were made on a Cary 3E spectrophotometer at 20°C,
using typically 23 µM CaM-EGFP and 28 µM 5,5'-Br2BAPTA
at 20°C in 10 mM Tris, 100 mM KCl, pH 8. `Ca2+-free buffer' was
made by Chelex treatment and the residual Ca2+ concentration was
less than 0.6 µM.
Fluorescence measurements
The binding of peptide WFF (NH2-KKRWKKNFIAVSAANRFK-CO2H, residue
1-18 of the M13 target sequence of skeletal muscle myosin light chain kinase,
skMLCK) to CaM-EGFP was studied by following changes in fluorescence upon
addition of peptide to CaM-EGFP (in 0.5 µM). The fluorescence was recorded
using a SPEX FluoroMax fluorimeter at 20°C in UV-transmitting plastic
cuvettes. The buffer comprised 25 mM Tris and 100 mM KCl, pH 8.
Cell culture (MDCK and HeLa Tet-On cells)
Transient or stably transfected cells were obtained by a liposome-mediated
method (MDCK) or by electroporation (HeLa Tet-On). For stable cell lines the
cells were co-transfected with pN3-XeCaM-EGFP (constitutive expression under
the control of the CMV promoter) and pTK-Hyg (Clontech) for hygromycin
resistance and selected with 0.3 mg/ml hygromycin. Cells were grown in DMEM
(Gibco BRL, cat No. 41966-029), 10% FCS, 0.1 mg/ml G418 (neomycin), 0.05 mg/ml
gentamycin, (0.1 mg/ml hygromycin in the stable cell lines). We used the
following stable cell lines: HeLa Tet-on for constitutive expression of
XeCaM-EGFP, clone A5; MDCK with constitutive expression of XeCaM-EGFP, clone
8; and MDCK and HeLa Tet-on transiently transfected with the plasmid pN3-EGFP
(Clontech) for control experiments. The morphology of the CaM-EGFP at a given
stage of mitotic spindle disruption, was essentially similar in HeLa and MDCK,
although the latter divide more rapidly. As a control, the distribution of
CaM-EGFP was recorded for each type of treatment in fixed cells without
staining for cytoskeletal elements. CaM-EGFP was expressed at <5%
endogenous CaM level, which was determined in antiCaM antibody Western blots
of cell lysates (cf. Erent et al.,
1999).
Immunofluorescence studies
Cells were grown on coverslips and either fixed in 3% paraformaldehyde
(PFA, Sigma) at room temperature, or fixed and extracted before
immunostaining. For microtubule and kinetochore immunostaining, fixation and
extraction was in microtubule stabilising buffer (100 mM PIPES, pH 7.0, 1 mM
MgCl2, 5 mM EGTA), containing 0.5 µM TaxolTM, 4% (w/v)
polyethylene glycol, 3% PFA and 0.2% Triton X-100. Microtubule immunostaining
was performed with anti--tubulin antibody (Serotec) (1:100 in 1%
BSA/PBS) and with (1:100) either anti-rat Cy-3-, Cy-5- or TRITC-conjugated
secondary antibody (Sigma, Dako). Kinetochores were labeled using human CREST
serum at 1:2500 dilution. Secondary antibody, TRITC-conjugated goat anti-human
IgG (H+L) (Jackson-ImmunoResearch) was used at 1/100 dilution. For double
staining of kinetochores and microtubules, kinetochore labeling was followed
by extensive washing with PBS prior to microtubule staining with Cy-5-labeled
secondary antibody. In all cases the cells were costained for DNA with Hoechst
33342, (Molecular Probes; 1:1000 in distilled water from 10 mg/ml stock), for
2 minutes at room temperature, then mounted with Mowiol (CalBiochem) after
washing four times in PBS.
