§
§
* Department of Pharmacology, Department of Radiation Oncology, and § Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
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Abstract |
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Specificity and modulation of integrin function have important consequences for cellular responses to the extracellular matrix, including differentiation and transformation. The Ras-related GTPase,
R-Ras, modulates integrin affinity, but little is known of
the signaling pathways and biological functions downstream of R-Ras. Here we show that stable expression
of activated R-Ras or the closely related TC21 (R-Ras
2) induced integrin-mediated migration and invasion of
breast epithelial cells through collagen and disrupted
differentiation into tubule structures, whereas dominant negative R-Ras had opposite effects. These results
imply novel roles for R-Ras and TC21 in promoting a
transformed phenotype and in the basal migration and
polarization of these cells. Importantly, R-Ras induced
an increase in cellular adhesion and migration on collagen but not fibronectin, suggesting that R-Ras signals
to specific integrins. This was further supported by experiments in which R-Ras enhanced the migration of
cells expressing integrin chimeras containing the 2,
but not the
5, cytoplasmic domain. In addition, a
transdominant inhibition previously noted only between integrin
cytoplasmic domains was observed for
the
2 cytoplasmic domain;
2
1-mediated migration
was inhibited by the expression of excess
2 but not
5
cytoplasmic domain-containing chimeras, suggesting
the existence of limiting factors that bind the integrin
subunit. Using pharmacological inhibitors, we found that R-Ras induced migration on collagen through a
combination of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and protein kinase C, but not MAPK, which is distinct from the
other Ras family members, Rac, Cdc42, and N- and
K-Ras. Thus, R-Ras communicates with specific integrin
cytoplasmic domains through a unique combination of signaling pathways to promote cell migration
and invasion.
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Introduction |
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INTEGRINS are a family of /
heterodimers that mediate cellular interactions with components of the extracellular matrix, resulting in regulation of cell differentiation, growth control, and cellular migration and
invasion. Integrins participate in a number of signaling
events in cells. Signaling events induced by the extracellular matrix through integrins, termed outside-in signaling,
include activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase
(MAPK)1 pathway, cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases such as
focal adhesion kinase, phosphoinositide turnover, Ca2+ influx, Na+/ H+ exchange, and alterations in gene expression
and cellular growth (for review see Clark and Brugge,
1995
; Schwartz et al., 1995
; Yamada and Miyamoto, 1995
;
Burridge and Chrzanowska-Wodnicka, 1996
; Howe et al.,
1998
). Signaling events also impinge upon integrin function by regulating the ability of integrins to bind their ligands, a process termed inside-out signaling or integrin
activation. Regulation of integrin-ligand interactions by
inside-out signaling helps determine the nature of cellular responses to the extracellular matrix, influencing decisions such as whether a cell will remain stationary or migrate (Palecek et al., 1997
). Integrin cytoplasmic domains,
though relatively short, are necessary for their participation in both outside-in and inside-out signaling events. Despite much recent progress, the current understanding of
integrin-related signaling events is still in its infancy.
One of the most intriguing, but poorly understood, aspects of integrin function is how specific integrin subunits
link to specific signaling pathways to create the appropriate cellular response. A handful of studies have begun to
address this question (Sastry et al., 1996; Wary et al., 1996
;
Wei et al., 1998
). For example, differences in integrin effects have been correlated to the ability of certain integrin
subunits (
1
1,
5
1, and
v
3) but not others (
2
1,
3
1, and
6
1) to recruit Shc and activate the MAPK
pathway (Wary et al., 1996
). Moreover, integrin subunit specificity has been shown for association of integrins with
transmembrane-4 superfamily proteins and activation of
phosphatidylinositol 4-(PI4) kinase (Yauch et al., 1998
).
Although these studies begin to address specificity of outside-in signaling pathways, less well-studied is the specificity of inside-out signaling pathways.
Recently, it has become evident that both outside-in and
inside-out integrin signaling pathways can involve small
GTPases of the Ras superfamily (for review see Howe et al.,
1998; Keely et al., 1998
). Integrins signaling collaborates
with growth factor-induced signaling through the Ras-MAPK pathway (Miyamoto et al., 1996
; Lin et al., 1997
;
Renshaw et al., 1997
), and can directly activate the MAPK
pathway by both Ras-dependent and -independent means (P. Chen et al., 1994
; Schlaepfer et al., 1994
; Morino
et al., 1995
; Zhu and Assoian, 1995
; Chen et al., 1996
;
Clark and Hynes, 1996
; Miyamoto et al., 1996
). Signaling
through integrins also activates signaling pathways involving members of the Rho family of GTPases (Hotchin and
Hall, 1995
; Laudanna et al., 1996
; Renshaw et al., 1996
;
Schwartz et al., 1996
; Udagawa and McIntyre, 1996
). The
bidirectional nature of these signaling events is demonstrated by the finding that integrin clustering into focal
complexes can be regulated by Rho family members, Rho,
Rac, and Cdc42 (Hotchin and Hall, 1995
; Nobes and Hall,
1995
; Clark et al., 1998
) or by Ras (Kinch et al., 1995
). Additionally, activation of Rac and Cdc42 stimulates integrin-mediated migration and invasion across collagen matrices
(Keely et al., 1997
). Ras family members have direct effects on integrin function, since H-Ras suppresses integrin activation (Hughes et al., 1997
), whereas R-Ras activates
integrins, resulting in increased cell adhesion and matrix
assembly (Zhang et al., 1996
).
