* Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tumor Biology Training Program, § Department of Cell Biology,
Lombardi Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20007; and
Department of Physiology,
University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
![]() |
Abstract |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Sphingosine-1-phosphate (SPP), a bioactive lipid, acts both intracellularly and extracellularly to cause pleiotropic biological responses. Recently, we identified SPP as a ligand for the G protein-coupled receptor Edg-1 (Lee, M.-J., J.R. Van Brocklyn, S. Thangada, C.H. Liu, A.R. Hand, R. Menzeleev, S. Spiegel, and T. Hla. 1998. Science. 279:1552-1555). Edg-1 binds SPP with remarkable specificity as only sphinganine-1-phosphate displaced radiolabeled SPP, while other sphingolipids did not. Binding of SPP to Edg-1 resulted in inhibition of forskolin-stimulated cAMP accumulation, in a pertussis toxin-sensitive manner. In contrast, two well-characterized biological responses of SPP, mitogenesis and prevention of apoptosis, were clearly unrelated to binding to Edg-1 and correlated with intracellular uptake. SPP also stimulated signal transduction pathways, including calcium mobilization, activation of phospholipase D, and tyrosine phosphorylation of p125FAK, independently of edg-1 expression. Moreover, DNA synthesis in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts was significantly and specifically increased by microinjection of SPP. Finally, SPP suppresses apoptosis of HL-60 and pheochromocytoma PC12 cells, which do not have specific SPP binding or expression of Edg-1 mRNA. Conversely, sphinganine-1-phosphate, which binds to and signals via Edg-1, does not have any significant cytoprotective effect. Thus, SPP is a prototype for a novel class of lipid mediators that act both extracellularly as ligands for cell surface receptors and intracellularly as second messengers.
Key words: sphingolipids; mitogenesis; G proteins; apoptosis; signal transduction ![]() |
Introduction |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
SPHINGOLIPID metabolites, ceramide, sphingosine, and
sphingosine-1-phosphate (SPP),1 are emerging as
members of a new class of lipid second messengers (Kolesnick and Fuks, 1995; Spiegel and Milstien, 1995
;
Hannun, 1996
). Ceramide, formed by receptor-coupled activation of sphingomyelinase, has been associated with cell
growth arrest and is an important component of stress responses and apoptosis (Hannun, 1996
), whereas SPP, a
further metabolite of ceramide, is mitogenic in diverse cell
types (Zhang et al., 1991
; Bornfeldt et al., 1995
; Gomez-Munoz et al., 1995
; Pyne et al., 1996
) and opposes ceramide-mediated apoptosis (Cuvillier et al., 1996
; Edsall et
al., 1997
). Thus, we have proposed that the relative intracellular levels of these two sphingolipid metabolites is an
important factor that determines whether cells will survive
or die (Cuvillier et al., 1996
). More recently, it has been
demonstrated that this ceramide/SPP rheostat is an evolutionarily conserved stress regulatory mechanism influencing growth and survival of yeast (Mandala et al., 1997
).
Various stimuli, including PDGF and serum (Olivera
and Spiegel, 1993; Bornfeldt et al., 1995
), NGF (Edsall et al.,
1997
), activation of protein kinase C (Mazurek et al., 1994
;
Buehrer et al., 1996
), and cross-linking of the Fc
RI receptor by antigens (Choi et al., 1996
), increase cellular levels
of SPP by activation of sphingosine kinase, the enzyme
that catalyzes the phosphorylation of sphingosine. Competitive inhibitors of sphingosine kinase eliminate formation of SPP and selectively block cellular proliferation induced by PDGF and serum (Olivera and Spiegel, 1993
;
Rani et al., 1997
), as well as Fc
RI-mediated calcium signaling (Choi et al., 1996
) and the cytoprotective effects of
cytokines (Cuvillier et al., 1996
) and NGF (Edsall et al.,
1997
), further supporting a role for endogenous SPP.
Although many studies indicate an intracellular site of
action of SPP, some of its biological effects when added
exogenously may be due to binding to cell surface receptors. SPP is stored in high concentrations and is released
from human platelets upon activation by physiological
stimuli (Yatomi et al., 1995), and it is present at high levels
in serum (Yatomi et al., 1997b
). Previously, we have shown
that pertussis toxin-sensitive G proteins are involved in
some of the signaling pathways activated by SPP, suggesting
that it might activate a receptor coupled to a Gi/Go-protein (Goodemote et al., 1995
). In agreement, low concentrations
of SPP activate Gi protein-gated inward rectifying K+-channels only when applied at the extracellular face of
atrial myocytes (van Koppen et al., 1996
). Moreover, nanomolar concentrations of SPP (EC50 = 2 nM) rapidly induced Rho-dependent neurite retraction and cell rounding
of mouse N1E-115 neurons (Postma et al., 1996
) and
markedly inhibited melanoma cell motility by binding to
an extracellular receptor (Yamamura et al., 1997
).
Recently, we identified Edg-1 as the receptor for SPP
and demonstrated that binding of SPP to Edg-1 induces
morphogenetic differentiation via a Rho-dependent signaling pathway (Lee et al., 1998). edg-1 was cloned as an
immediate-early gene induced by phorbol ester treatment
of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (Hla and Maciag, 1990
) and is thought to be involved in endothelial cell
differentiation (Hla and Maciag, 1990
; Lee et al., 1998
).
Here we report that SPP has dual actions. In addition to
signaling through a cell surface Gi-coupled receptor, SPP
acts intracellularly to regulate cellular proliferation and
suppression of apoptosis.
![]() |
Materials and Methods |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Materials
SPP, dihydrosphingosine-1-phosphate (dihydro-SPP), sphingosine, N,N-dimethylsphingosine, and N-acetyl sphingosine (C2-ceramide) were purchased from BIOMOL Research Laboratory, Inc. (Plymouth Meeting,
PA). N-octanoyl ceramide-1-phosphate (C8-ceramide-1-P) was from Calbiochem (La Jolla, CA). Other lipids were purchased from Avanti Polar
Lipids (Birmingham, AL). SPP-phosphonate was kindly provided by Dr.
Richard R. Schmidt (University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany).
[methyl-3H]Thymidine (83 Ci/mmol) and [-32P]ATP (3,000 Ci/mmol)
were purchased from Amersham Corp. (Arlington Heights, IL). Fura-2/
acetoxy-methyl ester (fura-2/AM) was from Molecular Probes, Inc. (Eugene, OR). Serum and medium were obtained from Biofluids, Inc. (Rockville, MD). Pertussis toxin was from List Biological Labs (Campbell, CA).
Cell Culture
Human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293, ATCC CRL-1573 [American
Type Culture Collection, Rockville, MD]) stably transfected with epitope-tagged human edg-1 cDNA in the pcDNANeo expression vector or pcDNANeo control vector and NIH 3T3 fibroblasts (ATCC CRL-1658) stably
transfected with pMexNeo vector or pMexNeo containing FLAG-tagged
edg-1 were grown in DME containing 10% fetal bovine serum, 0.25 g/liter
G418 sulfate (Biofluids, Inc.) as previously described (Lee et al., 1996,
1998
). Swiss 3T3 cells (ATCC CCL-92) were subcultured at a density of
1.5 × 104 cells/cm2 in DME supplemented with 2 mM glutamine and 10%
calf serum, refed with the same medium after 2 d, and used 5 d later when
the cells were confluent and quiescent (Olivera and Spiegel, 1993
). Rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells (ATCC CRL-1721) were maintained in RPMI medium supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated horse serum, 5%
fetal bovine serum, 100 U/ml penicillin, and 100 µg/ml streptomycin (Edsall et al., 1997
). Human promyelocytic HL-60 cells (ATCC CCL-240) were grown in RPMI 1640 containing 10% fetal bovine serum as previously described (Cuvillier et al., 1996
).
Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Binding Assay
[32P]SPP was synthesized enzymatically using partially purified sphingosine kinase as previously described (Olivera et al., 1994). The specific
activity of [32P]SPP was 1.28 × 106 cpm/pmol. Cells were incubated with
1 nM [32P]SPP (200,000 cpm) in 200 µl binding buffer (20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, 100 mM NaCl, 15 mM NaF, 2 mM deoxypyridoxine, 0.2 mM
PMSF, 1 µg/ml aprotinin and leupeptin) for 30 min at 4°C. Unlabeled lipid
competitors were added as 4 mg/ml fatty acid-free BSA complexes (Zhang et al., 1991
). Cells were washed twice with 200 µl ice-cold binding
buffer containing 0.4 mg/ml fatty acid-free BSA and resuspended in PBS,
and bound [32P]SPP was quantitated by scintillation counting.
Measurement of Cyclic AMP Levels
Cells were incubated for 15 min at 37°C in DME containing the phosphodiesterase inhibitor IBMX (0.5 mM), in the absence or presence of 10 µM forskolin, and the indicated concentration of SPP or vehicle. Medium was then aspirated, cells were washed with PBS, and cAMP was extracted by sonication in 4 mM EDTA. After centrifugation, samples were boiled for 3 min and recentrifuged, and cAMP was measured using the Biotrak [3H]cAMP assay system (Amersham Corp.) according to the manufacturer's instructions.
Measurement of DNA Synthesis
Cells were grown to confluence in 24-well tissue culture plates, washed
with serum-free DME containing 5 µg/ml transferrin and 20 µg/ml BSA,
stimulated by the addition of the indicated concentration of SPP, and after
16 h, pulsed with 1.0 µCi of [3H]thymidine for 8 h. Incorporation of
[3H]thymidine into trichloroacetic acid-insoluble material was measured as described (Olivera et al., 1992). Values are the means of triplicate determinations, and standard deviations were routinely less than 10% of the
mean.
Northern Hybridization
Total RNA from various cell lines was extracted by the acid guanidine
thiocyanate/phenol/chloroform method (Chomczynski and Sacchi, 1987).
RNA (10 µg) was electrophoresed on 1% agarose/formaldehyde gels and
transferred to Zeta-probe membranes (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules,
CA). Mouse edg-1 cDNA probe was labeled with [
-32P]dCTP using a
random primer labeling kit (Amersham Corp.). Membranes were hybridized as described previously (Liu and Hla, 1997
) and exposed to x-ray film
for autoradiography.
Measurement of Uptake and Metabolism of SPP
Cells were washed with PBS, incubated in DME at 4 or 37°C for 30 min in
the presence of 10 µM [32P]SPP (64,000 cpm/nmol) (Van Veldhoven and
Mannaerts, 1994), washed with DME containing 0.4 mg/ml fatty acid-free
BSA, and then incubated in DME for the indicated time. After washing
with cold DME, cells were trypsinized, and cellular lipids were extracted
as described (Olivera and Spiegel, 1993
). Extracts were applied to silica
gel 60 G plates, which were developed with chloroform/methanol/25 mM
NaH2PO4 (60:35:8, vol/vol), and then exposed to a Phosphor Screen (Molecular Dynamics, Sunnyvale, CA) for 2 h. Radioactive bands were quantified using a Storm densitometer with the ImageQuant program (Molecular
Dynamics). Radioactivity in aliquots from each sample was also quantitated
by liquid scintillation counting for measurement of SPP uptake. Sphingosine production was measured as described (Lavie et al., 1994
).
Determination of Tyrosine Phosphorylation of p125FAK
HEK293 cells were treated with SPP added as a complex with 4 mg/ml BSA for the indicated times, washed twice with PBS, and then lysed by addition of 0.5 ml lysis buffer (50 mM Hepes, pH 7.9, 1% Triton X-100, 100 mM NaCl, 10 mM EDTA, 4 mM sodium pyrophosphate, 10 mM NaF, 1 mM PMSF, 2 mM Na3VO4, and 2 µg/ml aprotinin and leupeptin). p125FAK was immunoprecipitated from samples containing equal amounts of protein with anti-p125FAK monoclonal antibody (Upstate Biotechnology, Inc., Lake Placid, NY). Immunoprecipitates were washed three times with lysis buffer and separated by 7% SDS-PAGE. Proteins were transferred to nitrocellulose membranes (Bio-Rad Laboratories) and probed with monoclonal antiphosphotyrosine 4G10 (Upstate Biotechnology, Inc.). Bands were visualized with Super Signal chemiluminescent reagent (Pierce Chemical Co., Rockford, IL).
Measurement of Cytoplasmic Free Calcium Concentrations
Cells were grown on 35-mm plastic tissue culture dishes and loaded with
the fluorescent calcium-sensitive dye, fura-2/AM (5 µM), for 45 min at
37°C in DME supplemented with 60 µg/ml BSA. Subsequently, cells were
washed with Locke's buffer (137 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 0.5 mM MgCl2,
0.93 mM CaCl2, 6.5 mM Na2HPO4, 1.5 mM KH2PO4, 1 mg/ml glucose, 1 mg/ml BSA, pH 7.4) and mounted in a 35-mm holder maintained at 30°C.
Changes in fura-2 fluorescence were monitored in single cells by dual excitation imaging using an Attofluor Digital Fluorescence Microscopy System (Atto Instruments Inc., Rockville, MD). [Ca2+]i was determined from
the ratio of fura-2 fluorescence emission after excitation at wavelengths of
334 and 380 nm (Mattie et al., 1994).
Phosphatidic Acid Determination
Cells were washed and incubated in DME containing [32P]orthophosphate
(100 µCi/ml) for 24 h. Cells were then treated with SPP or vehicle alone
for the indicated times, the medium was rapidly removed, and lipids were
extracted (Zhang et al., 1990). Phosphatidic acid was analyzed by thin-layer
chromatography using the organic phase of the mixture of isooctane/ethyl
acetate/acetic acid/water (50:110:20:100) (Zhang et al., 1990
). In this system,
phosphatidic acid (Rf = 0.1) was separated from other phospholipids (Rf = 0). Lipid standards were visualized with molybdenum blue (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO). Phosphatidic acid was quantified using a Storm
densitometer with the ImageQuant program (Molecular Dynamics).
Staining of Apoptotic Nuclei
Cells were cultured in serum-free medium in the absence or presence of the indicated sphingolipids for 15 h, washed in PBS, and fixed in 3.7% formaldehyde for 10 min. After washing with PBS, fixed cells were then incubated with bisbenzimide trihydrochloride (24 µg/ml in 30% glycerol/ PBS; Hoechst #33258, Calbiochem) for 10 min. Stained cells were examined with a Zeiss Photoscope II fluorescent microscope (Thornwood, NY). Apoptotic cells were distinguished by condensed, fragmented nuclear regions. A minimum of 2,000 cells was scored.
