Department of Biology, Kongju National University, Kongjushi, Chungnam 314-701, Korea
*Author for correspondence (e-mail: ghkim{at}kongju.ac.kr)
Accepted March 3, 2001
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SUMMARY |
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Key words: Cell membrane, Bryopsis, Protoplast regeneration, Algae
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INTRODUCTION |
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An interesting wound response has been reported in a coenocytic green alga, Bryopsis plumosa of the order Derbesiales. When the cytoplasm of the algal cell is squeezed out, after cutting the cell, new protoplasts are formed in seawater and the protoplasts make new cell wall within several hours (Tatewaki and Nagata, 1970; Kobayashi and Kanaizuka, 1985). Although there are some descriptive studies on the reunification of cell fractions (e.g. Kobayashi and Kanaizuka, 1985) and the ultrastructure of protoplasts in this alga (Pak et al., 1991), knowledge of the extent and functions of protoplast regeneration is extremely fragmentary (Mine et al., 1996; Bück and Schnetter, 1997; Togashi et al., 1998).
It is hard to imagine that such a sophisticated structure as a cell membrane could be regenerated in such a simple process. Moreover, our results show that the gelatinous envelope initially formed on the protoplasmic masses is not temporary but lasts for several hours and acts in a similar way to a cell membrane until a new cell membrane develops. In this study, we provide a full description of how the extruded cytoplasm regenerate new cells in vitro for the first time, and discuss the implications of these observations in understanding the extent and functions of cell membrane recycling in this alga.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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Survival and pH experiment
Survival rates and the effects of pH on regeneration were studied using artificial seawater. The composition of artificial seawater is as follows: 100 ml distilled water, 2.63 g NaCl, 0.609 g MgCl2, 0.193 g MgSO4, 0.074 g KCl, 0.11 g CaCl2, 0.1 g Tris. pH was adjusted with HCl or NaOH. The algal thalli were cut into pieces in a cell counter containing artificial seawater and were squeezed to form protoplasmic masses. The size of sub-protoplasts was measured 30 minutes after wounding. The number of sub-protoplasts with a primary envelope was counted over a time course.
Estimation of membrane surface area
Total membrane surface area and cell volume were estimated from photographs of entire intact cells and of the sub-protoplasts regenerated from the extruded protoplasm. The initial plants chosen were nearly cylindrical, so the planar area determined by the image analysis system was multiplied by to give the total cell-membrane surface area in the intact cells. The sub-protoplasts were spherical, so their two-dimensional areas (
r2) were summed for each cell by the computer and multiplied by 4 to give the total surface area. Accuracy of the values and assumptions were checked through direct geometrical analysis (by hand) of the micrograph.
Enzyme experiment
The enzymes were first dissolved in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and then diluted in enriched seawater to final concentrations: 20 mg/ml cellulase (Sigma Chemical Co., St Louis, MO, USA), 5 mg/ml lipase (Fluka Chemie), 0.05 mg/ml -mannosidase (Sigma), 0.8 mg/ml pectinase (Sigma), 0.3 mg/ml ß-glucosidase (Sigma), 3 mg/ml ß-glucuronidase (Sigma), 10 mg/ml proteinase K (Sigma). Regenerated sub-protoplasts attached to the coverslip were transferred to seawater that contained an enzyme, left for 10 minutes and then examined under a light microscope.
Application of fluorescent probes
For intracellular lipids and membrane staining, 10 mg/ml stock solution of Nile Red (Nile Blue A Oxazone, Sigma) in acetone was diluted in artificial seawater at pH 8 to a final concentration of 3 mM (Oparka and Read, 1994). The fluorochrome was applied to the sub-protoplasts at various times after wounding and cells were examined while still immersed in the stain. For cellulosic cell wall staining, Calcofluor White M2R (Sigma) was diluted in artificial seawater at pH 8 to a concentration of 0.1 mg/ml, and was used for 5-10 minutes. After a water wash, sub-protoplasts were mounted in enriched seawater and examined under a UV filter. For live staining with fluorescein diacetate, one drop of the stock solution of fluorescein diacetate (Sigma; 1-5 mg/ml in acetone) was diluted in artificial seawater at pH 8 and applied to the regenerated sub-protoplasts over time. For dead staining, 1-5 mg/ml stock solution of propidium iodide (Sigma) dissolved in distilled water was diluted to a concentration of 100 µg/ml with enriched seawater. The fluorochrome was applied to the sub-protoplasts for 5 minutes, and then they were examined under a UV filter, while still immersed in the stain. For nuclei staining, 1 mg/ml stock solution of DAPI (4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole, Sigma) dissolved in distilled water was applied to the sub-protoplasts at a concentration of 5 µg/ml for 5-10 minutes, and then they were examined under a UV filter.