R-Ras is a 23-kD GTP-binding molecule ~55% homologous to H-, N-, and K-Ras, with an extra 26 amino acids
at its NH2 terminus (Lowe et al., 1987). Despite this homology, the biological function of R-Ras is distinct from
H-Ras (Cox et al., 1994
; Rey et al., 1994
; Marte et al., 1996
;
Huff et al., 1997
). R-Ras binds to many of the same effectors as H-, N-, or K-Ras, including Raf and Ral-GDS (Spaargaren and Bischoff, 1994
; Spaargaren et al., 1994
),
but is unable to activate these effectors efficiently (Herrmann et al., 1996
; Marte et al., 1996
). However, R-Ras is
able to activate the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-
Akt/PKB pathway (Marte et al., 1996
). The transforming
properties of R-Ras remain under investigation, and are
partially dependent on the specific cell in question (Lowe
and Goeddel, 1987
; Cox et al., 1994
; Saez et al., 1994
).
TC21 (R-Ras2), the closest relative of R-Ras, is also implicated in cellular transformation of fibroblasts and human breast carcinomas (Clark et al., 1996
; Graham et al., 1996
),
although TC21 shares more functional similarity to H-Ras
than R-Ras (Huff et al., 1997
). Other than PI3K activation, the signaling pathways and full range of biological effects downstream of R-Ras function are not known.
We previously showed that stable expression of constitutively active Cdc42 or Rac alters the response of breast
epithelial cells to a collagen matrix by disrupting polarization and promoting a migratory invasive phenotype
(Keely et al., 1997). The effect of Cdc42 and Rac is mediated by PI3K (Keely et al., 1997
). Additionally, the ability
of these cells to polarize or migrate in collagenous matrices is related to
2
1 integrin expression levels (Keely et al.,
1995
; Zutter et al., 1995
). Since R-Ras has been shown to
have direct effects on both integrin function and PI3K activity, we determined in this study whether R-Ras can alter
breast cell response to the extracellular matrix. We find
that R-Ras activation disrupts the polarized differentiation of breast epithelial cells in collagen matrices and stimulates migration and invasion through collagen, suggesting
new roles for R-Ras. Additionally, we find that R-Ras specifically stimulates migration and adhesion to collagen but
not fibronectin. Using integrin chimeras, we demonstrate
cross-talk between R-Ras and the
2, but not the
5, integrin cytoplasmic tail, resulting in enhanced migration of
breast epithelial cells. Surprisingly, R-Ras-induced migration was only partially dependent on PI3K activity,
suggesting that PI3K-independent signaling pathways also contribute to the effects of R-Ras. We find that one
of these pathways involves protein kinase C (PKC). Migration induced by R-Ras did not involve the MAPK kinase (MEK)/MAPK pathway, which differed from K-Ras-
induced migration. Thus, R-Ras affects specific integrin
cytoplasmic domains through multiple distinct combinations of signaling pathways to activate cell migration and transformation.
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Materials and Methods |
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Cell Lines
T47D cells (American Type Culture Collection) were transfected with
constitutively active constructs for R-Ras(87L) or (38V), TC21(72L),
N-Ras(12D), or K-Ras(12V), or with dominant negative constructs for
R-Ras(41A) or (43N), or TC21(26A) that were expressed in pZIP. Cells
were selected in G418 as described (Keely et al., 1995) and expanded as
pools of stably transfected cells. Control cells were transfected with pZIP
alone and selected in parallel with the other cells. Expression of constructs
was determined by immunoblotting. Because these different molecules
could not be probed by the same antibody on the same blot, it was impossible to determine absolute expression levels of R-Ras compared with TC21, N-Ras, or K-Ras. However, a comparison of each molecule to endogenous levels was made: R-Ras(87L) was 8.8-fold above endogenous R-Ras (or 8.8×), R-Ras(43N) = 10.7×, R-Ras(41A) = 1.8×, TC21(72L) = 4.0×, TC21(26A) = 1.0×, N-Ras(12D) = 0.9×, and K-Ras(12V) = 2.1×.
For double transfectants to create X4 chimeric cell lines, cells were
cotransfected with X4 chimeras expressed in pSFneo and pCGN (20:1),
and selected in hygromycin-containing growth medium as described (Keely
et al., 1997
). Expression of
4 integrin on the surface of the cell, indicating
expression of the X4 chimeras, was determined by flow cytometry (see below). X4 chimeras were a gift of Dr. Martin Hemler (Dana-Farber Cancer Institute).
Cell Migration, Invasion, and Morphogenesis
Migration and invasion across transwells were performed as described
previously (Santoro et al., 1994; Keely et al., 1995
, 1997
). Transwells were
coated from the underside with 6 µg/ml collagen I or 25 µg/ml fibronectin
(Collaborative Biomedical Products). For studies with X4 chimeras, transwells were coated with specific
4 ligands: 6 µg/ml of the 40-kD chymotryptic heparin binding fragment of fibronectin (GIBCO BRL) (McCarthy et al., 1986
) or 50 µg/ml of the CS-1 peptide (EILDVPST; Peninsula
Labs Inc.) (Humphries et al., 1987
). CS-1 peptide was coupled to ovalbumin as described (Haugen et al., 1990
) and the best coating concentration
for cell migration was determined. Cell migration was performed in the absence of serum or growth factors for 16 h. For inhibitor assays, cells
were pretreated for 15 min with DMSO (control), Wortmannin (30 nM),
LY294002 (25 µM), bisindolylmalemide (1 µM) all from Calbiochem-Novabiochem Corp., or PD98059 (25 µM; Alexis Biochemicals), and allowed to migrate across collagen in the continued presence of the inhibitor for 5 h.
