1 Department of Hematology, Erasmus Medical Center, PO Box 1738, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands
2 Department of Pathology, Erasmus Medical Center/Josephine Nefkens Institute, PO Box 1738, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands
3 Department of Pathology, Free University Medical Center, PO Box 7057, 1007 MB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
4 Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus Medical Center/Josephine Nefkens Institute, PO Box 1738, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands
* Author for correspondence (e-mail: e.wiemer{at}erasmusmc.nl)
Accepted 7 July 2003
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Summary |
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Key words: MVP, VPARP, TEP1, vRNA, Vault complex
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Introduction |
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The p100 subunit or MVP constitutes over 70% of the molecular mass of vaults and is the main determinant of the vault structure (Stephen et al., 2001). Interaction between MVP molecules is mediated by the coiled-coil domain present in the C-terminal half of the protein (van Zon et al., 2002
). The p240 protein is identical to the telomerase-associated protein 1 (TEP1) and appears to be shared between at least two ribonucleoprotein complexes, i.e. vaults and the telomerase complex (Harrington et al., 1997
; Kickhoefer et al., 1999b
). TEP1 is capable of binding vault RNA and is required for the overall stability and stable association of the vault RNA with the vault complex (Kickhoefer et al., 2001
). The vault RNA itself is thought to be a functional vault component rather than a structural one (Kedersha et al., 1991
; Kong et al., 2000
; van Zon et al., 2001
). The p193 protein or VPARP [vault poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase] exhibits a poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase activity and can poly(ADP-ribosylate) MVP and, to a lesser extent, itself (Kickhoefer et al., 1999a
). Whether there are other substrates for VPARP is presently unknown. VPARP is a member of a growing family of enzymes, which include PARP-1 and tankyrase (D'Amours et al., 1999
; Smith, 2001
). Although having a similarity of 29-60% between their PARP domains, the PARP proteins in general do not resemble each other outside the PARP domain, suggesting they have separate cellular functions. Unique features of VPARP are a BRCA1 C-terminus (BRCT) domain (aa 1-94) and an inter-
-inhibitor domain (aa 616-1195); both domains may be involved in protein-protein interactions. The C-terminus of VPARP (aa 1562-1724) has been shown to associate with the N-terminal part of MVP (Kickhoefer et al., 1999a
; van Zon et al., 2002
). Immunofluorescence and biochemical fractionation studies clearly indicate that not all VPARP is bound to vaults; VPARP is also present in the nuclear matrix and in distinct cytoplasmic clusters (Kickhoefer et al., 1999a
; Schroeijers et al., 2000
) (this manuscript). It is not clear whether VPARP fulfils separate functions unrelated to vault function in its non-vault-associated form.
Although the vault components and structure have been characterized in detail, little is known about the intracellular distribution and mobility of vaults in vivo and their relation to non-vault-associated minor vault proteins. To visualize the vault complex, we fused green fluorescent protein (GFP) to the MVP. Bleaching experiments showed that vaults in the cytoplasm are freely mobile and move by diffusion. However, incubation of cells at 21°C resulted in the formation of highly regular and dynamic vault-tubes. We present evidence for a role of the cytoplasmic non-vault-associated VPARP-rods in vault-tube formation.