Quantitation of DNA Fragmentation
DNA fragmentation was determined in cells prelabeled with [3H]thymidine (1 µCi/ml) for 24 h (Duke and Cohen, 1992). Cells were washed gently twice with serum-free medium and then incubated in the same medium
with the indicated sphingolipids for 5 h at 37°C. Cells were harvested and
lysed in TTE (10 mM Tris, pH 7.4, 10 mM EDTA, 0.2% Triton X-100),
and fragmented DNA was separated from intact chromatin by centrifugation. Pellets were suspended in TTE, and TCA was added to a final concentration of 12.5%. [3H]Thymidine incorporated into both intact and
fragmented DNA was determined by liquid scintillation counting (Duke
and Cohen, 1992
). Percent fragmented DNA = 100 × [fragmented / (fragmented + intact chromatin)].
Microinjection and Immunostaining
Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts were grown on CELLocate gridded glass coverslips (Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany) and rendered quiescent by starvation for 24 h in serum-free DME supplemented with transferrin (4 µg/ml) and fatty acid-free BSA (20 µg/ml). Cells were microinjected on a heated stage using an Eppendorf Micromanipulator 5171 and Transjector 5246. 400 serum-starved cells were microinjected cytoplasmically with SPP (~10 fl of 500 µM, estimated cytoplasmic concentration = 5 µM) together with rabbit IgG (RIgG, 5 mg/ml) as a tracking agent using sterile Femtotips (Eppendorf) at 100 hPa for 0.2 s. Control cells were microinjected with rabbit IgG alone. Immediately after microinjection, cells were incubated in fresh serum-free DME with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU; 10 mM) for 24 h at 37°C. Cells were then fixed in acidic ethanol (70%, in 50 mmol/liter glycine buffer, pH 2.0) and stained with mouse monoclonal anti-BrdU antibody and anti-mouse Ig-fluorescein according to the manufacturer's instructions (BrdU Labeling and Detection Kit; Boehringer Mannheim GmbH, Mannheim Germany). Cells were stained for RIgG with a 1:200 dilution of anti-RIgG Texas red-conjugated secondary antibody to localize injected cells. After the coverslips were mounted on slides using the Molecular Probes Anti-Fade kit (Eugene, OR), cells were analyzed with a fluorescent microscope (model Photoscope II; Carl Zeiss, Inc.). Cell counts of nuclear BrdU labeling were determined by fluorescence microscopy using a triple band pass filter.
![]() |
Results |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Specificity of SPP Binding to Edg-1
We recently identified the G protein-coupled receptor
Edg-1 as a receptor for SPP (Lee et al., 1998). In an attempt to identify other potential agonists or antagonist of
Edg-1, we examined the effects of structurally related lipids on binding of [32P]SPP to human embryonic kidney 293 fibroblasts stably expressing FLAG epitope-tagged Edg-1
(HEK293edg-1). Only sphinganine-1-phosphate (dihydro-SPP), which lacks the double bond at the 4 position, blocked binding in a dose-dependent manner nearly as potently as did unlabeled SPP (Ki = 15 nM) (Fig. 1 A). In
contrast, other related lipids, including sphingosine, the
nonhydrolyzable analogue, SPP-phosphonate (Tarnowski
et al., 1997
), a short chain SPP analogue (C8-SPP), N,N-dimethylsphingosine, C2-ceramide, sphingosylphosphorylcholine (SPC), and N-octanoyl ceramide-1-phosphate (C8-cer-1-P), did not compete with SPP for binding to Edg-1
(Fig. 1 B).
|
SPP Decreases cAMP Levels via the Gi-coupled Receptor Edg-1
Biochemical evidence and the yeast two-hybrid system indicate that Edg-1 is capable of interaction with Gi1 and
Gi
3 (Lee et al., 1996
). Moreover, Edg-2 and the cannabinoid receptors, which are related to the edg family, are
known to be linked to Gi signaling pathways leading to decreased levels of cAMP (Howlett, 1995
; Hecht et al.,
1996
). Therefore, functional coupling of the Edg-1 receptor overexpressed in HEK293 cells in response to its ligand SPP was investigated. The effect of SPP on cAMP
accumulation was examined after stimulation of adenylate
cyclase with forskolin in the presence of the phosphodiesterase inhibitor 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX) to
ensure that changes in cAMP levels were not mediated by
effects on phosphodiesterase activity. Binding of SPP to
Edg-1 markedly inhibited forskolin-stimulated cAMP accumulation in a dose-dependent manner (Fig. 2 A), which
correlated closely with binding, as the Kd of Edg-1 for SPP
is 8 nM (Lee et al., 1998
). Although lower concentrations
of SPP had no effect on cAMP accumulation induced by
forskolin in vector-transfected cells (HEK293-vector) devoid of Edg-1 expression and specific SPP binding, much
higher concentrations slightly reduced cAMP levels, albeit
to a lesser extent than in cells that express Edg-1 (Fig. 2
A). Thus, the additional decrease in cAMP seen at higher
SPP concentrations may be due to non-receptor-mediated
effects. Similarly to SPP, dihydro-SPP, which also binds to
Edg-1, decreased cAMP levels (Fig. 2 B). In contrast,
other structurally related lipids that do not bind to Edg-1,
including SPC, sphingosine, C8-SPP, C8-cer-1-P, and particularly SPP-phosphonate, were without effect (Fig. 2 B).
Moreover, pretreatment with N,N-dimethylsphingosine
(10 µM), at a concentration that markedly inhibits sphingosine kinase and production of endogenous SPP, had no
effect on the decreased cAMP accumulation induced by
binding of SPP to Edg-1 (data not shown).
|
The SPP-induced cAMP decrease in HEK293-edg-1 cells was completely blocked by pretreatment with pertussis toxin, which ADP ribosylates and inactivates Gi and Go proteins (Fig. 2 C). Therefore, binding of SPP to the serpentine receptor Edg-1 on the cell surface activates a pertussis toxin-sensitive Gi protein.
SPP Stimulates Non-receptor-mediated Signal Transduction Pathways
Recently, it was shown that the decrease in cAMP resulting from binding of the endogenous ligand anandamide to
the CB-1 receptor resulted in tyrosine phosphorylation of
focal adhesion kinase (p125FAK) (Derkinderen et al., 1996).
Moreover, we previously showed that SPP enhances phosphorylation of p125FAK in Swiss 3T3 cells (Wang et al.,
1997
). Surprisingly, we found that SPP-induced tyrosine
phosphorylation of p125FAK was independent of Edg-1 receptor activation, as the response was greater in cells lacking
the receptor and was even decreased in cells overexpressing
edg-1 (Fig. 3 A). Furthermore, tyrosine phosphorylation of
p125FAK was increased even more at concentrations of
SPP higher than those that saturate Edg-1 binding (Lee et
al., 1998
).
|
In many cell types, SPP has been shown to activate several signal transduction pathways (Desai et al., 1992; Chao
et al., 1994
; Ghosh et al., 1994
; Mattie et al., 1994
; Natarajan et al., 1994
; Bornfeldt et al., 1995
; Goodemote et al.,
1995
; Choi et al., 1996
; Blakesly et al., 1997
; Fatatis and
Miller, 1997
; Okajima et al., 1997
), particularly mobilization of calcium and activation of phospholipase D, which
in certain cell types are activated by low concentrations of
SPP. Thus, it was of interest to determine whether these
responses were dependent or independent of activation of
the cell surface receptor Edg-1. As illustrated in Fig. 3 B, low concentrations of SPP (100 nM) had no effect on calcium mobilization in either vector-transfected or edg-1-
overexpressing HEK293 cells, whereas treatment with 10 µM SPP led to identical increases in [Ca2+]i, suggesting
that this response to SPP is not mediated by Edg-1. The
calcium responses were also identical in vector- and edg-1- transfected NIH 3T3 cells (data not shown). In agreement,
only high, mitogenic concentrations of SPP release calcium from internal sources in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts (Mattie et al., 1994
). Similarly, mobilization of calcium from internal sources by cannabinoid agonists was also shown to
be independent of activation of the cannabinoid receptor
(Felder et al., 1992
). The effects of SPP on activation of
phospholipase D were also Edg-1 receptor independent
and were even attenuated by edg-1 overexpression in NIH
3T3 fibroblasts (Fig. 3 C). Thus, several mitogenic signal
transduction pathways that are thought to be involved in
SPP-induced proliferation are clearly Edg-1 receptor independent.