For antibody inhibition assays, cells were preincubated with control
IgG or anti-2 integrin antibody, P1E6 (GIBCO BRL) at a final concentration of 1:1,000. Migration was performed in the continued presence of
the antibody for 16 h. Invasion was assessed on serum starved cells that
were seeded onto the top of 2-mm collagen gels and allowed to migrate in
response to 10% serum placed in the lower chamber. Invasion assays were
allowed to proceed for 26-36 h. Unless otherwise noted, values presented
are the mean ± SEM of at least three experiments normalized to control
values. Data were analyzed by performing ANOVA using Microsoft Excel software. Morphogenesis in three-dimensional collagen gels was assessed after 7 and 16 d as described (Santoro et al., 1994
; Keely et al.,
1995
).
Adhesion Assays
Adhesion to Immobilon plates (Dynatech) coated with various concentrations of collagen I or fibronectin was performed and adherent cells quantitated by hexosaminidase activity as described (Haugen et al., 1990; Keely
et al., 1995
). Values given represent the average of two separate experiments, each of triplicate determinations, ± SEM.
Flow Cytometry
Cells were detached in versene, washed in PBS containing 5 mg/ml BSA,
and incubated with primary antibody on ice. To determine cell surface integrin expression, cells were incubated with the following mAbs: P4C2
against the 4, P1D5 against the
5, P1E6 against the
2, or P1B5 against
the
3 subunits (all from GIBCO BRL), or TS2-7 against the
1, or 4F10
against the
6 subunits (Serotec). Primary antibody was diluted 1:1000.
After a 20-min incubation, cells were washed once in PBS/BSA, and incubated with FITC-conjugated donkey anti-mouse secondary antibody at
1:100 (Jackson Labs) for 20 min on ice. Cells were washed again and analyzed on a Beckman FACScan®. For conformation studies, cells were either treated with EDTA or with manganese at 2 mM before incubation
with 12G10 antibody (Serotec), which detects conformational changes in
the
1 integrin subunit. After this primary antibody incubation, analysis
proceeded as above.
PKC Kinase Assay
Cells were pretreated with DMSO or bisindolylmaleimide (1 µM) for 20 min, lysed in buffer containing 0.05% Triton-X 100, and the in vitro activity of PKC was determined on crude lysates using the PKC assay system (SignaTECT; Promega Corp.), according to manufacturer's directions. In brief, a single purification step over a DEAE cellulose column was used to generate a crude PKC-containing fraction. Background activity (nonspecific) was determined in the absence of phosphatidylserine and diacylglycerol, and compared with PKC activity determined in the presence of phosphatidylserine and diacylglycerol.
MAPK Activity
Cells expressing R-Ras(87L), R-Ras(38V), TC21(72L), K-Ras(12V),
N-Ras(12D), or control vectors were cultured overnight either in the presence or absence of serum, treated for 20 min with DMSO (control) or
PD98059 (25 µM), and lysed. Lysates were electrophoresed, immunoblotted with anti-p42/44 ERK antibody (Santa Cruz Biotech), and the activation of MAPK was determined by gel-shift (Cox et al., 1994). Determination of the mean image density was made using NIH image software.
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Results |
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R-Ras or TC21 (R-Ras2) Expression Affects the Differentiation of Mammary Epithelial Cells in Three-dimensional Collagen Gel Culture
Well differentiated human breast carcinoma T47D cells
maintain the ability to polarize into tubule and ductlike
structures when cultured in three-dimensional collagen
gels (Keely et al., 1995). This differentiation is dependent
on the
2
1 integrin (Keely et al., 1995
; Zutter et al.,
1995
). One of the characteristics of T47D differentiation
into tubules is the multicellular nature of the structure,
such that individual cell-cell boundaries become more difficult to distinguish, as can be noted in Fig. 1 A. Stable expression of activated R-Ras(87L) in T47D cells disrupted
the ability of these cells to differentiate and polarize in collagen gel culture, instead the cells grew as disorganized
clumps and sheets of individual, nonpolarized cells (Fig. 1
B). Similar results were obtained with cells stably expressing another activated R-Ras isoform, R-Ras(38V) (not
shown). Thus, activation of R-Ras results in a less differentiated, more transformed phenotype. In contrast, stable
expression of dominant negative R-Ras(43N) enhanced
differentiation; tubule structures developed earlier and
were more extensive (Fig. 1 D). This suggests that endogenous R-Ras may play a negative role in regulating the rate
or extent of normal epithelial differentiation. Like R-Ras,
expression of constitutively active TC21(72L) disrupted differentiation in collagen gels (Fig. 1 C), whereas expression of dominant negative TC21(26A) enhanced differentiation in a qualitative manner (Fig. 1 E). This suggested
that TC21, like R-Ras, is a negative regulator of breast cell
differentiation.