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Materials and Methods |
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GFP-tagged MVP, MVP deletion constructs and transfection
An expression construct was generated by cloning the full-length human MVP cDNA in frame to the 5' end of the enhanced GFP coding sequence. Full-length MVP cDNA cloned in pBS-KSII was used as a PCR template with the following primers: forward primer 5'-CCCAAGCTTGTCACCATGGCAACTGAAGAG and reverse primer 5'-CGGGATCCCGCAGTACAGGCACCACGTGG introducing a HindIII and BamHI restriction site to facilitate cloning in pEGFP-N1 (Clonetech laboratories Inc., Palo Alto, CA). The PCR conditions were as follows: 95°C for 2 minutes, then 35 cycles of 95°C for 30 seconds, 58°C for 1 minute and 72°C for 3 minutes followed by 72°C for 10 minutes using Pfu DNA polymerase (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA). The amplified DNA fragments were size fractionated by agarose gel electrophoresis, isolated and extracted from agarose gel and ligated into pCR® -Blunt (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). The MVP fragments were released from the vector by digestion with the appropriate restriction enzymes and subsequently cloned into the GFP expression vector. A cDNA fragment of human MVP encoding amino acids 1-706 was amplified by standard PCR using 5'-CCCAAGCTTGTCACCATGGCAACTGAAGAG as a forward primer and 5'-CCGGATCCTCCAAAAGTTCCTTGCGAGC as reverse primer. To prevent PCR artifacts we used Pfu polymerase combined with a low number of PCR cycli. Amplified fragments containing appropriate restriction sites were cloned in pZeroblunt (Invitrogen). Subsequently, the HindIII-BamHI MVP fragments were cloned in the HindIII- and BamHI-digested and dephosphorylated vector pEGFP-N1 (Clontech). The resulting expression plasmid MVP706-GFP expresses GFP fused to a MVP truncated at its C-terminal end. Transfection of the SW1573 cell line was performed by calcium-phosphate precipitation as described previously (Parker and Stark, 1979). Approximately 48 hours after transfection, transfectants were selected by the addition of 800 µg/ml of G-418. The G-418-resistant and GFP-expressing cells were isolated using a fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS) and cultured in the presence of 200 µg/ml G-418.
Antibodies
The mouse monoclonal anti-VPARP (mAb p193-4), mouse monoclonal anti-MVP (LRP-56) and the rabbit polyclonal anti-MVP were generated as described previously (Schroeijers et al., 2000). The mouse monoclonal anti-ß-tubulin and a species-specific isotype antibody were purchased from the Sigma-Aldrich Corporation (St Louis, MO), and the rabbit polyclonal anti-GFP was purchased at Clontech Laboratories Inc. Species-specific anti-Ig antibodies conjugated to tetramethyl rhodamine isothiocyanate (TRITC), fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) or horseradish peroxidase (HRP) were obtained from Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories Inc. (West Grove, PA).
Immunoprecipitation, cell fractionation, SDS-PAGE and western blot analysis
Antibodies were coupled to Protein A-Sepharose beads (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, Uppsala, Sweden) according to the recommendations of the manufacturer. Immunoprecipitations from protein lysates prepared in lysis buffer [50 mM Tris-Cl pH 7.4, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 75 mM NaCl, 0.5% (vol/vol) Nonidet P-40], supplemented with a proteinase inhibitor cocktail (CompleteTM, Roche, Mannheim, FRG) were carried out for 2 hours at 4°C. Subsequently, the beads were washed with lysis buffer and twice with PBS, after which the beads were suspended in protein sample buffer. Immunoprecipitated proteins were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and western blotting. A cellular fraction, enriched for vaults, was prepared as follows: cells were harvested and resuspended in lysis buffer supplemented with a proteinase inhibitor cocktail. All subsequent steps were performed at 4°C. The cell lysate was incubated on ice for 5 minutes and cleared from nuclei by centrifugation for 20 minutes at 20,000 g. The supernatant was centrifuged at 100,000 g for 90 minutes, resulting in a pellet fraction enriched for vaults. Equal portions of the resulting supernatant and pellet fraction were subjected to SDS-PAGE, after which the size-fractionated proteins were transferred to nitrocellulose. The remaining protein binding sites on western blots were blocked by Tris buffered saline/Tween 20 (TBST) [50 mM Tris-Cl pH 7.5, 100 mM NaCl, 0.05% (vol/vol) Tween 20] containing 5% (wt/vol) non-fat dry milk (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA). Consecutively, primary and secondary antibody incubations were carried out in the same buffer. Immune-complexes were detected using the BM Chemiluminescence Blotting Substrate (POD) kit (Roche, Mannheim, FRG) and visualized on HyperfilmTM ECLTM (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech).