Epifluorescence microscopy was performed on living or fixed cells, using an
Olympus IX70 inverted microscope and an Olympus U-Plan-Apo 100x
objective (NA 1.35). Images were recorded on a cooled CCD camera (Photometrics
CH350L; Sensor, Kodak KAF1400; 1317x1035 pixels). Typically 20-25
optical sections were taken, through focus z step 0.2 µm; the images were
deconvolved (15 iterations) and quantitatively analysed using Deltavision
software (Applied Precision, Seattle) on a Silicon Graphics workstation, and
the final images (usually projected series) were further processed in Adobe
PhotoShop. The experiments were normally repeated two or three times and the
images presented are representative of at least 20 similar images.
Antimitotic treatments
Nocodazole was applied (1-6 hours) in culture medium at concentrations
0.01-10.00 g/ml. Recovery was followed for 4 hours after the 6 hour
treatment with 0.1 µg/ml. Vinblastine was applied from 0.5-100.0 nM (1
hour) and 1 µM (4 hours). Cold treatment of cells (4°C) was for
0.25-2.00 hours. Paclitaxel (10 nM and 10 µM) was applied for 4 hours.
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Results |
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GFP-based fluorophores are sensitive to pH changes (Lopis et al., 1998; Kneen et al., 1999). Our construct shows a (95% reversible) decrease in fluorescence (in fixed and living cells) for short exposures to pH 5-7, due to protonation of the chromophore. Longer exposures of the fluorophore to low pH induce irreversible denaturation and loss of fluorescence. Thus the fusion protein would be suitable for qualitative and quantitative studies of transient pH changes at CaM-targets in living cells.
Localisation of CaM-EGFP under conditions of microtubule
perturbation
Microtubule disruption by nocodazole
The effect of mild nocodazole treatment on CaM-EGFP distribution in
relation to the level of changes in the mitotic spindle is shown in
Fig. 2. In untreated HeLa cells
(Fig. 2A; see
Fig. 4A for a MDCK control),
CaM is distributed at the spindle poles in a dense structure around
centrosomes and along the pole to kinetochore microtubules without
accumulation at the kinetochores. The centrosomal matrix is a complex 3D
structure that appears ring-like in projection
(Moudjou et al., 1996;
Dictenberg et al., 1998
;
Erent et al., 1999
).
Fig. 2B shows stage I of
microtubule disruption in MDCK cells; the bipolar spindle is normal except for
the small displacement of a few chromosomes from the metaphase plate. In
Fig. 2C (stage II), the bipolar
spindle is significantly shorter, and the microtubules and chromosomes exhibit
more extensive rearrangements. In these two stages of microtubule disruption
(as in controls), CaM-EGFP is concentrated at the ring-like polar centrosome,
with decreasing gradient along spindle microtubules.
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With increased nocodazole concentration,
(Fig. 3, stage III),
characteristic small sub-structures are observed, with calmodulin concentrated
centrally and containing short residual kinetochore microtubules. Small
star-like microtubule structures were observed on drug-treatment of HeLa cells
(Jordan et al., 1992), and we
retain this terminology. There is partial overlap between CaM-EGFP and tubulin
staining, as observed for the centrosomal matrix
(Erent et al., 1999
)
(Fig. 2A). Fig. 3i and ii show that
multiple CaM-containing `stars' can coexist with a remnant of the centrosomal
structure, which largely lacks attached kinetochore microtubules and
chromosomes. Thus microtubule disassembly has resulted in the separation from
the matrix of multiple copies of a substructure involved in the attachment of
kinetochore microtubules, linking the PCM to kinetochores and chromosomes.
This star-like polar microtubule-CaM substructure is progressively lost with
more extended drug treatment. At stage IV of microtubule disruption
(Fig. 3B) CaM localises in
punctate densities, often paired and presumably in proximity to kinetochores,
with little residual microtubule material being evident. Stage IV is the
maximum level of perturbation induced with nocodazole in both HeLa and MDCK,
and up to this stage, the nocodazole arrest is reversible.
|
In the same stages of microtubule disruption by nocodazole, staining of kinetochores with CREST serum shows the localisation of CaM close to kinetochores. In untreated cells (Fig. 4A), the CaM is located at the spindle poles and distributed along microtubules, but is less visible due to the strong staining at the poles. The kinetochores show their normal paired distribution aligned at the metaphase plate. After nocodazole treatment to stage IV (Fig. 4B,C), CaM shows similar distribution to microtubules localising close to kinetochores. The magnified images (Fig. 4B,C) show CaM concentrated centrally, with radiating microtubules linked to kinetochores and chromosomes at the outermost part.