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R-Ras and TC21 Stimulate Migration and Invasion Specifically across Collagen
Breast carcinoma progression is accompanied by the loss of polarization and differentiation, and the acquisition of a migratory invasive phenotype. Migration was determined using a Boyden chamber haptotactic assay in which transwells were coated on the underside with collagen. Expression of activated R-Ras isoforms, R-Ras(87L) or R-Ras(38V), significantly enhanced cell migration relative to control cells (Fig. 2 a), indicating that R-Ras activation promotes a more migratory phenotype. Dominant negative R-Ras(41A) inhibited migration by ~45-50% (Fig. 2 a), suggesting a contribution of R-Ras to basal migratory mechanisms. Activated TC21(72L) also enhanced cell migration, albeit to a somewhat lesser extent than R-Ras (Fig. 2 a). Expression of activated isoforms of other Ras family members, N-Ras(12D) and K-Ras(12V), also enhanced cell migration across collagen, but to a lesser extent than R-Ras (Fig. 2 a).
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The migration induced by R-Ras(87L) across collagen-coated filters was dependent on the 2
1 integrin, since it
could be completely inhibited by anti-
2
1 blocking antibodies (Fig. 2 b). Similarly, TC21(72L)-induced cell migration was also
2
1 integrin-dependent (Fig. 2 b). These results are consistent with the finding that the
2
1 integrin
is a major collagen receptor in breast epithelial cells that
mediates many of their responses to collagenous matrices (Keely et al., 1995
; Zutter et al., 1995
).
To examine whether the effect of R-Ras was specific for collagen, cell migration across fibronectin was determined. Surprisingly, expression of R-Ras(87L) or R-Ras(38V) did not enhance and, in fact, partially inhibited migration across fibronectin by ~40% (Fig. 2 c). R-Ras(87L) did not enhance or inhibit migration of cells across laminin (not shown). Similar results were obtained for TC21(72L), which also inhibited migration across fibronectin by 25%, although this difference was not statistically significant (Fig. 2 c). The difference between migration across collagen and fibronectin is not due to dramatically different levels of migration, since similar numbers of control cells migrate across each substratum, as shown by a representative experiment in Table I. In contrast to the results with R-Ras and TC21, expression of either N-Ras(12D) or K-Ras(12V) enhanced migration across fibronectin (Fig. 2 c). Thus, R-Ras and TC21 differ from N- and K-Ras in the specificity of substrata on which they enhance cell migration.
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To metastasize, cells must not only migrate but must also invade through extracellular matrices. Therefore, we examined the ability of transfected cells to invade through a 2-mm-thick collagen gel in response to a serum gradient. Consistent with their more migratory phenotype, cells expressing activated R-Ras(87L) or R-Ras(38V) were significantly more invasive through collagen than control cells (Fig. 3). Similarly, activated TC21(72L), N-Ras(12D), and K-Ras(12V) induced cell invasion (Fig. 3). Because basal invasion levels of T47D cells are already so low, we did not further investigate the effect of dominant negative R-Ras or TC21 on invasion. Therefore, we find that expression of activated R-Ras or TC21 converts cells from a polarized, differentiated phenotype into a migratory and invasive phenotype.
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R-Ras Specifically Affects the 2 Integrin
Cytoplasmic Domain
Next, we examined the effect of R-Ras on adhesion of
cells to collagen and fibronectin since R-Ras activation
specifically enhanced cell migration across collagen, but
decreased migration across fibronectin. This was of particular interest since it has been shown that expression of activated R-Ras(38V) increases the adhesion of myeloid
cells to fibronectin and vitronectin through activation of
integrin subunits (Zhang et al., 1996). Similar to these results, we found that expression of activated R-Ras(87L) enhanced adhesion to collagen by a modest but consistent
amount (Fig. 4 a), demonstrating an effect of R-Ras activation on the avidity of cells for collagen. Dominant negative R-Ras(41A) decreased adhesion to collagen (Fig. 4 a)
by a similar amount, demonstrating a contribution of endogenous R-Ras to cell adhesion. The other dominant
negative isoform of R-Ras, R-Ras(43N), did not affect cell
adhesion (not shown). Expression of TC21 isoforms had
no consistent or significant effect on adhesion of cells to
collagen (not shown). In contrast to the effect on cell adhesion to collagen, expression of R-Ras(87L) or R-Ras-
(41A) did not affect cell adhesion to fibronectin (Fig. 4 b).
This is in contrast to the results of Zhang et al. (1996)
who
found increased adhesion of myeloid cells to fibronectin
substrata. This suggests that there are cell-type specific differences in the effects of R-Ras on different integrin subunits.
|
To determine whether changes in cell migration and adhesion could be explained by altered expression of endogenous integrin subunits, integrin subunit expression was
examined by flow cytometry. Cells expressing activated
R-Ras(87L) or dominant negative R-Ras(41A) or R-Ras(43N) showed no change in the expression of integrin subunits
1,
2,
3,
5, or
6 (not shown). Additionally, there
were no changes noted in expression of
4 (not shown), an
integrin subunit not normally expressed in these cells.
Therefore, R-Ras-induced changes in cell migration and
adhesion are not due to changes in integrin subunit expression.
To examine if an apparent change in integrin avidity was
reflected in a detectable change in integrin conformation,
we used a conformationally sensitive anti-1 integrin antibody, 12G10. The 12G10 epitope is known to be expressed
on integrins that are activated by manganese. We found no
increase in 12G10 binding, as determined by flow cytometry, in cells expressing R-Ras(87L) compared with control
cells (not shown). This result suggests that changes in apparent integrin avidity because of R-Ras activation either
do not correlate to conformational changes, or that R-Ras changes integrin conformation in a manner not detected
by this antibody.