Fluorescence microscopy
Cells were grown on poly-L-lysine-coated coverslips, after which they were fixed with 3% (vol/vol) formaldehyde in PBS for 20 minutes. Subsequently, the cells were permeabilized by 1% (vol/vol) Triton-X100 in PBS for 5 minutes. The remaining protein binding sites were blocked with 1% (wt/vol) BSA in PBS for 30 minutes. Primary and secondary antibody incubations were performed in the same buffer for 60 minutes at room temperature (21°C) using 25 µg/ml p193.4 mAb, 10 µg/ml LRP-56 and FITC- or TRITC-conjugated goat anti-mouse Ig in a dilution as recommended by the manufacturer. Between each antibody incubation step the coverslips were washed six times in PBS. Coverslips were mounted on microscope slides in anti-fade [4% (wt/vol) n-propyl gallate in glycerol] or VectaShield mounting medium (Vector Laboratories Inc., Burlingame, CA). The fluorescent staining pattern was studied using a Leica DMRXA microscope and pictures were created using Leica QFish version V 2.3e.
Confocal microscopy and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP)
A Zeiss (Jena, FRG) confocal laser-scanning microscope (CLSM) equipped with a thermostatted stage was used for confocal microscopy and FRAP experiments. Excitation illumination was by an argon ion laser at 488 nm. Images were taken at a lateral resolution of 102 nm using a 40x 1.3 n.a. objective. To determine cytoplasmic mobility of vaults, a strip 2 µm wide spanning the width of the cytoplasm was bleached by a short bleach pulse (200 milliseconds) at relatively high laser intensity. Subsequently, fluorescence intensity was monitored within the bleached strip at intervals of 100 milliseconds. The relative fluorescence intensity data was then fitted to diffusion curves obtained by Monte Carlo computer simulation of diffusion, immobile fraction and binding time in an ellipsoid representing the cytoplasm with a sphere inside where the molecules cannot go (representing the nucleus) (Hoogstraten et al., 2002). To determine the dynamics of protein associated with vault-tubes, the laser beam was focused in the center of a vault-tube and the region in the beam was bleached for 4 seconds (at relatively low laser power). Fluorescence redistribution was followed in time.
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Results |
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Dynamics of the vault complex measured by FRAP
We examined vault dynamics in living SW1573 cells expressing MVP-GFP using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP). In a FRAP assay specifically suited for determination of effective diffusion coefficients (Deff), we compared the mobility of MVP-GFP (vaults) with that of free GFP. As a control we used a SW1573 transfectant expressing a GFP-tagged deletion mutant of MVP (MVP706-GFP) that is not incorporated into vault particles, as shown by biochemical fractionation (Fig. 1B).
In the cytoplasm a narrow strip (2 µm) was bleached by a short laser pulse (200 milliseconds) at high laser intensity, after which recovery of the fluorescent signal in the strip was determined at intervals of 100 milliseconds. We observed a full recovery of both GFP and MVP-GFP fluorescence, indicating that all MVP-GFP, whether incorporated into vaults or not, is mobile (Fig. 2A). The diffusion coefficients were calculated from these measurements by least square fitting to curves from computer simulations in which diffusion, bound fraction and residence time were varied (see Materials and Methods) (Hoogstraten et al., 2002). GFP molecules fitted best to a model where all molecules were mobile and had a Deff of 14±2.4 µm2/s. The MVP-GFP data also fitted best to a model where no bound fraction was present, and with a Deff of 2±0.4 µm2/s the MVP-GFP molecules were much slower than free GFP. Using the effective diffusion coefficient of GFP determined in our experimental set-up, we estimated that a complex of 10-13 MDa will have a diffusion coefficient of approximately 2 µm2/s. Therefore, we conclude that in vivo most of the MVP-GFP molecules are incorporated into vault particles. The effective diffusion coefficient of the mutant MVP molecules (MVP706-GFP of about 107 kDa) as determined by least square fitting to the computer simulation curves was
13 µm2/s. This value is close to that of free GFP, confirming the fact that the MVP706-GFP molecules are not incorporated into larger complexes. To check whether vault movement was dependent on temperature, FRAP measurements were performed at 37°C and 28°C. A relatively small decrease in temperature (from 310 K to 301 K) has been shown to have little effect on diffusion in living cells (Hoogstraten et al., 2002
; Phair and Misteli, 2000
; Politz et al., 1999
). We observed no significant difference in vault mobility in three independent experiments (Fig. 2B). These results indicate that most of the vaults are freely mobile and move by diffusion.