SPP Regulates Cell Proliferation and Survival Independently of Edg-1 Expression
Because the most well-established biological response to
SPP is the stimulation of cell growth (Zhang et al., 1991;
Olivera and Spiegel, 1993
; Su et al., 1994
; Gomez-Munoz
et al., 1995
; Goodemote et al., 1995
; Wu et al., 1995
; Pyne
et al., 1996
; Blakesly et al., 1997
; Rani et al., 1997
), we examined the effect of SPP on DNA synthesis in several cell
lines expressing different levels of edg-1: SPP is a powerful
mitogen for Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts (Zhang et al., 1991
; Desai et al., 1992
; Su et al., 1994
; Rani et al., 1997
; Wang et al.,
1997
) and is also mitogenic for NIH 3T3 fibroblasts, albeit
less potent (Blakesly et al., 1997
). In agreement with previous studies (Zhang et al., 1991
; Desai et al., 1992
; Su et al.,
1994
; Rani et al., 1997
; Wang et al., 1997
), 10 µM SPP induced marked stimulation of DNA synthesis in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts (Fig 4 A). SPP was less mitogenic for control, vector-transfected NIH 3T3 fibroblasts (NIH 3T3/pMEX.2),
and least mitogenic for edg-1-transfected NIH 3T3 cells
(NIH 3T3/pMFE1.2), which express human Edg-1.
|
Northern analysis of HEK293-edg-1 and HEK293-vector cells using a human edg-1 cDNA probe revealed, as expected, a prominent band in HEK293-edg-1 cells and no band in HEK293-vector cells (Fig. 4 B). As edg-1 expression was expected to be low in mouse fibroblasts, a mouse edg-1 probe that detects mouse edg-1 more sensitively than the human probe was used to analyze NIH 3T3 and Swiss 3T3 cells. Swiss 3T3 cells express the lowest levels of endogenous edg-1 mRNA of the three fibroblast lines tested (Fig. 4 B), which was confirmed by reverse transcriptase PCR analysis (data not shown). NIH 3T3 cells stably transfected with human edg-1 show the presence of both mouse and human edg-1 (2.9 and 1.8 kb, respectively; Fig. 4 B). In agreement, Swiss 3T3 cells showed a low level of specific binding (Fig. 4 C), whereas NIH-edg-1 cells have much higher specific [32P]SPP binding (Fig. 4 C). Thus, it seems that there is no correlation between edg-1 expression and the mitogenic response to SPP (compare Fig. 4 A, and B and C). In agreement, SPP was not mitogenic for HEK293 cells regardless of whether or not they expressed Edg-1 (Fig. 4 A).
Although low levels of SPP bound specifically to Swiss
3T3 fibroblasts at 4°C, no specific binding could be detected at any concentration of [32P]SPP (up to 10 µM) in
Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts at 37°C. However, there was a large,
cell-associated fraction of [32P]SPP (278 pmol per 106 cells)
detected when Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts were incubated with 10 µM [32P]SPP at 37°C. This is due to uptake, as there was
extensive intracellular metabolism catalyzed by SPP lyase
and SPP phosphatase, both located in the endoplasmic
reticulum (Van Veldhoven and Mannaerts, 1994; Mandala
et al., 1997
), and 57% of the cell-associated SPP was metabolized within 1 h while after 15 h, only 18% of the SPP
still remained intact (data not shown).
To further substantiate the notion that the mitogenic actions of SPP observed at high concentrations was due to
intracellular actions rather than binding to a cell surface
receptor, we took advantage of our previous observation
that mitogenesis induced by SPP only required a short exposure time (Wang et al., 1997). In agreement, exposure of
Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts to SPP for 30 min at 37°C, followed
by washing and replacement of the media, resulted in 50%
of maximum DNA synthesis induced by 24 h of treatment (Fig. 5 A). In contrast, when Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts were incubated with SPP for 30 min at 4°C, to allow binding but
significantly less uptake (Fig. 5 B), there was much less
stimulation of DNA synthesis, suggesting that SPP must
be taken up by cells to produce a mitogenic effect. Furthermore, in another approach to increase uptake and delivery of SPP into cells, SPP was mixed with the cationic
lipid, lipofectamine, which forms liposomes that are readily
internalized and has been widely used to deliver DNA, RNA, and protein (Felgner et al., 1987
). In this liposome
form, the dose-response for stimulation of DNA synthesis
by SPP was shifted to much lower concentrations (Fig. 5
C) with a corresponding increase in [32P]SPP uptake (Fig.
5 D). Collectively, these results strongly suggest that the
mitogenic effects of SPP are independent of receptor- mediated actions. In agreement, the nonhydrolyzable
SPP-phosphonate, which does not bind to Edg-1 or stimulate the Gi signaling pathway, is as potent a mitogenic
agent for Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts as is SPP (data not shown).
|
To conclusively demonstrate that SPP stimulates DNA
synthesis intracellularly, we microinjected SPP into the cytoplasm of quiescent Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts together with
IgG to identify microinjected cells and examined the incorporation of BrdU into nascent DNA 24 h later. Using
double immunofluorescence to visualize injected cells and
BrdU incorporation, it is evident that DNA synthesis is increased after microinjection of SPP, as 6% of injected cells
were positive for BrdU incorporation compared with 1%
of adjacent, noninjected cells in the same field (Fig. 6). It
should be noted that after exogenous treatment of Swiss
3T3 fibroblasts with optimum mitogenic concentrations of
SPP or vehicle alone, 10 and 1% of the cells showed BrdU
staining, respectively. Microinjection of rabbit IgG alone
had no significant effect on DNA synthesis. Moreover, in
contrast to the mitogenic effect of SPP, C8-ceramide-1-P, which has no effect on [3H]thymidine incorporation when
added exogenously, also had no significant effect on BrdU
incorporation when microinjected into quiescent Swiss
3T3 fibroblasts. It is noteworthy that similarly to the synergistic effect between insulin and SPP on [3H]thymidine incorporation (Zhang et al., 1991), microinjected SPP also
potentiated the stimulation of BrdU incorporation by insulin (Fig. 6 H). Thus, induction of DNA synthesis by SPP
does not require interaction with a cell surface receptor to
activate the cellular machinery needed for proliferation. In
addition, DNA synthesis stimulated by microinjected SPP
was insensitive to pertussis toxin treatment, whereas 70%
of that caused by exogenous SPP was blocked by pertussis
toxin (Fig. 6 H), in agreement with our previous results
(Goodemote et al., 1995
).
|
To examine whether the cytoprotective effects of SPP
can also be separated from its binding to Edg-1, we used
two cell lines, HL-60 and PC12 cells, in which SPP is
known to have a strong survival effect (Cuvillier et al.,
1996; Edsall et al., 1997
). In agreement with the lack of detectable edg-1 mRNA in HL-60 or PC12 cells (Fig. 4 B),
no specific binding of SPP could be detected in either cell
line (Fig. 7 A). SPP-phosphonate, which lacks the oxygen atom at the 1 position and does not compete for binding to
Edg-1 (Fig. 1 B), was at least as potent as SPP in suppressing ceramide-mediated apoptosis in HL-60 cells (Fig. 7 B)
and was as potent as SPP in prevention of DNA fragmentation due to serum deprivation in PC12 cells (Fig. 7 C).
