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Correspondence to Pietro De Camilli: pietro.decamilli{at}yale.edu
Abstract
Talin, an adaptor between integrin and the actin cytoskeleton at sites of cell adhesion, was recently found to be present at neuronal synapses, where its function remains unknown. Talin interacts with phosphatidylinositol-(4)-phosphate 5-kinase type I, the major phosphatidylinositol-(4,5)-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2]synthesizing enzyme in brain. To gain insight into the synaptic role of talin, we microinjected into the large lamprey axons reagents that compete the talinPIP kinase interaction and then examined their effects on synaptic structure. A dramatic decrease of synaptic actin and an impairment of clathrin-mediated synaptic vesicle endocytosis were observed. The endocytic defect included an accumulation of clathrin-coated pits with wide necks, as previously observed after perturbing actin at these synapses. Thus, the interaction of PIP kinase with talin in presynaptic compartments provides a mechanism to coordinate PI(4,5)P2 synthesis, actin dynamics, and endocytosis, and further supports a functional link between actin and clathrin-mediated endocytosis.
Introduction
In order for neurotransmitter release to continue reliably, neurotransmitter-containing synaptic vesicles must be rapidly and locally recycled. One predominant mechanism for their recycling involves clathrin-mediated endocytosis, a process that occurs at the periphery of active zones of secretion within an actin-rich region called the "periactive," or endocytic, zone (Roos and Kelly, 1999; Teng and Wilkinson, 2000). Clathrin-mediated synaptic vesicle recycling requires intrinsic coat proteins and accessory factors, including actin regulatory proteins, as well as the interactions of these proteins with phosphatidylinositol-(4,5)-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2], a phosphoinositide concentrated in the plasma membrane (Slepnev and De Camilli, 2000; Morgan et al., 2002).
Because PI(4,5)P2 participates in both clathrin coat and actin nucleation, it is important to identify how the presynaptic pool of PI(4,5)P2 is generated and maintained (Wenk and De Camilli, 2004). Two enzymes concentrated at synapses, phosphatidylinositol-(4)-phosphate 5-kinase type I (PIPKI
) and the polyphosphoinositide phosphatase synaptojanin, synthesize and degrade, respectively, a large fraction of the presynaptic pool of PI(4,5)P2 (McPherson et al., 1996; Cremona et al., 1999; Gad et al., 2000; Harris et al., 2000; Wenk et al., 2001; Verstreken et al., 2003; Di Paolo et al., 2004). Membrane recruitment and enzymatic activity of PIPKI
are regulated by interactions with its membrane-localized binding partners, Rho family and Arf6 GTPases (Honda et al., 1999; Krauss et al., 2003). In addition, the predominant splice variants of PIPKI
expressed in brain contain a unique 28-aa COOH-terminal extension that interacts with the focal adhesion protein talin (Di Paolo et al., 2002; Ling et al., 2002; Giudici et al., 2004). Although talin is present together with PIPKI
at synapses, its function either pre- or post-synaptically is unknown. The interaction of talin with PIPKI
is likely to be very important because it greatly up-regulates the catalytic activity of PIPKI
in vitro (Di Paolo et al., 2002).
Talin is an adaptor between integrins and actin that mediates bi-directional integrin signaling at cell adhesion sites (Calderwood et al., 1999; Critchley et al., 1999; Calderwood and Ginsberg, 2003). The two highly homologous talin isoforms (talin 1 and 2) comprise a 47-kD NH2-terminal globular head and a 190-kD COOH-terminal rodlike tail. The tail has multiple binding sites for actin and vinculin, and the head contains a band 4.1/ezrin/radixin/moesin-like (FERM) domain that binds ß-integrins, actin, and PI(4,5)P2 (Calderwood et al., 1999; Di Paolo et al., 2002; Ling et al., 2002). The FERM domain also contains the PIPKI binding site, which overlaps with the integrin binding site. These two interactions are mutually exclusive and competitive (Barsukov et al., 2003; Calderwood et al., 2004). Thus, a dynamic cycle has been proposed in which talin first recruits PIPKI
to the membrane to generate PI(4,5)P2, and then upon binding PI(4,5)P2, shifts to integrin (Barsukov et al., 2003; Ling et al., 2003; Calderwood et al., 2004). Because talin exists as an antiparallel homodimer, another possibility is that the dimer simultaneously binds both PIPKI
and integrin. Perturbation of these interactions in fibroblasts disrupts actin and causes cell detachment (Di Paolo et al., 2002; Ling et al., 2002).