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Redistribution of MVP-GFP into tube-like structures
Although the diffusion of vaults was not affected at 28°C, we noticed a typical and highly consistent redistribution of the MVP-GFP fluorescence when the transfected cells were incubated at 21°C (room temperature). The characteristic particulate fluorescent pattern observed in cells expressing MVP-GFP cultured at 37°C is shown (Fig. 3A,a and Fig. 1A,a). Incubation of these cells at 21°C for 30-60 minutes resulted in the appearance of elongated fluorescent structures, resembling tubes (Fig. 3A,d). These vault-tubes appeared in 50-80% of the cells and disappeared within 30 minutes when the temperature was raised to 37°C (Fig. 3A,g). Degrading vault-tubes seemed to break open along their longitudinal axis, forming curled sheets, which eventually dissolved to give rise to the regular vault fluorescent pattern (data not shown). When SW1573/MVP-GFP cells were stained for the minor vault protein VPARP (Fig. 3A,b), the fluorescent pattern only partly overlapped with the MVP-GFP fluorescence (Fig. 3A,c). In addition to the fine particulate staining that colocalizes with MVP-GFP, VPARP is also present in the nucleus and in distinct elongated structures. These VPARP-rods are predominantly, but not exclusively, present in the perinuclear region (Fig. 3A,b).
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When vault-tubes were allowed to form at 21°C, most of the cytoplasmic VPARP-rods could no longer be detected separately from the MVP-GFP fluorescence (Fig. 3A, e and f). This indicates that the VPARP molecules of the rods are either incorporated in the vault-tubes or that the tubes are formed at the site of the VPARP-rods. By incubating cells at 21°C for a short time (10 minutes) we were able to detect interactions between the VPARP-rods and clusters of MVP-GFP molecules (Fig. 3B). Vault-tubes were not yet formed, but an accumulation of GFP-tagged MVP at the VPARP-rods was observed (Fig. 3B). This implies a recruitment of MVP-GFP (or vaults) to the VPARP-rods, which eventually may lead to vault-tubes. Restoring the temperature to 37°C not only led to the disintegration of the vault-tubes, but also to the reappearance of the non-vault-associated VPARP-rods (Fig. 3A, h and i).
The subcellular localization of VPARP
We verified the presence of VPARP-rods in different nontransfected cell lines. A similar subcellular distribution of VPARP a diffuse localization in both the nucleus and cytoplasm and the presence of cytoplasmic VPARP-rods was observed in the nontransfected SW1573 and HeLa cells (Fig. 4A, a and b), as well as in the drug-resistant SW1573/2R120 and African green monkey kidney (COS) cells (data not shown). The specificity of the VPARP staining was confirmed by the absence of fluorescent signal when an isotype control was used (Fig. 4A,c). The length of the VPARP-rods differed in a cell-line-dependent manner. In particular, the differences in length between the parental SW1573 and the MVP-GFP transfected SW1573 pointed to a correlation between MVP expression levels and the length of the VPARP-rods. We therefore measured VPARP-rod length in SW1573 cells, its drug-resistant, vault-overexpressing derivative SW1573/2R120 and the SW1573/MVP-GFP transfectant. The average length varied from 1.5 µm in SW1573/MVP-GFP to 2.3 µm in SW1573 cells (Fig. 4B, left-hand graph). Although the orientation of the VPARP-rods may vary, the differences in length were significant (P<0.05), confirming our visual observations. The length of the VPARP-rods may have differed because of the differences in the expression level of VPARP. Nevertheless, western blot analysis indicated that the total levels of expressed VPARP were similar in these cell lines (Fig. 4B, right-hand graph). As expected, MVP was upregulated in the drug-resistant cells (usually around 1.5-fold compared with the parental SW1573 cell line) and in the MVP-GFP-transfectant cells (almost threefold). The size of the cytoplasmic VPARP-rods appeared to inversely correlate with the MVP expression levels.