Microscopy
For fluorescence microscopy, an Olympus BX-50 microscope was used. Additional studies of fluorescein diacetate staining of sub-protoplasts were performed with a Fluoview II (Olympus) confocal microscope. Photographs were taken with 400 ASA Kodak T-max film.
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RESULTS |
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Total membrane surface area of individual cells was estimated by image analysis of intact cells and the sub-protoplasts regenerated from the extruded protoplasm (Table 1). On average, the total membrane surface area of the sub-protoplasts formed from a single wounded cell was 85% less than that of the original cell before wounding.
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Vacuolar-sap-free cell organelles were obtained by repeated centrifugation and washing of protoplasm under high salt conditions (12,000 g, 10 minutes, three times; 900 mM NaCl). All the cell organelles were detached after this treatment and no envelope formation was observed. However, when the isolated cell organelles were resuspended in artificial seawater at pH 8-9 they aggregated again. The isolated cell organelles did not aggregate in artificial seawater at a pH lower than 6 or higher than 11. Therefore, the material involved in agglutination appears to be located on the membrane surfaces of cell organelles.
Depletion of calcium from the artificial seawater showed no effect on the aggregation of cell organelles and the formation of the primary envelope.
Formation of the primary envelope and its composition
After several minutes, when the swirling movement of protoplasmic masses stops, they become spherical in shape and covered with a gelatinous envelope. No primary envelope was formed in artificial seawater at a pH lower than 6, but when the pH of the solution was increased to 8, the protoplasmic masses became enclosed within an envelope. The primary envelope was not formed in artificial, low salt (<80 mM NaCl) seawater, but it appeared when more salt was added to the solution. Once the envelope was formed it was stable at low pH (5-6) or salinity (<80 mM NaCl).
Initially, Nile Red staining showed that there was active movement of lipid membranes towards the interior of the protoplasmic masses (Fig. 5A,B). When swirling finished, a large mass of lipid material was observed in the center of the protoplasmic masses (Fig. 5B). When the protoplasmic masses became spherical and covered with a gelatinous envelope, the membranes of cell organelles became stained with Nile Red but no staining of the envelope was observed (Fig. 5C). Some lipid material, as indicated by Nile Red staining, began to be incorporated into the envelope 1 hour after sub-protoplast formation (Fig. 5D), and by 6 hours after wounding the outer membrane was strongly stained with Nile Red (Fig. 5E,F).
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Some viability-testing probes were applied to sub-protoplasts to determine the characteristics of the primary envelope. Fluorescein diacetate has been used as a means of vital staining of cells to monitor the integrity of cell membranes. Fluorescein diacetate is essentially a non-fluorescent, non-polar molecule that is passively taken up into the cell. After cleavage by cellular esterases in cytoplasm, fluorescein diacetate fluoresces green when excited. When the sub-protoplasts were embedded in seawater containing fluorescein diacetate, the labelling appeared within the sub-protoplast by 5 minutes (Fig. 6). Fluorescein accumulated inside the sub-protoplast over time but was observed only in the peripheral region of the sub-protoplasts (Fig. 6). This may be because of a large mass of lipid material in the central region of the sub-protoplast, as shown by Nile Red staining (Fig. 5B). The sub-protoplasts were not stained with a dead-cell stain, propidium iodide, which indicated that the primary envelope was not defective (data not shown). These results show that the sub-protoplast can uptake a substrate across the primary envelope.