The R-Ras-enhanced migration and adhesion of cells to
collagen via 2
1, but not fibronectin via
5
1, suggests
that, in these cells, R-Ras affects specific integrin subunits.
Since the
subunits are identical, we speculated that
R-Ras specifically signals to the
2 cytoplasmic domain.
To test this hypothesis, the effects of R-Ras on a chimeric
integrin containing the
2 cytoplasmic domain were compared with its effects on a similar chimera containing the
5 cytoplasmic domain. Chimeric integrins with the extracellular domain of the
4 subunit and the cytoplasmic domain of either the
2 subunit (X4C2) or the
5 subunit
(X4C5) were transfected into control and R-Ras(87L)-
expressing cells. Some cells were instead transfected with
the complete
4 subunit (X4C4). We selected
4 integrin
chimeras since T47D cells normally do not express the
4
subunit (Fig. 5 A, mock profile) which allowed us to monitor the expression of the chimeras in our control and R-Ras-transfected cells. Each of the
4 chimeras was expressed at similar levels on the surface of control and
R-Ras-expressing cells (Fig. 5, A-F). Since individual integrin
subunits are not expressed on the cell surface, this
indicates that
4
1 heterodimers were formed. Importantly, expression of
4 chimeras did not affect the expression of endogenous
2 (Fig. 5, G and H) or
5 subunits (not shown).
|
The ligand for the 4
1 integrin is the CS-1 sequence
found in the COOH-terminal 40-kD heparin-binding fragment of fibronectin (McCarthy et al., 1986
; Humphries et
al., 1987
). This 40-kD fragment does not contain the RGD
sequence that is the ligand for the
5
1 integrin in fibronectin. Therefore, to specifically assess the effects of
R-Ras expression on the X4 chimeras, cell migration across membranes coated with either the CS-1 peptide or
the 40-kD fragment was determined, since untransfected
T47D cells do not migrate across these substrata (not
shown). We found that expression of the X4 chimeras in
T47D cells conferred the ability to migrate on the 40-kD
fragment and the CS-1 peptide (Fig. 6 a). Interestingly, R-Ras(87L) enhanced migration of cells expressing X4C2
and decreased migration of cells expressing X4C5 (Fig. 6
a). This is consistent with our finding that R-Ras enhances
migration across collagen and decreases migration across
fibronectin (Fig. 2). R-Ras(87L) also enhanced migration
of X4C4-expressing cells, suggesting that R-Ras not only
signals to the
2, but also the
4 cytoplasmic domains in
breast epithelial cells (Fig. 6 a). Cells expressing an
4 chimera containing no
cytoplasmic domain, X4C0, were unable to migrate across the 40-kD and CS-1 substrata (not
shown), indicating the importance of an intact
cytoplasmic domain for cell migration. These results suggest that
R-Ras activation enhances
2
1 integrin function and diminishes
5
1 integrin function, at least with regard to cell
migration.
|
We also determined whether cells expressing 4 chimeras had altered migration across collagen. Since the
4 chimeras do not bind collagen, any effect will be due to pleiotropic effects on endogenous integrin subunits. Expression
of X4C2, but not X4C4 or X4C0, blocked the increase in
migration of cells across collagen that is induced by activated R-Ras(87L) (Fig. 6 b), suggesting that there is some
form of competition between the X4C2 subunit and the
endogenous
2 subunit. Thus, the effects of R-Ras on endogenous
2 subunits can be antagonized specifically by
de novo expression of
2 cytoplasmic domains. Such dominant negative effects of integrin cytoplasmic domains
have been noted previously with expression of exogenous
cytoplasmic domains (Y.P. Chen et al., 1994
; LaFlamme et
al., 1994
; Lukashev et al., 1994
). However, this is the first demonstration of transdominant inhibition by a specific
integrin subunit. This suggests that there may be competition for a limited supply of
cytoplasmic domain binding
factors. Conversely, X4C5 expression slightly enhanced the
R-Ras(87L)-induced migration across collagen (Fig. 6 b),
although this enhancement is not statistically significant when
compared to the results obtained with cells expressing X4C4 or X4C0. These results provide additional evidence
that R-Ras signaling involves specific integrin subunits.
PI3K and PKC Contribute to R-Ras- and TC21-induced Cell Migration
We previously found that migration induced by the small
GTPases, Rac and Cdc42, was dependent on PI3K (Keely
et al., 1997). Like Rac and Cdc42, R-Ras also has been
shown to activate PI3K (Marte et al., 1996
). Therefore, we
determined whether pharmacological inhibitors of PI3K,
Wortmannin, and LY294002, could inhibit the migration
induced by R-Ras. Wortmannin (30 nM) and LY294002
(25 µM) significantly inhibited the migration induced by
activated R-Ras(87L) or R-Ras(38V) (Fig. 7 a). However,
unlike the total inhibition previously noted with Rac and
Cdc42-expressing cells (Keely et al., 1997
), the effect of
PI3K inhibition on R-Ras-induced migration was only
partial; migration was inhibited only by ~50%. Wortmannin and LY294002 also only partially inhibited the migration induced by activated TC21(72L) (Fig. 7 a). Thus,
PI3K activity contributes to R-Ras-induced cell migration,
but other signaling pathways are probably also involved.