These protective effects were specific, because dihydro-SPP, which lacks the trans double bond present in SPP and
binds to Edg-1 (Fig. 1), did not significantly prevent apoptosis either in HL-60 or in PC12 cells.
|
![]() |
Discussion |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Apparently contradictory reports describe intracellular
and extracellular actions of SPP in diverse cell types (Spiegel and Milstien, 1995; Spiegel et al., 1996
; Moolenaar et al.,
1997
). This study demonstrates that SPP indeed has dual actions, acting as a second messenger to stimulate cell growth
and prevent apoptosis, and as a first messenger through its
cell surface receptor Edg-1 (Lee et al., 1998
). Similar to
the effects of the ligands for other closely related G protein-coupled receptors, such as CB-1 (Bouaboula et al.,
1995
; Felder et al., 1995
) and Edg-2 (Hecht et al., 1996
),
binding of SPP to Edg-1 markedly inhibits cAMP accumulation (Fig. 2) and activates the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase, ERK-2 (Lee et al., 1998
), in a pertussis
toxin-sensitive manner. Although the biological function
of Edg-1 is not completely understood, it was cloned as an
immediate early gene involved in endothelial differentiation (Hla and Maciag, 1990
). Binding of SPP to Edg-1 also
induces morphogenetic differentiation of HEK293-edg-1
cells and P-cadherin expression by a Rho-dependent mechanism (Lee et al., 1998
). Thus, SPP might play a role
in angiogenesis since the Kd for SPP binding to Edg-1 is 8 nM (Lee et al., 1998
) and SPP is a serum-borne component, where its concentration is 480 nM (Yatomi et al.,
1997b
). However, because edg-1 expression has been detected in many tissues, including brain, spleen, heart, lung,
placenta, muscle, liver, uterus, and kidney (Liu and Hla, 1997
), both Edg-1 and SPP might regulate diverse signaling events.
Specific binding of [3H]SPP has also been detected in
platelets (Yatomi et al., 1997a) and in F10 melanoma cells
(Yamamura et al., 1997
). However, the SPP receptors in
these cells have characteristics distinct from Edg-1. In both
cases, the affinity for SPP (Kd > 110 nM) was much lower
than the affinity of Edg-1 for SPP (Kd = 8 nM), and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) was a better competitor than
SPP, suggesting that these receptors can bind both LPA
and SPP (Yatomi et al., 1997a
). Similarly, it was found that
a K+ conductance was activated equally well by SPP and
SPC in guinea pig atrial myocytes with heterologous desensitization (Bünemann et al., 1996
). However, Edg-1 is
highly selective as a high-affinity receptor for SPP because
SPC and several other closely related lipids have no effect
on either SPP binding or forskolin-stimulated cAMP accumulation. Two receptors closely related to Edg-1, Edg-3 and H218, were shown to confer responsiveness to SPP of
a serum response element-driven reporter gene when expressed in Jurkat cells and to allow SPP-stimulated 45Ca2+
efflux in Xenopus oocytes (An et al., 1997
). However,
these authors did not present direct binding data; therefore, it is not clear at present whether Edg-3 and H218 are
indeed SPP receptors. Although Edg-1 was ineffective in
these assays, it may not link to the signaling pathways investigated. In agreement, we have shown here that SPP-stimulated increased [Ca2+]i is not mediated by Edg-1.
Several lines of evidence clearly indicate that mitogenesis and prevention of apoptosis induced by SPP are not
mediated through Edg-1. First, the mitogenic action of
SPP correlates with intracellular uptake rather than with
cell surface binding of SPP or with edg-1 expression. Indeed, SPP is most potently mitogenic for Swiss 3T3 cells,
which have only low specific SPP binding and edg-1 expression. In addition, the mitogenic effect of SPP requires
micromolar concentrations, whereas putative receptor-mediated effects of SPP (Bünemann et al., 1996; Postma
et al., 1996
; van Koppen et al., 1996
) have been shown to
occur in the same nanomolar concentration range as binding to Edg-1. Second, although we have shown that binding of SPP to Edg-1 leads to decreases in cAMP levels, inhibition of adenylate cyclase may not be associated with
regulation of mitogenesis. In Swiss 3T3 cells, cAMP has
been shown unequivocally to act as a positive effector of
proliferation (Rozengurt, 1986
), and it is thus unlikely that
SPP-induced decreases in cAMP play a significant role in
the induction of proliferation. However, in several other
cell types, including Rat-1, airway smooth muscle, and human foreskin fibroblasts, cAMP is a negative effector of mitogenesis, and the relevance of reductions in cAMP levels to mitogenic effects of SPP in these cell types is presently unclear (Pyne and Pyne, 1996
). Third, N,N-dimethylsphingosine inhibits sphingosine kinase (Yatomi et al.,
1996
) and formation of endogenous SPP, selectively
blocks cellular proliferation induced by PDGF and serum
(Olivera and Spiegel, 1993
; Rani et al., 1997
) and the cytoprotective effects of cytokines (Cuvillier et al., 1996
) and NGF (Edsall et al., 1997
), but had no effect on SPP binding, nor did it affect SPP-mediated decreased cAMP levels. Thus, effects of this sphingosine kinase inhibitor are
not mediated through inhibition of Edg-1 signaling, and it
provides a useful tool for discriminating between intra-
and extracellular actions. Additional evidence that the mitogenic effect of SPP is not mediated through a cell surface
receptor comes from the use of the polyanionic drug
suramin, a broad-specificity inhibitor of ligand receptor interactions (Postma et al., 1996
; Wang et al., 1997
). Suramin has no effect on SPP-induced p125FAK phosphorylation
and mitogenesis, but it inhibits responses to LPA and SPC
(Wang et al., 1997
). The most compelling evidence that the
mitogenic effect of SPP is mediated intracellularly is that
microinjection of SPP causes increased DNA synthesis.
Moreover, because uninjected cells adjacent to SPP microinjected cells showed no significant increase in BrdU incorporation, it is unlikely that SPP is leaking from microinjected cells or from the pipet and stimulating other cells in
autocrine fashion. Since microinjection effectively bypasses cell surface receptors to introduce SPP directly into
cells, these data conclusively demonstrate that binding to cell surface receptors is not required for SPP-induced mitogenesis, consistent with a role for Edg-1 in morphogenetic differentiative (Lee et al., 1998
), rather than mitogenic, signaling pathways.
SPP prevents apoptosis induced by trophic factor withdrawal or by ceramide elevations in PC12 and HL-60 cells,
both of which do not express edg-1 or have detectable SPP
cell surface binding. In addition, metabolically stable SPP-phosphonate, which does not bind to Edg-1, protects these
cells from apoptosis as potently as does SPP. Conversely,
dihydro-SPP, which binds to and signals via Edg-1, does
not have any significant cytoprotective effect. Thus, similarly to its mitogenic effect, the survival effect of SPP is independent of Edg-1 and is probably mediated intracellularly. In agreement, unfertilized oocytes treated with the
anticancer drug doxorubicin undergo apoptosis accompanied by increased ceramide levels (Perez et al., 1997).