Several controls were performed for these experiments. GFP alone did not localise to the star-like structures observed after nocodazole treatment of cells transiently transfected with pN3-EGFP plasmid (Clontech). To address the question whether the redistribution of CaM under the action of microtubule-disrupting drugs and the appearance of the star-like structure and the other types of CaM-microtubule association are due to nocodazole itself, a completely independent microtubule disruption method was used, namely, extended cold treatment at 4°C. This produces patterns of cytoskeletal distribution of the CaM-EGFP that are closely similar to the microtubule disruption induced by drugs. CaM and microtubules are found in the same star-like structure (Fig. 3a2) as those observed in drug treatment. Thus CaM also localises close to the kinetochore in cold-treated cells, suggesting the absence of residual microtubules, and implying that kinetochore microtubules have shortened but not disappeared. There are also present spindle pole remnants (Fig. 3a1) with alternating distribution of CaM-EGFP and microtubules. The chromosomal material retains its organisation at the metaphase plate to a greater degree than is found with drug treatment.
Microtubule disruption by vinblastine
Vinblastine treatment shows significant effects on microtubules at lower
extracellular concentrations and shorter incubation times compared with
nocodazole. At low concentration it suppresses dynamic processes without
changing the overall microtubule polymer mass; at intermediate concentrations
microtubule assembly is inhibited and microtubules depolymerise; at higher
concentrations microtubules are fully disassembled, and the drug can induce
the aggregation of tubulin into paracrystals.
For stages I-III of the microtubule redistribution (Fig. 5A-D) the types of disposition of CaM relative to microtubules are the same as those with nocodazole. Further disruption shows little residual microtubule structure, with punctate tubulin and sometimes aggregates of tubulin. Two types of CaM distribution are observed: (1) a strong accumulation at the kinetochore level as seen for nocodazole treatment, also assigned to stage IV (Fig. 5E); and (2) when microtubules are fully depolymerised, a complete redistribution of the CaM throughout the cell (stage V; Fig. 5F). The final step, stage VI, denotes the appearance of tubulin paracrystals, which are formed in interphase as well as in dividing cells (Fig. 5G,H). The CaM was equally distributed throughout the cytoplasm, as in stage V.
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In the vinblastine-treated cells, kinetochores are located at the periphery of the CaM-EGFP core, with progressive reduction of kinetochore microtubule length, (Fig. 5I-L). At prophase a radial pattern of CaM is observed with long filaments in the monopolar structure (Fig. 5I). At metaphase, multiple star-like structures are seen, (Fig. 5J, stage III), following microtubule shortening, eventually bringing the kinetochores very close to the CaM (Fig. 5K, stage IV). At stage V, the green CaM-EGFP, formerly co-localised close to kinetochores is now released throughout the cytoplasm. The punctate staining of kinetochores at stages V and VI (Fig. 5K,L) suggests that no major impairment has taken place in the kinetochore structure, implying that the CaM release correlates closely with the complete disassembly of the residual microtubules present in the star-like structures.
Images of live cells under vinblastine treatment (100 nM, 1 hour) are
shown in the supplementary material
(http://jcs.biologists.org/supplemental
). Movie 1 shows the initial spindle shortening corresponding to stages I and
II. Movie 2 presents the full redistribution of CaM from control towards
stages IV-V. CaM-EGFP redistribution to the proximity of kinetochores induced
by the microtubule depolymerization and shortening appears to take place
mainly through the subdivision of the polar structure into multiple `stars'.
Movie 3 shows a relatively rare occurrence of a truncated polar
microtubule/CaM structure as seen in fixed cells
(Fig. 3ii; Fig. 3a1),
simultaneous with `stars' at kinetochores.