|
PKC has been implicated in the migration of some cell
types (Vuori and Ruoslahti, 1993; Derman et al., 1997
;
Batlle et al., 1998
). Pretreatment of cells with 1 µM bisindolylmalemide, an inhibitor of most isoforms of PKC,
significantly inhibited the migration of R-Ras(87L) or
R-Ras(38V)-expressing cells (Fig. 7 b). Once again, inhibiting PKC produced only partial inhibition of R-Ras-
induced cell migration. Bisindolylmalemide also partially inhibited the migration of cells expressing TC21(72L) and
K-Ras(12V), albeit to an even lesser extent than the effect
on R-Ras cells (not shown). The concentration of bisindolylmalemide used was adequate, since pretreatment of
cells with this concentration inhibited PKC activity to
background levels in an in vitro PKC kinase assay (data
not shown). Since certain isoforms of PKC (
,
, and
)
can be activated downstream of PI3K (Toker et al., 1994
; Derman et al., 1997
), we wished to determine if PKC and
PI3K might be part of the same signaling pathway leading
to cell migration, or separate pathways that both contribute to migration. Treatment of cells with Wortmannin and
bisindolylmalemide had an additive effect and completely
inhibited the increased migration induced by R-Ras expression (Fig. 7 b), suggesting that PI3K and PKC each contribute to R-Ras-induced cell migration through separate pathways.
Other pharmacological inhibitors of signaling pathways
potentially downstream of R-Ras were also tested. The
MEK inhibitor, PD98059 (Dudley et al., 1995), had no effect on migration induced by activated R-Ras or TC21
(Fig. 7 c), despite inhibiting MAPK activation 50-60% in
cells expressing R-Ras(38V), R-Ras(87L), or TC21(72L)
(data not shown). In sharp contrast, PD98059 significantly inhibited K-Ras-induced cell migration (Fig. 7 c), demonstrating important differences in the mechanism by which
R-Ras and K-Ras induce migration. Rapamycin, an inhibitor of p70 S6 kinase, also did not inhibit cell migration (not
shown), which is consistent with previous results with Rac
and Cdc42 (Keely et al., 1997
).
![]() |
Discussion |
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![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
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In this study, we show that activated R-Ras disrupts mammary epithelial polarization in three-dimensional collagen
gels and induces migration and invasion across collagenous matrices. These results implicate a role for R-Ras in
the transformation of mammary epithelial cells, a role that
has not been described previously. We find similar results
for a molecule closely related to R-Ras, TC21, which extends previous results by Clark et al. (1996) demonstrating that TC21 can alter breast epithelial morphology. We also
find that R-Ras enhances cell adhesion to collagen, which
is consistent with its previously described role in promoting increased integrin avidity (Zhang et al., 1996
). Importantly, R-Ras enhances cell migration and adhesion specifically on collagen, but not fibronectin. This substratum
specificity reflects a difference in the effect of R-Ras on
the
2 versus the
5 integrin cytoplasmic domains. Such
specificity has not been described previously for the effects of R-Ras on integrin subunits, and could have important implications for inside-out integrin signaling events
that lead to migration and invasion on collagenous matrices. Finally, migration induced by R-Ras is partially
blocked by inhibitors of PI3K and PKC, but not by a MEK
inhibitor, suggesting that unique combinations of signaling
pathways are activated by R-Ras compared with other members of the Ras superfamily.
Currently, it is not understood how different integrin
subunits specifically link to different inside-out or outside-in signaling pathways. Here, we demonstrate that R-Ras
can stimulate cellular migration that is dependent on the
2
1 or
4
1 integrin, but not the
5
1 integrin. In fact,
R-Ras activation seems to have a slight inhibitory effect
on
5
1-mediated cell migration. The effect of R-Ras is
specifically on the
cytoplasmic domain since only this
domain differs between the X4C2 and X4C5 chimeras.
Our results are consistent with other observations that
subunits appear to regulate the specificity and appropriateness of integrin response. For example, swapping integrin
cytoplasmic domains on the
2 integrin changes the
response of cells to collagen (Chan et al., 1992
), whereas
deletion of the
2 cytoplasmic domain causes unregulated
recruitment of integrins into focal complexes, even when
the cells are attached to fibronectin (Kawaguchi et al., 1994
). Here we are able to link a specific signaling pathway involving R-Ras to the
2
1 integrin, which may help
explain these previous observations regarding specific
2
subunit effects. Activation of MAPK by integrins also depends on specific integrin subunits (Wary et al., 1996
; Wei
et al., 1998
). Specifically,
5
1 integrin, but not
2
1 integrin, associates with Shc and activates the MAPK pathway
in osteosarcoma cells (Wary et al., 1996
). The failure of
2
1 to couple to the MAPK pathway may partially explain why R-Ras-induced migration through
2
1 was unaffected by MEK inhibition. Our results imply that cell migration will differ on different matrices, depending in part
on the signaling pathway that has been activated.
Our finding that R-Ras enhances cell adhesion to collagen suggests that R-Ras enhances 2
1 integrin avidity
for its ligand. An increase in integrin avidity is consistent
with the findings of Zhang et al. (1996)
. However, we find
that R-Ras enhances
2
1- but not
5
1-mediated adhesion, whereas Zhang et al. noted that R-Ras enhances adhesion to fibronectin through
4
1,
5
1, and
v
3 integrins (Zhang et al., 1996
). This difference could relate to
the difference between the myeloid cells used in those
studies and the epithelial cells used here. The R-Ras-
induced increase in avidity determined by cell adhesion
could not be correlated to conformational changes of the
integrin as detected by the 12G10 anti-
1 antibody. Other
investigators have also noted a lack of correlation between
ligand binding capability and
1 conformation as detected
by various conformationally sensitive antibodies (Bazzoni and Hemler, 1998
; Crommie and Hemler, 1998
). Our result could mean that R-Ras alters integrin conformation in
a manner not detected by this antibody. Alternatively,
changes in integrin avidity after R-Ras activation may not
be due to obvious conformational changes but to alterations in integrin clustering, adhesion strengthening, or cytoskeletal attachments.