At synapses, talin may participate in the recruitment of PIPKI to the membrane in order to generate the PI(4,5)P2 pool involved in clathrin coat and actin dynamics during vesicle recycling (Di Paolo et al., 2004). The lamprey reticulospinal synapses provide a tractable model to examine this question because of the prominence of the actin surrounding the large vesicle clusters (Gad et al., 2000; Shupliakov et al., 2002; Bloom et al., 2003). Here, we capitalize on the unique features of these synapses to demonstrate that perturbing talin function and, more specifically, perturbing its interactions at the PIP kinase binding site, drastically affects both actin dynamics and synaptic vesicle endocytosis. These results demonstrate that talin functions presynaptically within a protein network that links phosphoinositide metabolism to actin and clathrin coat dynamics.
Results and discussion
The talin interaction with a PIP kinase is conserved in lamprey
In Western blots of rat brain protein extracts, talin immunoreactivity migrates as a 230-kD band (Fig. 1 A) and a 190-kD proteolytic fragment lacking the head domain (Bolton et al., 1997; Fig. 1 A). Affinity chromatography using a GST fusion protein of the 28-aa COOH-terminal tail of human PIPKI (GST-PIPKI
tail) resulted in the purification of the upper talin band, as expected (Fig. 1 A; Di Paolo et al., 2002). The proteolytic fragment, which lacks the PIPKI
binding site, remained in the supernatant. Talin was the only major band retained by GST-PIPKI
tail, as shown by Coomassie blue staining of the affinity-purified material (Fig. 1 B). Similarly, anti-talin antibodies recognized two proteins in lamprey spinal cord extracts of the appropriate size for talin and its proteolytic fragment (Fig. 1 C), and the larger protein, which corresponded to a major band visible by Coomassie blue (Fig. 1 D), was pulled down by GST-PIPKI
tail. Western blots of lamprey extracts with an anti-PIPKI
antibody raised against the 28-aa COOH-terminal tail revealed a 90-kD protein doublet that was affinity purified by a GST fusion protein of human talin head (GST-talin head; Fig. 1 E). Immunoprecipitates generated by this PIPKI
antibody from lamprey extracts contained a much higher PIP2-synthesizing activity than did the control, as demonstrated by TLC separation of 32P-labeled phosphoinositides generated by in vitro incubation with brain lipids and
-[32P] ATP (Fig. 1 F). Further, using anti-talin antibodies, PIPKI
was coimmunoprecipitated from both rat brain (Fig. 1 G, middle lane) and lamprey extracts (Fig. 1 H, left lane) (Di Paolo et al., 2002). Thus, lamprey contains a PIP kinase that interacts with talin. Immunostaining of lamprey spinal cord cross sections demonstrated that talin is concentrated at synapses, including those of the large reticulospinal axons, as shown by its colocalization with the synaptic protein synapsin (Fig. 1 I) (De Camilli et al., 1983; Pieribone et al., 1995).
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PIPK peptide perturbs clathrin-mediated endocytosis
Next, we examined the effect of PIPK peptide on synaptic vesicle trafficking using EM. Axons were microinjected with either PIPK or mutant peptide, stimulated (20 Hz for 5 min) to induce exocytosis and compensatory synaptic vesicle recycling, and then fixed (Pieribone et al., 1995). Electron micrographs of synapses within mutant PIPK peptideinjected axons revealed the typical large synaptic vesicle clusters and very few clathrin-coated pits (Fig. 4 A). Under these stimulation conditions, synaptic vesicle recycling is very efficient in control synapses. In contrast, images of synapses from PIPK peptideinjected axons revealed numerous clathrin-coated pits and large folds of the plasma membrane at periactive zones that often extended toward the postsynaptic cell (Fig. 4, B and C). In addition, the average number of synaptic vesicles per synapse in PIPK peptideinjected axons was 33% smaller than in mutant PIPK peptideinjected control axons, indicating that synaptic vesicle recycling was perturbed (Fig. 4 D; P < 0.05; t test). A measurement of the plasma membrane cross-sectional profile within a 1-µm radial distance from the outer edge of the active zone revealed a twofold increase in length relative to mutant PIPK pep, denoting a striking expansion of the plasma membrane (Fig. 4 E; P < 0.05 x 106; t test). Further, the total number of clathrin-coated profiles per synapse dramatically increased 10-fold in the presence of PIPK pep (Fig. 4 F; P < 0.05 x 108; t test). When the coated profiles were staged according to state of maturation, the greatest increase was observed in unconstricted coated pits (Fig. 4 G).
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Strikingly, the majority of clathrin-coated pits observed at PIPK peptidetreated synapses have a wide neck, reflecting a defect at an early stage of endocytosis. A similar accumulation of unconstricted clathrin-coated pits was observed at these synapses after treatment with actin-disrupting toxins (Shupliakov et al., 2002). Thus, our experiments seem to have perturbed regulatory mechanisms at the interface between endocytosis and actin (Qualmann and Kessels, 2002; Engqvist-Goldstein and Drubin, 2003). We note that dynamin, a GTPase critically implicated in the fission of endocytic vesicles, is thought to function as an actin regulatory protein (Lee and De Camilli, 2002; Schafer, 2004). Dynamin's recruitment to endocytic intermediates and its activity are regulated in part by its interaction with PI(4,5)P2 (Schmid et al., 1998). Talin may affect a PI(4,5)P2 pool specifically involved in an actin-dependent maturation of endocytic intermediates.