Action of paclitaxel a microtubule polymerising drug
The uptake of taxoids in cells usually reaches much higher levels than the
external concentration and the cellular effect of taxoids is difficult to
reverse. Thus conditions of application may be critical. We have applied low
concentrations of paclitaxel (10 nM) to MDCK cells, typically for four hours,
conditions that did not induce the widespread occurrence of microtubule asters
in interphase cells. By contrast, mitotic cells characteristically show
well-developed monopolar, bipolar and some three and four polar structures
(Fig. 6A-D). Few cells with
more than four poles were observed in these conditions
(Fig. 6E). Higher
concentrations of taxol (10 µM) favour formation of multiple poles,
although cells with three or four poles were also seen. These multipolar
structures have extensive microtubule arrays that maintain the connection to
the condensed chromosome plate. The multiple poles have a distinctive shape,
which appears ring-like in projection, similar to the normal distribution of
CaM in the spindle pole in untreated cells.
Fig. 6A-E also shows the
redistribution of CaM-EGFP relative to microtubules in mitotic cells.
Surprisingly CaM-EGFP is located at all of the poles, although some of these
will not contain centrioles (Vorobjev et
al., 2000). The ring-like shape, as seen in projection at each of
the poles, is strongly preserved. The monopolar spindle shows a single `ring'
of calmodulin at the minus ends of the microtubules, resulting from the
accumulation of pericentriolar material of the two unseparated centrosomes.
Although it is present along microtubules in the multiple spindles there is no
evidence for the accumulation of CaM at the kinetochores themselves. The
microtubule staining (Fig.
6B-D) and the kinetochore labeling
(Fig. 6F-I) show that the
microtubule plus ends and the kinetochores remain aligned in the metaphase
plate, which may appear segmented (Fig.
6D). The substructure formed by spindle microtubules and
corresponding kinetochores and chromosomes generally retains its integrity but
there is a major perturbation of CaM-EGFP at the spindle pole
(Fig. 6F-I). This eventually
leads to the subdivision of the centrosomal matrix into separate poles and
associated spindle microtubules. Quantitative analysis of deconvolved images
taken following a metaphase cell under paclitaxel perturbation (Movie 4) shows
that 85-95% of the fluorescence intensity of CaM is conserved after the
spliting of one normal spindle pole into two or three drug-induced
CaM-containing polar structures. Therefore, the paclitaxel treatment appears
to cause predominantly the splitting of the pre-existing centrosomal matrix.
We show the splitting of a pre-existent centrosome in a dividing cell at
metaphase under the effect of taxol (30 nM,
20 minutes) in Movie 4.
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Discussion |
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Using both immunostaining and in vivo imaging, the main source of CaM accumulated in the star-like structures at the kinetochores is from the polar `ring', following the shortening of kinetochore-to-pole microtubules. The magnified images (see details in Fig. 3i,a2; Fig. 4B,C) show that CaM is concentrated in the center of the star-like sub-structures, which appears to identify a key element involved in maintaining the kinetochores around this core.
The steps in calmodulin redistribution following microtubule disruption are schematically depicted in Fig. 7. In control metaphase cells and the first two stages of microtubule spindle impairment, CaM preserves a ring-like structure at the spindle pole, and a continuous distribution along microtubules from poles to kinetochores. Stage III shows a star-like distribution of CaM, associated with residual microtubules. In stage IV there are no microtubules detected by immunofluorescence and calmodulin appears punctate, the kinetochores lose the metaphase alignment and tend to group around the CaM cores. In stages V and VI there is a striking dispersion of the CaM into the cytosol from its accumulation sites. At stages V and VI the kinetochores show a similar distribution to that in stage IV, and appear to maintain their structural integrity. Thus the striking dispersion of CaM is apparently correlated with the complete removal of residual microtubules in stages V and VI.