It is not clear at this point how R-Ras stimulation differentiates between the 2 and
5 integrin subunits. An attractive model invokes proteins or factors that bind specifically to either the
2 or
5 integrin subunits. Stimulation
of R-Ras may alter the binding properties of such molecules, perhaps through phosphorylation/dephosphorylation events or membrane targeting. These molecules could
bind to specific integrin subunits and activate their ligand
binding properties, or could alter integrin association with
the cytoskeleton. Alternatively, these factors could be inhibitory, such that R-Ras activation releases the integrin
subunit from inhibition by these factors. Our finding that
the X4C2 chimera blocks the R-Ras-induced migration of
cells on collagen, which is not a ligand for X4C2, suggests that X4C2 acts as a dominant negative molecule in this
case, presumably through competition for these putative
integrin binding molecules. Such transdominant inhibition
has been suggested to explain how one integrin
subunit
can inhibit the function of another (Balzac et al., 1994
;
Diaz-Gonzalez et al., 1996
; Fenczik et al., 1997
) or how
chimeras expressing the cytoplasmic tail of the
subunit suppress integrin function (Y.P. Chen et al., 1994
; LaFlamme
et al., 1994
; Lukashev et al., 1994
). Interestingly, transdominant
1 integrin suppression can be overcome by expression of CD98 (Fenczik et al., 1997
), lending support to
the notion that accessory binding molecules regulate integrin function. To our knowledge, ours is the first demonstration of transdominant inhibition on
integrin subunits
and implies that factors bind not only to the
, but also the
cytoplasmic domains. Future studies should identify factors specific for the
2 cytoplasmic domain that may play a
role in R-Ras-enhanced integrin adhesion and migration.
The fact that R-Ras specifically enhances 2
1 integrin-
mediated migration and disrupts tubulogenesis is interesting in light of previous work specifically implicating the
2
1 integrin in these events in mammary epithelial cells
(Keely et al., 1995
; Zutter et al., 1995
). Thus affecting
2
1 function, either through changes in expression levels
or by inside-out signaling events, has important consequences for the phenotype of these cells. It is intriguing
that apparent increased function of the
2
1 integrin by
R-Ras results in the same outcome of increased migration
and decreased cell polarization that is noted when
2
1
levels are decreased (Keely et al., 1995
). This could indicate that R-Ras activation fundamentally changes the signaling pathways used by the
2
1 integrin, disrupting the
normal signaling events that cause the cell to differentiate
and polarize in response to the extracellular matrix.
These same normal signaling events could be disrupted or
diminished when
2
1 levels are decreased, as is noted in
breast carcinomas (Zutter et al., 1990
). It will be interesting in future studies to determine exactly how cross-talk between the
2
1 integrin and R-Ras affects cellular differentiation, migration, and invasion.
We find a new role for endogenous R-Ras and TC21 in the differentiation and migration of breast epithelial cells. Dominant negative R-Ras inhibits basal cell migration, suggesting that endogenous R-Ras plays a role in the migration of breast epithelial cells. Additionally, we find that inhibitors of PI3K and PKC partially inhibit basal migration, consistent with our model that these molecules are part of the mechanism by which R-Ras contributes to cell migration, whether basal or induced. This further suggests that the signaling pathways under investigation here are likely relevant to understanding the migration of spontaneously occurring breast carcinomas. Dominant negative isoforms of R-Ras or TC21 also enhance tubulogenesis in three-dimensional collagen culture, indicating that antagonizing activated R-Ras or TC21 promotes differentiation. This suggests that activated R-Ras and TC21 are negative regulators of breast cell differentiation, consistent with the finding that expression of activated R-Ras or TC21 isoforms disrupt tubulogenesis. These results could suggest that activation of R-Ras and TC21 turns on signaling pathways that are incompatible with the decision of a cell to slow proliferation and differentiate. Thus, inappropriate activation of R-Ras or TC21 could result in a cell with a more migratory and less differentiated phenotype, which is consistent with a role in transformation.
Our results add to the growing body of evidence pointing to an important role for PI3K in cellular migration
events (Kundra et al., 1994; Keely et al., 1997
; Shaw et al.,
1997
; Khwaja et al., 1998
). The effect of R-Ras on PI3K
possibly is direct since it has been shown that R-Ras binds
to PI3K in vitro and activates PI3K in Cos-7 cells (Marte
et al., 1996
). Since R-Ras has direct effects on integrin
avidity, it is interesting that a role for PI3K in affecting integrin activation has been shown in lymphocytes (Shimizu
et al., 1995
) and platelets (Kovacsovics et al., 1995
). Other
Ras superfamily members, including H-Ras, Cdc42, and
Rac, also bind and activate PI3K (Rodriguez-Viciana et
al., 1994
; Zheng et al., 1994
; Tolias et al., 1995
), which in
the case of H-Ras plays an important role in cellular transformation (Hu et al., 1995
; Rodriguez-Viciana et al., 1997
).