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DISCUSSION |
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Depletion of calcium from the artificial seawater showed no effect on the aggregation of cell organelles and formation of primary envelope. Therefore, the protoplast regeneration process of Bryopsis plumosa appears different from the wound healing process observed in sea urchin egg, which is highly calcium sensitive (McNeil et al., 2000).
The change of protoplasmic masses to a spherical shape appears to result from an accumulation of lipid material in the center of the protoplasmic masses. This stage occurs only when the protoplasmic masses are exposed to seawater. Higher levels of salinity in seawater compared with levels in the cytoplasm may explain the swirling movement in protoplasmic masses. A high saline solution is more hydrophobic than a low saline solution and may provide a stronger force to compress the hydrophobic lipid material to the center of protoplasmic masses. Hydrophilic materials, including polysaccharides, inside the protoplasmic masses are pushed out during the process and spread along the surface to make the primary envelope. When we put the extruded protoplasm in a solution close to isotonic with cytoplasm (<80 mM NaCl) neither swirling movements nor the development of the primary envelope was observed. This supports our hypothesis.
Our data from experiments using Nile Red and various enzymes indicate that the primary envelope is not a lipid membrane. Initially it is composed of polysaccharides and then changes to a polysaccharide-lipid complex over time, finally it is substituted by a lipid-based membrane. Polysaccharides seem to be important in maintaining the integrity of the primary envelope, at least for the first 6 hours. This is interesting because the primary envelope is temporary and initially not a lipid membrane but, nevertheless, has many characteristics of a cell membrane. The sub-protoplasts swelled or shrank according to the salinity of the solution, indicating that the primary envelope is semi-permeable. Moreover, fluorescein diacetate staining showed that the primary envelope allowed entry of this substrate into the sub-protoplast. The esterase activity, as shown by fluorescein diacetate staining, increased over time. Because the sub-protoplast could survive when we removed almost all the water soluble substances from the cytoplasm, and as esterases are water-soluble proteins, some protein might be synthesized in the sub-protoplasts. Fluorescein accumulation in the peripheral region of the sub-protoplasts suggests that their cytoplasm becomes polarized as soon as the primary envelope is formed.
Our final hypothesis is that the remnant of the original cell membrane is compressed in the centre at first and incorporated into the primary envelope over time. On average, the total membrane surface area of the sub-protoplasts formed from a single wounded cell was 85% less than that of the original cell before wounding. Therefore, there is a lipid source for regeneration of the secondary membrane. Electron microscopic studies reported significant agglutination of cellular membranes in sub-protoplasts, and suggested that the new cell membrane might be formed by fusion of the original, disintegrated cell membrane with cytoplasmic vesicles on the surfaces of the protoplasmic masses (Pak et al., 1991). Such extensive agglutination of cellular membranes was never observed in intact Bryopsis cells (Burr and West, 1970; Burr and West, 1971; Burr and Evert, 1972). Therefore, the lipid material in the centre of the protoplasmic masses as shown by Nile Red staining may be the remnant of the original cell membrane, which appears to be incorporated into the polysaccharide primary envelope over time.
Wound response has been studied for many years in many different groups of algae, but it has been considered only to be a healing process to maintain the integrity of the plants (Kim and Fritz, 1993; Kim et al., 1995; Menzel, 1988; Nawata et al., 1993; ONeil and La Claire, 1984; Shihira-Ishikawa, 1987; Waaland, 1990). The process of sub-protoplast formation in Bryopsis species, however, can be interpreted as a method of propagation because one branch of a plant could generate hundreds of viable new cells spontaneously in seawater. It has been shown that even dissociated cell fractions make new living cells when the fractions are mixed together under certain experimental conditions (Kobayashi and Kanaizuka, 1985). Considering the large size of the cell in this species, the importance and benefit of such a propagation method is obvious, however, more studies at an ecological level are necessary for a better understanding. Regeneration of protoplasts from the sub-cellular fractions may be an important model system for the study of such processes as the interaction of various cell organelles, formation of various hybrid cell types and especially, evolution of cell membranes.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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REFERENCES |
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