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Effects on the pericentriolar matrix of drug-induced microtubule
polymerisation
Taxoids, microtubule polymerising agents and suppressors of spindle
microtubule dynamics, cause a characteristic and striking redistribution of
CaM, involving rearrangement of components of the mitotic spindle with
microtubules in complex multipolar patterns throughout the cytoplasm and
accumulation of immunocytochemically detectable CaM in the centers of
drug-induced asters, possibly analogous to normal spindle poles
(De Brabander et al., 1981).
Taxoids decrease the tubulin critical concentration, and could increase
spontaneous microtubule nucleation in the cytoplasm. More recently, pulsed
taxoid treatment of synchronised interphase HeLa cells was shown to cause
disorganisation in centrosome replication and the asymmetric distribution of
the non-centrosomal microtubule-focussing protein, NuMa
(Paoletti et al., 1997
).
Dose-dependent mechanisms were proposed for the formation of: (1) monopolar
spindles, where the centrioles and pericentriolar material do not
redistribute; (2) bipolar spindles, with asymmetric distribution of the
nuclear protein NuMa and pericentriolar material, which leads to a
catastrophic exit from mitosis; and (3) multipolar asters, attributed to
microtubule nucleation.
Our experimental protocol involves unsynchronised MDCK cells, treated
continuously for 4 hours with a very low concentration of paclitaxel
[30-times lower than used previously
(Paoletti et al., 1997
)]. CaM
is present at all the paclitaxel-induced multiple spindles, whether there is
one pole (the case with no redistribution of the centrioles and pericentriolar
matrix), or two, three, four or more poles.
Fig. 6F-I and Movie 4 show the
striking tendency of the CaM-containing structures present at the original
spindle pole to divide. This strongly suggests that the effect of paclitaxel
on cells that were possibly initially in prophase or metaphase is to induce
the subdivision of the spindle pole/centrosome structure into CaM-containing
multiple poles, which remain attached to the condensed chromosomal plate
(Fig. 6B-D). We suggest that
the multipolar structure could arise by paclitaxel-dependent suppression of
spindle microtubule dynamics, with microtubule elongation provoking a
relatively even split of the centrosomal matrix as indicated by the images in
Fig. 6F-I and Movie 4. Since
paclitaxel causes modified rigidity of microtubules, mechanical strain could
also contribute to the splitting of the centrosomal matrix.
The intermediate steps in cells subjected to paclitaxel treatment during late prophase and metaphase, after the separation of the two centrosomes, are presented schematically in Fig. 8. The CaM initially remains associated with kinetochore-to-pole microtubules as in control cells. However, at the spindle pole level, significant modifications take place. The CaM-EGFP appears to subdivide from its ring-like shape, along with entire fragments of the spindle, including microtubules and associated kinetochores and chromosomes. This takes place gradually to generate a multipolar spindle, with CaM in a ring-like structure at each of these poles. Certain `scaffolding' proteins from the pericentriolar material may be involved (see below). Stable CaM-containing multipolar structures could then be produced by paclitaxel-dependent stabilisation of microtubules, followed by fragmenting of the spindle poles, which carry some CaM-containing pericentriolar material, and preserving the connectivity of microtubules in spindle-like shapes (Fig. 8).
|
Calmodulin-binding target proteins in the pericentriolar matrix
The spectroscopic characterisation of the purified fusion protein,
CaM-EGFP, shows that it preserves the characteristics of the native calmodulin
with respect to calcium, target peptide and protein binding. CaM-target
interaction is critical for the diverse number of cellular functions performed
by this protein, including the progression through the mitotic process
(Rasmussen et al., 1992). Figs
7 and
8 illustrate that CaM localises
in the mitotic spindle close to microtubules, its accumulation at certain
sites of the spindle being dependent on the existence of some residual
microtubule structures.