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The coiled-coil domain of MVP is necessary for vault-tube formation
To exclude the possibility that the occurrence of vault-tubes at 21°C is due to overexpression of MVP-GFP or the addition of the GFP-tag, the formation of vault-tubes was investigated in SW1573/2R120 and parental, nontransfected SW1573 cells (Fig. 5A). Vault-tubes, detected by indirect immunofluorescence, were observed in both cell lines, indicating that they are not caused by the overexpression of GFP-tagged MVP. To test whether MVP-MVP interactions are necessary for vault-tube formation we used the stable SW1573 transfectant expressing a GFP-tagged deletion mutant of MVP. The MVP is truncated at its C-terminal end, resulting in a partial deletion of the coiled-coil domain (MVP706-GFP). The coiled-coil domain at the C-terminal half of MVP is essential for the interaction of MVP molecules and consequently for the assembly of vault particles (van Zon et al., 2002). The deletion mutant is unable to interact with other MVP molecules and is not incorporated into vault particles (Fig. 1B, Fig. 2A) (van Zon et al., 2002
). Expression of the truncated fusion protein resulted in a less particulate, more diffuse fluorescent staining pattern compared with the full-length MVP-GFP (Fig. 5B, a and b). Incubation at 21°C led to the formation of GFP-labeled vault-tubes in control cells, but not in the coiled-coil mutant (Fig. 5B, c and d). This indicates that MVP molecules have to interact with each other via their coiled-coil domain in order to form vault-tubes. It is therefore probable that vault-tubes contain intact vaults.
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Dimensions and dynamics of the vault-tubes
Confocal microscopy revealed that vault-tubes, which are formed at 21°C, are cylinders with highly regular dimensions (Fig. 6A). In living SW1573/MVP-GFP cells, the vault-tubes had an average length of 7±2 µm (range 4.5-12 µm; n=16) and a width of 1.5±0.3 µm (n=18). To study whether vault-tubes are stable or dynamic structures (where MVP molecules bind and release frequently), we performed FRAP experiments on these structures (Fig. 6B). Surprisingly, approximately 100 seconds after the laser pulse the fluorescence in the bleached area had completely recovered, indicating that the vault-tubes are dynamic structures in which individual MVP molecules have residence times of on average 100 seconds. Attempts to quantify the fluorescent redistribution were hampered by the fact that the vault-tubes are relatively narrow and tend to move, leading to inaccurate measurements. In the current experimental set-up we could not determine whether the observed exchange of fluorescence was the result of individual MVP-GFP molecules moving to and from vault-tubes or whether it represented the exchange of whole vault particles.
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Integrity of microtubules affects vault-tube formation
Vaults have been suggested to function in cytoplasmic transport, possibly via the microtubules (Hamill and Suprenant, 1997; Herrmann et al., 1999
). The question arises as to what extent the microtubules are involved in the vault-tube formation. There are no visible differences in the ß-tubulin staining in cells cultured at 37°C and 21°C, indicating no dramatic effects on the microtubules when the temperature drops to 21°C. To investigate whether microtubule destabilization or stabilization results in vault-tube formation, we treated SW1573/MVP-GFP cells with either 30 µM nocodazole or 20 µM taxol for 60 minutes (Fig. 7). The depolymerization of microtubules by nocodazole did not result in vault-tube formation at 37°C, nor did the taxol incubation, which stabilizes microtubules. However, when the treated cells were incubated at 21°C for 60 minutes clear differences in the amount of cells with vault-tubes were observed. Vault-tubes were observed in approximately 80% (n=608) of the nocodazole-treated cells. By contrast, 60% (n=684) of the control cells contained vault-tubes, whereas only 3% (n=645) of the taxol-treated cells showed vault-tube formation. Apparently, the stability of the microtubules plays a significant role in tube formation at 21°C. However, destabilization or stabilization alone is not sufficient to initiate vault-tube assembly at 37°C.