Doxorubicin-induced apoptosis was completely blocked
by microinjection of SPP, indicating that oocyte destruction caused by chemotherapy can be prevented by manipulation of intracellular levels of SPP (Perez et al., 1997
).
SPP has also been shown to activate several signal transduction pathways, most of which have been associated
with mitogenic signaling and, as shown here, are unrelated
to Edg-1-mediated pathways. SPP increased [Ca2+]i to the
same level in HEK293-vector cells and HEK293 cells
overexpressing Edg-1. Interestingly, it has been shown
that cannabinoids can also increase [Ca2+]i independently
of receptor expression (Felder et al., 1992). Moreover, similar to SPP (Mattie et al., 1994
), calcium mobilization was independent of inositol trisphosphate formation (Felder et al., 1992
). Our results indicate that these responses to SPP
are not mediated by Edg-1 and suggest that SPP may activate these pathways by acting intracellularly. However, we
cannot exclude the possibility that other SPP receptors exist, which may lead to activation of these pathways. The fact
that tyrosine phosphorylation of p125FAK and activation of
phospholipase D by SPP was attenuated in HEK293-edg-1 cells suggests that Edg-1 may in some cases oppose the mitogenic signaling of SPP. This is a reasonable proposal
since Edg-1 is thought to be involved in endothelial cell
differentiation (Hla and Maciag, 1990
) and mediates morphogenetic differentiation of HEK293-edg-1 cells treated
with SPP (Lee et al., 1998
). However, we cannot exclude
the possibility that in certain cell types, binding of SPP to
Edg-1 might be a contributing factor involved in cellular
proliferation. Transient activation of MAP kinase, in contrast to sustained and robust activation, might lead to cellular proliferation rather than differentiation (Marshall, 1995
). Binding of SPP to Edg-1 in Cos-7 cells transiently
transfected with edg-1 stimulates MAP kinase in a pertussis
toxin-sensitive manner (Lee et al., 1998
). This might explain
the observation that SPP activates MAP kinase and DNA
synthesis in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts by both pertussis toxin-
sensitive and -insensitive pathways (Goodemote et al.,
1995
; Wu et al., 1995
). It is noteworthy that in these cells,
62% of SPP-stimulated DNA synthesis is insensitive to
pertussis toxin. (Stimulation by SPP is 8.4- and 5.2-fold in
the absence or presence of 100 ng/ml pertussis toxin, respectively.) SPP-stimulated DNA synthesis was also partially insensitive to pertussis toxin in the presence of insulin (Fig. 6
H). This correlates with our microinjection experiments,
which showed that microinjected SPP gave 60% of the response of exogenous SPP (Fig. 6 G) and 41% of the response to exogenous SPP in the presence of insulin (Fig. 6
H). In agreement, pertussis toxin decreased DNA synthesis stimulated by exogenous SPP to approximately the
level of that seen in response to microinjected SPP.
While ceramide acts as a mediator of stress responses,
causing cell cycle arrest and/or apoptosis (Hannun, 1996),
SPP counteracts these effects (Cuvillier et al., 1996
; Edsall
et al., 1997
). Thus, we have suggested that the balance of
cellular levels of SPP and ceramide is a critical factor that
determines cell fate (Cuvillier et al., 1996
). Similarly, heat
stress in Saccharomyces cerevisiae causes the accumulation
of phytosphingosine, dihydrosphingosine, and ceramide
(Dickson et al., 1997
; Jenkins et al., 1997
) and activates
transcription of the global stress response element, indicating a role for sphingolipid metabolites as stress signals (Dickson et al., 1997
). In contrast, deletion of long chain
sphingoid base phosphate phosphatase leads to the accumulation of phosphorylated long chain sphingoid bases
and reduced ceramide levels, and concomitant enhancement
of survival upon severe heat shock (Mandala et al., 1997
).
Thus, it seems that the ceramide/SPP rheostat is an evolutionarily conserved stress regulatory mechanism. Therefore,
in addition to its role as a ligand for Edg-1, the cellular
level of SPP is important for regulation of cell proliferation and survival. Collectively, this data indicates that SPP
is a prototype for a novel class of lipid mediators that act
both extracellularly as ligands for cell surface receptors
and intracellularly as second messengers.
![]() |
Footnotes |
---|
Received for publication 4 February 1998 and in revised form 6 May 1998.
J.R. Van Brocklyn, M.-J. Lee, T. Hla, and S. Spiegel contributed equally to this study.We thank Dr. R.R. Schmidt for providing sphingolipid analogues, and Dr. Susette C. Mueller, director of the Lombardi Cancer Center Microscopy/ Imaging shared resources (supported by U.S. Public Health Service Grant 1P30-CA-51008), for providing use of microinjection and microscopy facilities.
This work was supported by Research Grants from the National Institutes of Health (GM43880) to S. Spiegel and (DK45659) to T. Hla.
![]() |
Abbreviations used in this paper |
---|
BrdU, bromodeoxyuridine; C2-ceramide, N-acetyl sphingosine; C8-cer-1-P, N-octanoyl ceramide-1-phosphate; fura-2/AM, fura-2/acetoxy-methyl ester; IBMX, 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine; LPA, lysophosphatidic acid; MAP, mitogen-activating protein; RIgG, rabbit IgG; p125FAK, p125 focal adhesion kinase; SPC, sphingosylphosphorylcholine; SPP, sphingosine-1-phosphate.
![]() |
References |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
1. | An, S., T. Bleu, W. Huang, O.G. Hallmark, S.R. Coughling, and E.J. Goetzel. 1997. Identification of cDNAs encoding two G protein-coupled receptors for lysosphingolipids. FEBS Lett. 417: 279-282 |
2. |
Blakesly, V.A.,
D. Beitner-Johnson,
J.R. Van Brocklyn,
S. Rani,
Z. Shen-Orr,
B.S. Stannard,
S. Spiegel, and
D. LeRoith.
1997.
Sphingosine 1-phosphate
stimulates tyrosine phosphorylation of Crk.
J. Biol. Chem.
272:
16211-16215
|
3. | Bornfeldt, K.E., L.M. Graves, E.W. Raines, Y. Igarashi, G. Wayman, S. Yamamura, Y. Yatomi, J.S. Sidhu, E.G. Krebs, S. Hakomori, and R. Ross. 1995. Sphingosine-1-phosphate inhibits PDGF-induced chemotaxis of human arterial smooth muscle cells: spatial and temporal modulation of PDGF chemotactic signal transduction. J. Cell Biol. 130: 193-206 [Abstract]. |
4. | Bouaboula, M., C. Poinot-Chazel, B. Bourrié, X. Canat, B. Calandra, M. Rinaldi-Carmona, G. Le Fur, and P. Casellas. 1995. Activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases by stimulation of the central cannabinoid receptor CB1. Biochem. J. 312: 637-641 |
5. | Buehrer, B.M., E.S. Bardes, and R.M. Bell. 1996. Protein kinase C-dependent regulation of human erythroleukemia (HEL) cell sphingosine kinase activity. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1303: 233-242 |
6. | Bünemann, M., K. Liliom, B.K. Brandts, L. Pott, J.-L. Tseng, D.M. Desidirio, G. Sun, D. Miller, and G. Tigyi. 1996. A novel membrane receptor with high affinity for lysosphingomyelin and sphingosine 1-phosphate in atrial myocytes. EMBO (Eur. Mol. Biol. Organ.) J. 15: 5527-5533 [Abstract]. |
7. |
Chao, C.P.,
S.J.F. Laulederkind, and
L.R. Ballou.