Ca2+ is known to be an important signal in cell division
(Berridge et al., 1998),
consistent with the idea that calmodulin acts in a Ca2+-dependent
fashion in initiating changes involved in the mitotic progression. However, in
yeast (S. cerevisae), where calmodulin (yCaM) has been localised to
the spindle pole-body (spb), yeast-expressing yCaM mutants with impaired
calcium-binding function have been observed to show similar localisation with
the calmodulin-binding protein, Spc 110p
(Geiser et al., 1991
;
Geiser et al., 1993
). Spc 110p
is involved in the microtubule attachment to the core of the spb, which acts
as a microtubule organising centre analogous to the centrosome in higher
eukaryotes (Knop and Schiebel,
1997
; Nguyen et al.,
1998
). This strongly supports our finding that CaM appears to be
involved in the attachment of kinetochore microtubules to the centrosome. We
have now expressed the EGFP fusion protein of mammalian `null-calmodulin'
mutated in all four Ca2+-binding sequences (cf.
Mukherjea et al., 1996
) in
both HeLa and MDCK cells (N.M., M.E. and P.M.B., unpublished). Throughout the
cell cycle and in drug treatments the distribution of nullCaM-EGFP is similar
to that of CaM-EGFP. This further suggests that the localisation of CaM in the
mitotic spindle and at essential elements of the mitotic apparatus under
disruptive conditions may be relatively insensitive to Ca2+
concentration.
Our experimental observations strongly suggest that CaM-containing pericentriolar material subdivides in a specific way, under the influence of microtubule perturbing drugs. The localisation of CaM at the pole requires both the presence of some intact polymerised microtubule structure, as well as certain spindle pole and centrosomal protein. These could determine the ring-like shape of CaM-EGFP at spindle poles in normal mitotic cells, and its presence at the paclitaxel-induced poles. CaM-EGFP from the core of the small star-like sub-structure appears to have the same centrosomal origin, but lacks this level of organisation.
-tubulin is a significant component of the pericentriolar matrix in
control (Moudjou et al., 1996
;
Dictenberg et al., 1998
) and
taxol-treated metaphase cells, (Vorobjev
et al., 2000
), and is involved in centrosomal microtubule
nucleation (Oakley and Oakley,
1989
). However, antibody to
-tubulin does not appear to
label the star-like structure produced by depolymerising drugs (data not
shown). This lack of colocalisation of calmodulin and centrosomal
-tubulin is consistent with the co-existence of `stars' with the
remnants of the polar ring (Fig.
3A), since
-tubulin remains localised in centrosomal
structures in stage III of nocodazole perturbation (data not shown). It is
also consistent with calmodulin localisation at spindle poles lacking
centrioles in higher plant endosperm cells
(Vantard et al., 1985
). Thus
calmodulin locates independently of
-tubulin.
From the centrosomal proteins (for reviews, see
Kalt and Schliwa, 1993;
Andersen, 1999
), several large
pericentriolar coiled-coil proteins, suggested to function as scaffolds for
microtubule-nucleating complexes and as binding sites for other proteins, have
been identified as having CaM-binding motifs. Kendrin (PCNT2) and Spc110 share
homology in this region (Flory et al.,
2000
) and they appear to bind the CaM in a
Ca2+-independent manner through a sequence that differs from the IQ
motif. Alternatively, the abnormal Drosophila spindle protein (Asp)
(Avides and Glover, 1999
;
Saunders et al., 1997
), which
has a similar scaffolding function, contains the Ca2+-independent
CaM-binding IQ-motif (Bahler and Rhoads, 2001), as does the recently
identified centrosomal A-kinase anchoring protein (AKAP450)
(Withczak et al., 1999
;
Gillingham and Munro, 2000
).
Although pericentrin, a component of the pericentriolar matrix
(Doxsey et al., 1994
), does
not apparently possess a CaM-binding site, it is identified as an AKAP
(Diviani et al., 2000
),
raising the possibility of a direct or indirect interaction with calmodulin.
Evidence has been reported for indirect interaction of coiled-coil proteins
with microtubules. Thus, kendrin recruitment to the centrosomal matrix may be
partially microtubule dependent (Li et
al., 2000
); similarly cytoplasmic dynein transports pericentrin
(together with
-tubulin) onto centrosomes in a microtubule-dependent
process (Young et al., 2000
).