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Discussion |
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Most of our studies were performed with SW1573 cells expressing MVP tagged with GFP. Therefore, we verified that these tagged proteins are incorporated into genuine vaults. The subcellular localization and appearance of the MVP-GFP fluorescence is similar to the MVP pattern observed in immunostained untransfected cells. Like regular vaults, the GFP-tagged vaults can be precipitated by centrifugation at 100,000 g. These biochemical fractionation data show an equal ratio of MVP and MVP-GFP in the pellet fraction compared with the total lysate. This indicates that both proteins are equivalent in competing for incorporation or assembly. In both the parental and the MVP-GFP-overexpressing cell line we found a fraction of MVP/MVP-GFP in the supernatant after centrifugation. This might be an artifact of the biochemical fractionation or it may represent an in vivo situation in which not all MVP molecules are incorporated into vault particles. Evidence that MVP-GFP molecules are incorporated into vault particles came from the in vivo FRAP measurements. Although it is likely that the cytoplasmic organization (e.g. cytoskeleton, endoplasmic reticulum) affects vaults kinetics, our data indicated that the majority of MVP-GFP moved as free 10-13 MDa complexes. However, owing to the limited resolution of the microscopic methods used, we cannot completely rule out the possibility that a small fraction behaves differently. The effective diffusion coefficient of the expressed MVP-GFP was similar to the one predicted for vault complexes (see Results section), indicating that in vivo the majority of MVP-GFP is incorporated into vault particles.
The intracellular localization of VPARP only partly overlapped with that of MVP. Unlike vaults, VPARP is present in the nucleus and in elongated structures in the cytoplasm (VPARP-rods). In line with TEP1, which is a shared protein with the telomerase complex (Kickhoefer et al., 1999b), the non-vault-associated VPARP may have separate functions independent of the vault complex. Nevertheless, our results indicate a dynamic link between the non-vault-associated VPARP fraction and vault particles. First, the length of the VPARP-rod seems to be inversely correlated with the MVP expression levels. Relatively high MVP expression levels associate with short VPARP-rods. When more MVP is present in a cell, more vault particles are formed (Siva et al., 2001
; Stephen et al., 2001
) and probably more VPARP is incorporated into these vaults. Consequently, less non-vault bound VPARP is present in the cell, leading to shorter VPARP-rods. Second, when vault-tubes are allowed to form at 21°C, the VPARP-rods can no longer be detected separately from the tubes. Probably, the VPARP is temporarily incorporated in the vault-tubes. Both the localization of vaults and the VPARP-rods are reversed when the cells are again incubated at 37°C. Finally, we could detect clustering of MVP-GFP on the VPARP-rods when cells were incubated at 21°C for a short time. This indicated the existence of a true physical interaction between MPF-GFP molecules (or vaults) and the VPARP-rods.
An intriguing question concerns the nature of the cytoplasmic VPARP-rods. In a yeast-based two-hybrid system, we showed previously that VPARP is not able to interact with itself (van Zon et al., 2002). Therefore, VPARP-rods probably need other proteins or structures to sustain themselves. The VPARP-rods are relatively small (2 µm x 0.5 µm) compared with the large vault-tubes (7 µm x 1.5 µm). Assuming that the vault-tube is completely covered with vaults in a standing position, one could calculate that there will be around 7500 vault particles per micrometer of vault-tube. Probably, the symmetrical vault itself determines the morphology of the vault-tubes. It was observed in vitro that vaults are able to aggregate side-to-side in large pseudo-crystalline arrays (Kedersha et al., 1991
). We showed clustering of vault particles in vivo, indicating that this might be a natural ability of the vault particles.
Because vault particles have been associated with intracellular transport, a function in which the microtubules may participate, we studied the involvement of the microtubules in the vault-tube formation. One scenario might be that the microtubules are damaged by the incubation at room temperature and that this may cause the vault-tubes to form, but depolymerization of the microtubules at 37°C did not result in vault-tubes. However, when the cells were incubated at room temperature, depolymerized microtubules had a stimulating effect on vault-tube formation, and stabilization of the microtubules had an inhibiting effect. The microtubule stability plays a role in the vault-tube formation; however, other impulses are necessary to initiate vault-tube assembly. Lowering of the temperature also affects the efficiency of enzymatic reactions and may influence protein conformation. Preliminary results showed that small vault-tubes appear when cells cultured at 37°C are treated with PARP-inhibitors, like 3-aminobenzamide or DPQ [3,4-dihydro-5-[4-(1-piperidinyl) butoxy]-1(2H)-isoquinoline], which suggests that the inhibition of the enzymatic activity of VPARP may play a role in tube formation. Although these results are interesting, also the VPARP activity appears to be a small element in the complex event of the vault-tube formation.
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Acknowledgments |
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References |
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