1994.
Sphingosine-mediated
phosphatidylinositol metabolism and calcium mobilization.
J. Biol. Chem.
269:
5849-5856
|
8. |
Choi, O.H.,
J.-H. Kim, and
J.-P. Kinet.
1996.
Calcium mobilization via sphingosine kinase in signalling by the Fc![]() |
9. | Chomczynski, P., and N. Sacchi. 1987. Single-step method of RNA isolation by acid guanidinium thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform extraction. Anal. Biochem. 162: 156-159 |
10. | Cuvillier, O., G. Pirianov, B. Kleuser, P.G. Vanek, O.A. Coso, S. Gutkind, and S. Spiegel. 1996. Suppression of ceramide-mediated programmed cell death by sphingosine-1-phosphate. Nature 381: 800-803 |
11. |
Derkinderen, P.,
M. Toutant,
F. Burgaya,
M. Le Bert,
J.C. Siciliano,
V. de Franciscis,
M. Gelman, and
J.A. Girault.
1996.
Regulation of a neuronal form of
focal adhesion kinase by anandamide.
Science
273:
1719-1722
|
12. |
Desai, N.N.,
H. Zhang,
A. Olivera,
T. Seki,
G. Brooker, and
S. Spiegel.
1992.
Sphingosine-1-phosphate, a metabolite of sphingosine, increases phosphatidic acid levels by phospholipase D activation.
J. Biol. Chem.
267:
23122-23128
|
13. |
Dickson, R.C.,
E.E. Nagiec,
M. Skrzypek,
P. Tillman,
G.B. Wells, and
R.L. Lester.
1997.
Sphingolipids are potential heat stress signals in Saccharomyces.
J. Biol. Chem.
272:
30196-30200
|
14. | Duke, R.C., and J.J. Cohen. 1992. Morphological and biochemical assays of apoptosis. In Current Protocols in Immunology, Suppl. 3. J.E. Coligan, A.M. Kruisbeek, D.H. Margulies, E.M. Shevach, and W. Strober, editors. Green/ Wiley, New York. 3.17.1-3.17.16. |
15. |
Edsall, L.C.,
G.G. Pirianov, and
S. Spiegel.
1997.
Involvement of sphingosine
1-phosphate in nerve growth factor-mediated neuronal survival and differentiation.
J. Neurosci.
17:
6952-6960
|
16. |
Fatatis, A., and
R.J. Miller.
1997.
Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-
induced Ca2+ signaling in the CG4 oligodendroglial cell line and in transformed oligodendrocytes expressing the ![]() |
17. | Felder, C.C., J.S. Veluz, H.L. Williams, E.M. Briley, and L.A. Matsuda. 1992. Cannabinoid agonists stimulate both receptor- and non-receptor-mediated signal transduction pathways in cells transfected with and expressing cannabinoid receptor clones. Mol. Pharmacol. 42: 838-845 [Abstract]. |
18. | Felder, C.C., K.E. Joyce, E.M. Briley, J. Mansouri, K. Mackie, O. Blond, Y. Lai, A.L. Ma, and R.L. Mitchell. 1995. Comparison of the pharmacology and signal transduction of the human cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors. Mol. Pharmacol. 48: 443-450 [Abstract]. |
19. | Felgner, P.L., T.R. Gadek, M. Holm, R. Roman, H.W. Chan, M. Wenz, J.P. Northrop, G.M. Ringold, and M. Danielsen. 1987. Lipofection: a highly efficient, lipid-mediated DNA-transfection procedure. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84: 7413-7417 [Abstract]. |
20. |
Ghosh, T.K.,
J. Bian, and
D.L. Gill.
1994.
Sphingosine 1-phosphate generated
in the endoplasmic reticulum membrane activates release of stored calcium.
J. Biol. Chem.
269:
22628-22635
|
21. |
Gomez-Munoz, A.,
D.W. Waggoner,
L. O'Brien, and
D.N. Brindley.
1995.
Interaction of ceramides, sphingosine, and sphingosine 1-phosphate in regulating DNA synthesis and phospholipase D activity.
J. Biol. Chem.
270:
26318-26325
|
22. |
Goodemote, K.A.,
M.E. Mattie,
A. Berger, and
S. Spiegel.
1995.
Involvement
of a pertussis toxin sensitive G protein in the mitogenic signaling pathways
of sphingosine 1-phosphate.
J. Biol. Chem.
270:
10272-10277
|
23. |
Hannun, Y..
1996.
Functions of ceramide in coordinating cellular responses to
stress.
Science
274:
1855-1859
|
24. | Hecht, J.H., J.A. Weiner, S.R. Post, and J. Chun. 1996. Ventricular zone gene-1 (vzg-1) encodes a lysophosphatidic acid receptor expressed in neurogenic regions of the developing cerebral cortex. J. Cell Biol. 135: 1071-1083 [Abstract]. |
25. |
Hla, T., and
T. Maciag.
1990.
An abundant transcript induced in differentiating
human endothelial cells encodes a polypeptide with structural similarities to
G-protein coupled receptors.
J. Biol. Chem.
265:
9308-9313
|
26. | Howlett, A.C.. 1995. Pharmacology of cannabinoid receptors. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 35: 607-634 |
27. |
Jenkins, G.M.,
A. Richards,
T. Wahl,
C. Mao,
L. Obeid, and
Y. Hannun.
1997.
Involvement of yeast sphingolipids in the heat stress response of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
J. Biol. Chem.
272:
32566-32572
|
28. | Kolesnick, R., and Z. Fuks. 1995. Ceramide: a signal for apoptosis or mitogenesis? J. Exp. Med. 181: 1949-1952 |
29. | Lavie, Y., J.K. Blusztajn, and M. Liscovitch. 1994. Formation of endogenous free sphingoid bases in cells induced by changing medium conditions. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1220: 323-328 |
30. |
Lee, M.-J.,
M. Evans, and
T. Hla.
1996.
The inducible G protein-coupled receptor edg-1 signals via the Gi/mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway.
J.
Biol. Chem.
271:
11272-11282
|
31. |
Lee, M.-J.,
J.R. Van Brocklyn,
S. Thangada,
C.H. Liu,
A.R. Hand,
R. Menzeleev,
S. Spiegel, and
T. Hla.
1998.
Sphingosine-1-phosphate as a ligand for
the G protein-coupled receptor Edg-1.
Science
279:
1552-1555
|
32. | Liu, C.H., and T. Hla. 1997. The mouse gene for the inducible G-protein-coupled receptor edg-1. Genomics 43: 15-24 |
33. |
Mandala, S.,
R. Thornton,
Z. Tu,
M. Kurtz,
J. Nickels,
J. Broach,
R. Menzeleev, and
S. Spiegel.
1997.
Sphingoid base 1-phosphate phosphatase, a key regulator of sphingolipid metabolism and stress response.
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.
USA
95:
150-155
|
34. | Marshall, C.J.. 1995. Specificity of receptor tyrosine kinase signaling: transient versus sustained extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation. Cell 80: 179-185 |
35. |
Mattie, M.,
G. Brooker, and
S. Spiegel.
1994.
Sphingosine-1-phosphate, a putative second messenger, mobilizes calcium from internal stores via an inositol
trisphosphate-independent pathway.