The presence in the centrosomal matrix of coiled-coil proteins containing
CaM-binding motifs could account for the CaM localisation reported in our
work. Since the recruitment to the centrosomal structure of kendrin (and hence
putatively CaM as well) is at least partially conditional on the integrity of
the microtubule system, microtubule disassembly would be expected to impair
the stability of the organelle, as we have observed.
Non-centrosomal proteins, such as cytoplasmic dynein, dynactin, NuMA and
Eg5, and a minus-end-directed kinesin-related protein, appear to be required
for the microtubule focusing and organisation of free microtubule minus ends
(Gaglio et al., 1997).
Although these proteins do not apparently themselves bind CaM directly, they
may contribute to the microtubule-dependent stability of the centrosome and
the maintenance of the ring-like shape (seen as the typical locus of
centrosomal CaM) at normal and paclitaxel-induced poles.
Our results show an apparent localisation of CaM with kinetochores at an
advanced, but still incomplete, stage of microtubule disassembly, but so far
none of the kinetochore stable or transient proteins
(Saffery et al., 2000) has
been identified as a CaM-binding protein. Microtubule-associated proteins
(MAPs) and motor proteins are potential targets for calmodulin, more likely by
indirect rather than direct mechanisms. Dynein and kinesin are used in the
assembly of the mitotic spindle and for the microtubule sliding movement
during the progression of mitosis
(Wittmann et al., 2001
;
Sharp et al., 2000
). Motors
may also be involved in the function of the kinetochore, where dynein is found
(Pfarr et al., 1990
;
Steuer et al., 1990
). Another
motor protein proven to localise in regions rich in microtubules, and in
interphase and in mitotic cells, is myosin V, which plays a role in the
efficiency of the cell division in culture
(Espreafico et al., 1998
;
Wu et al., 1998
). Myosin V
localises in a ring-like polar structure similar to the calmodulin
distribution (Erent et al.,
1999
), and it becomes dispersed by nocodazole treatment
(Tsakraklides et al., 1999
).
It has been proposed that myosin Va interacts with microtubules by associating
with dynein through shared 8 kDa light chains
(Wu et al., 2000
). Like many
unconventional myosins, myosin V possesses multiple IQ motifs for
Ca2+-independent CaM binding. Moreover, the presence of myosin V
close to calmodulin in the spindle and spindle pole, and the distribution of
the null-mutant of CaM at the same sites (N.M., M.E. and P.M.B., unpublished)
suggest that myosin V is another candidate target protein for
Ca2+-independent binding of calmodulin in the mitotic spindle. The
relationship between calmodulin, myosin V and pericentriolar proteins is
therefore highly relevant to the structure and dynamic function of the
centrosomal matrix.
In conclusion, microtubule destabilising and stabilising treatments both produce a selective subdivision of the centrosomal matrix, with the release of distinct substructures containing CaM-binding proteins. Microtubule depolymerisation (by nocodazole or vinblastine) produces the small star-like structures, which may represent an anchoring mechanism for kinetochore microtubules. By contrast, microtubule stabilisation (by taxoids) causes limited subdivision of the pericentriolar material, in a relatively orderly way, to produce the multiple CaM-containing ring-like poles. These results further suggest that the integrity of the centrosomal matrix as a complex dynamic structure depends upon interactions with normal spindle-pole microtubules. Key questions arising from this work are: (1) the identity of potential calmodulin targets in the pericentriolar matrix; (2) their possible association with microtubules in this matrix; and (3) the continued association of these calmodulin-binding proteins with calmodulin, once microtubules are fully disassembled. Among potential candidates as targets, known to bind calmodulin in either Ca2+-dependent or Ca2+-independent processes, are the scaffolding coiled-coil proteins, kendrin (PCNT2) and AKAP450, and myosin V, a chemo-mechanical motor protein. Calmodulin could therefore have a significant role in regulating the function of such targets in establishing and maintaining structure and function in the pericentriolar matrix in relationship to the dynamic nature of the microtubule cytoskeleton.
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