We previously found a role for PI3K in migration induced
by Rac and Cdc42 (Keely et al., 1997
) as well as by N- and
K-Ras (Keely, P., unpublished observation). Consistent
with these observations, expression of activated PI3K promotes migration and invasion (Keely et al., 1997
; Shaw et
al., 1997
).
Although R-Ras is similar to Ras, Rac, and Cdc42 in its
use of a PI3K signaling pathway, it differs in its use of
other signaling pathways. Migration induced by R-Ras
or TC21 was only partially blocked by PI3K inhibitors;
this effect was much less dramatic than for migration induced by Rac and Cdc42, which could be completely blocked by the same concentrations of these PI3K inhibitors (Keely et al., 1997). This suggests that PI3K-independent signaling pathways also contribute to R-Ras-
stimulated migration in these cells. Although MEK and
MAPK activation have been implicated in cell migration
in various cells (Klemke et al., 1997
), we found that MEK
inhibition did not affect migration induced by R-Ras or
TC21. In contrast, MEK inhibition completely abolished
migration induced by K- and N-Ras. These results are consistent with observations that R-Ras activates PI3K but
not Raf (Herrmann et al., 1996
; Marte et al., 1996
; Huff et
al., 1997
), unlike H-, N-, and K-Ras, which activate both
PI3K and the Raf-MAPK pathway (Vojtek et al., 1993
;
Rodriguez-Viciana et al., 1997
). Since a recent report suggests that the Raf-MAPK pathway might be involved in
transformation by TC21 (Rosario et al., 1999
), our results
suggest that the mechanisms by which TC21 induces migration and transformation differ. Moreover, it appears
that different small GTPases stimulate cell migration by
activating different combinations of downstream signaling
pathways. The use of different signaling pathways may explain why R-Ras differs from N- and K-Ras in stimulating
migration across fibronectin.
We find a role for PKC, in addition to PI3K, in migration induced by R-Ras. Although certain isoforms of PKC
(,
, and
) can be activated downstream of PI3K and
contribute to cell migration (Toker et al., 1994
; Derman
et al., 1997
), the additive effect of PI3K and PKC inhibitors in our assays suggests that PKC is on a separate pathway from PI3K in these cells. Whether PKC is downstream of R-Ras, or part of an independent obligate
pathway remains to be determined. To this end, we did not
observe an increase in in vitro PKC activity in cells expressing R-Ras in preliminary experiments (our unpublished observation), although translocation of PKC to the
membrane and subsequent activation in R-Ras-expressing cells cannot be ruled out. Dominant negative R-Ras was
unable to block cell migration induced by PMA (our unpublished results), suggesting PKC is not upstream of
R-Ras in our system. In addition to R-Ras, we find a role
for PKC in migration induced by K-Ras. Others also have
noted synergy between PKC and small GTPases. The Rac
exchange factor, Tiam-1, can be activated by PKC (Fleming et al., 1997
), which would place PKC upstream of Rac
activation. Similarly, PKC is upstream of Ras activation in
platelets (Shock et al., 1997
). Additionally, PKC activation
synergizes with Rho to induce focal adhesion kinase phosphorylation, cell spreading, and actin assembly (Lewis et
al., 1996
; Defilippi et al., 1997
). Interestingly, activation of
the
2
1 integrin in monocytes by ligand binding to
5
1
requires PKC (Pacifici et al., 1994
), which would be consistent with a model in which PKC is part of the pathway by
which R-Ras enhances avidity of the
2
1 integrin. Moreover, PKC activation is involved in activation of the
IIb
3 integrin by a number of agonists in platelets
(Karniguian et al., 1990
). Our results are also consistent
with other observations that PKC activity contributes to
cell migration (Vuori and Ruoslahti, 1993
; Derman et al.,
1997
; Batlle et al., 1998
).
In summary, we find that activation of R-Ras stimulates
unique combinations of downstream signaling pathways
compared with other GTPases of the Ras superfamily.
These unique signaling combinations lead to specific effects on certain integrin subunits to alter cellular responses to collagen such as polarization, migration, and
invasion. Such specificity will decide how a cell might respond to different extracellular environments, depending
on which Ras family member is activated, and could ultimately determine if a given carcinoma is metastatic or not.
These differences have important implications for targeting signaling pathways in antimetastatic therapies since affecting certain signaling pathways may not have the desired effects on all neoplastic cells.
![]() |
Footnotes |
---|
Address correspondence to Patricia Keely, Department of Pharmacology, 1106 ME Jones Building, CB 7365, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599. Tel.: (919) 962-1058. Fax: (919) 966-5640. E-mail: pkeely @
Received for publication 29 October 1998 and in revised form 26 February 1999.
The authors wish to thank Dr. Martin Hemler for contributing the X4 integrin chimeras, Dr. Geoffrey Clark (National Cancer Institute) for helpful discussion and MCF10 cell lines, and Dr. Shayne Huff (University of North Carolina) for helpful discussion.
This work was supported by grants from the Elsa U. Pardee Foundation and the National Institutes of Health grants 2-P01-HL45100-06 and 1-R01HL58919-01 (to L.V. Parise), 1-R29-CA76537-01 (to P.J. Keely), and CA61951, CA67771, and CA76092 (to A.D. Cox).
![]() |
Abbreviations used in this paper |
---|
MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; MEK, MAPK kinase; PI3K, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; PI4K, phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase; PKC, protein kinase C.
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