J. Biol. Chem.
269:
3181-3188
|
36. | Mazurek, N., T. Megidish, S.-I. Hakomori, and Y. Igarashi. 1994. Regulatory effect of phorbol esters on sphingosine kinase in BALB/C 3T3 fibroblasts (variant A31): demonstration of cell type-specific response. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 198: 1-9 |
37. | Moolenaar, W.H., O. Kranenburg, F.R. Postma, and G.C.M. Zondag. 1997. Lysophosphatidic acid: G-protein signalling and cellular responses. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 9: 168-173 |
38. | Natarajan, V., H.N. Jayaram, W.M. Scribner, and J.G.N. Garcia. 1994. Activation of endothelial cell phospholipase D by sphingosine and sphingosine-1-phosphate. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 11: 221-229 [Abstract]. |
39. |
Okajima, F.,
H. Tomura,
K. Sho,
T. Kimura,
K. Sato,
D.S. Im,
M. Akbar, and
Y. Kondo.
1997.
Sphingosine 1-phosphate stimulates hydrogen peroxide generation through activation of phospholipase C-Ca2+ system in FRTL-5 thyroid
cells: possible involvement of guanosine triphosphate-binding proteins in the
lipid signaling.
Endocrinology
138:
220-229
|
40. | Olivera, A., and S. Spiegel. 1993. Sphingosine-1-phosphate as a second messenger in cell proliferation induced by PDGF and FCS mitogens. Nature 365: 557-560 |
41. |
Olivera, A.,
N.E. Buckley, and
S. Spiegel.
1992.
Sphingomyelinase and cell-permeable ceramide analogs stimulate cellular proliferation in quiescent Swiss
3T3 fibroblasts.
J. Biol. Chem.
267:
26121-26127
|
42. | Olivera, A., J. Rosenthal, and S. Spiegel. 1994. Sphingosine kinase from Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts: a convenient assay for the measurement of intracellular levels of free sphingoid bases. Anal. Biochem. 223: 306-312 |
43. | Perez, G.I., C.M. Knudson, L. Leykin, S.J. Korsmeyer, and J.L. Tilly. 1997. Apoptosis-associated signaling pathways are required for chemotherapy-mediated female germ cell destruction. Nat. Med. 3: 1228-1232 |
44. | Postma, F.R., K. Jalink, T. Hengeveld, and W.H. Moolenaar. 1996. Sphingosine-1-phosphate rapidly induces rho-dependent neurite retraction: action through a specific cell surface receptor. EMBO (Eur. Mol. Biol. Organ.) J. 15: 2388-2392 [Abstract]. |
45. | Pyne, S., and N.J. Pyne. 1996. The differential regulation of cyclic AMP by sphingomyelin-derived lipids and the modulation of sphingolipid-stimulated extracellular signal regulated kinase-2 in airway smooth muscle. Biochem. J. 315: 917-923 |
46. | Pyne, S., J. Chapman, L. Steele, and N.J. Pyne. 1996. Sphingomyelin-derived lipids differentially regulate the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 2 (ERK-2) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signal cascades in airway smooth muscle cells. Eur. J. Biochem. 237: 819-826 [Abstract]. |
47. |
Rani, C.S.,
A. Berger,
J. Wu,
T.W. Sturgill,
D. Beitner-Johnson,
D. LeRoith,
L. Varticovski, and
S. Spiegel.
1997.
Divergence in signal transduction pathways of PDGF and EGF receptors: involvement of sphingosine-1-phosphate
in PDGF but not EGF signaling.
J. Biol. Chem.
272:
10777-10783
|
48. | Rozengurt, E.. 1986. Early signals in the mitogenic response. Science 234: 161-166 |
49. | Spiegel, S., D. Foster, and R. Kolesnick. 1996. Signal transduction through lipid second messengers. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 8: 159-167 |
50. | Spiegel, S., and S. Milstien. 1995. Sphingolipid metabolites: members of a new class of lipid second messengers. J. Membr. Biol. 146: 225-237 |
51. |
Su, Y.,
D. Rosenthal,
M. Smulson, and
S. Spiegel.
1994.
Sphingosine 1-phosphate, a novel signaling molecule, stimulates DNA binding activity of AP-1
in quiescent Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts.
J. Biol. Chem.
269:
16512-16517
|
52. | Tarnowski, A., T. Bär, and R.R. Schmidt. 1997. Efficient synthesis of sphingosine-1-phosphonate and homo-sphingosine-1-phosphonate. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 7: 573-576 . |
53. |
van Koppen, C.J.,
D. Meyer zu Heringdorf,
K.T. Laser,
C. Zhang,
K.H. Jakobs,
M. Bünnemann, and
L. Pott.
1996.
Activation of a high affinity Gi protein-coupled plasma membrane receptor by sphingosine-1-phosphate.
J. Biol.
Chem.
271:
2082-2087
|
54. | Van Veldhoven, P.P., and G.P. Mannaerts. 1994. Sphinganine 1-phosphate metabolism in cultured skin fibroblasts: evidence for the existence of a sphingosine phosphatase. Biochem. J. 299: 597-601 |
55. | Wang, F., C.D. Nobes, A. Hall, and S. Spiegel. 1997. Sphingosine 1-phosphate stimulates Rho-mediated tyrosine phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase and paxillin in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts. Biochem. J. 324: 481-488 |
56. |
Wu, J.,
S. Spiegel, and
T.W. Sturgill.
1995.
Sphingosine 1-phosphate rapidly activates the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway by a G protein-dependent mechanism.
J. Biol. Chem.
270:
11484-11488
|
57. | Yamamura, S., Y. Yatomi, F. Ruan, E.A. Sweeney, S. Hakomori, and Y. Igarashi. 1997. Sphingosine 1-phosphate regulates melanoma cell motility through a receptor-coupled extracellular action and in a pertussis toxin- insensitive manner. Biochemistry 36: 10751-10759 |
58. |
Yatomi, Y.,
F. Ruan,
S. Hakomori, and
Y. Igarashi.
1995.
Sphingosine-1-phosphate: a platelet-activating sphingolipid released from agonist-stimulated
human platelets.
Blood
86:
193-202
|
59. | Yatomi, Y., F. Ruan, T. Megidish, T. Toyokuni, S. Hakomori, and Y. Igarashi. 1996. N,N-dimethylsphingosine inhibition of sphingosine kinase and sphingosine 1-phosphate activity in human platelets. Biochemistry 35: 626-633 |
60. |
Yatomi, Y.,
S. Yamamura,
F. Ruan, and
Y. Igarashi.
1997a.
Sphingosine
1-phosphate induces platelet activation through an extracellular action and
shares a platelet surface receptor with lysophosphatidic acid.
J. Biol. Chem.
272:
5291-5297
|
61. | Yatomi, Y., Y. Igarashi, L. Yang, N. Hisano, R. Qi, N. Asazuma, K. Satoh, Y. Ozaki, and S. Kume. 1997b. Sphingosine 1-phosphate, a bioactive sphingolipid abundantly stored in platelets, is a normal constituent of human plasma and serum. J. Biochem. 121: 969-973 [Abstract]. |
62. |
Zhang, H.,
N.N. Desai,
J.M. Murphey, and
S. Spiegel.
1990.
Increases in phosphatidic acid levels accompany sphingosine-stimulated proliferation of quiescent Swiss 3T3 cells.
J. Biol. Chem.
265:
21309-21316
|
63. | Zhang, H., N.N. Desai, A. Olivera, T. Seki, G. Brooker, and S. Spiegel. 1991. Sphingosine-1-phosphate, a novel lipid, involved in cellular proliferation. J. Cell Biol. 114: 155-167 [Abstract]. |