A conclusion of our work is that talin participates in the biology of periactive zones of synapses by regulating actin and clathrin coat dynamics. Although it cannot be completely excluded that some of the PIPK peptide effects may result from perturbing interactors other than talin, in vitro binding experiments have shown that talin is by far the major binding partner of PIPKI (Fig. 1 C; Di Paolo et al., 2002). Furthermore, the fact that talin head produces a phenotype on vesicle trafficking similar to that of the PIPK peptide supports the hypothesis that PIPKI
acts primarily by disrupting talin function. The prominent effects of the PIPK peptide on both actin and clathrin-mediated endocytosis in our work provides further evidence for a close functional link between these processes (Merrifield et al., 2002; Shupliakov et al., 2002; Kaksonen et al., 2003). Accordingly, a number of possible molecular links between actin and clathrin-mediated endocytosis, which include Hip/Hip1R, dynamin, intersectin, PACSIN/syndapin, tuba, and cortactin, have been described previously (Qualmann and Kessels, 2002; Engqvist-Goldstein and Drubin, 2003).
These results extend our knowledge of the importance of phosphoinositide metabolism and actin polymerization during vesicle trafficking at the synapse and establish a role for talin in coordinating these processes. Further, our results suggest that synapses share mechanisms to coordinate membranecytoskeletal dynamics in common with other sites of cell adhesion.
Materials and methods
Protein and lipid biochemistry
Human PIPKI tail (aa 635662) and human talin 2 head (aa 1438) were expressed as GST fusion proteins and purified using a standard protocol. Affinity chromatography, immunoprecipitation, and TLC experiments were performed as described previously (Wenk et al., 2001; Di Paolo et al., 2002).
Rhodamine-conjugated PIPK peptide and mutant PIPK peptide were synthesized at the W.M. Keck Foundation Biotechnology Resource Laboratory (Yale University, New Haven, CT). The anti-talin antibody (TD77) used for detecting talin from GST pulldowns and with immunofluorescence was purchased from CHEMICON International, Inc. Anti-synapsin antibody was provided by Dr. Ona Bloom (Yale University, New Haven, CT). Antihuman talin 2 used for IPs and anti-PIPKI antibodies were generated in the De Camilli laboratory.
ITC
Peptides (300 µM) were repeatedly delivered (6 µl/injection; 23°C) into an ITC chamber containing 11 µM GST-talin head. The heat generated by each injection was measured and then analyzed with an ITC version of Microcal Origin 5.0 using embedded nonlinear least squares fitting routines. ITC experiments were performed at the Biophysics Resource of the W.M. Keck Foundation Biotechnology Resource Laboratory.
Imaging
Adult lampreys (Ichthyomyzon unicuspis) were anaesthetized with tricaine methanesulfonate (0.1 g/l tank water). A spinal cord segment was removed and transferred ventral side up to a chamber containing ice-cold, oxygenated ringer (mM): 91 NaCl, 2.1 KCl, 2.6 CaCl2, 1.8 MgCl2, 4.0 glucose, and 2.0 Hepes-KOH, pH 7.4. Ventral orientation permits easy access to the large diameter (20100 µm) reticulospinal axons.
Fluorescent reagents were diluted with lamprey internal solution (180 mM KCl and 10 mM Hepes-KOH, pH 7.4), loaded into glass microelectrodes, and then injected into several reticulospinal axons maintained at 1015°C using N2 pulses delivered by a General Valve Picospritzer (10100 psi; 10200 ms; 0.31.0 Hz). Fluorescence was visualized with a microscope (Axioskop 2FS; Carl Zeiss MicroImaging, Inc.) using 10 and 40x water-immersion objectives. Images were acquired with a CCD camera (Photometrics Cascade 650; Roper Scientific) and analyzed with Metamorph software (Universal Imaging Corp.).
To quantify the PIPK peptide effect on actin, images of Alexa 488phalloidin (Molecular Probes, Inc.) rings were taken at 40x. The axonal background fluorescence was subtracted and then divided from the synaptic fluorescence value in order to normalize for differences in amounts of injected phalloidin. All synapses within a 60-µm segment centered at the injection site were analyzed and then an averaged for each axon. Peptide concentration was measured by comparing the average rhodamine intensity within the 60-µm segment to a calibration curve.
EM
Reagents were injected into single axons nearest the spinal cord central canal. Bright field and fluorescence images were made for later identification of the injected axon. The axon was then stimulated intracellularly by action potentials using depolarizing pulses (1 ms; 30100 nA; 20 Hz, 5 min), which were delivered via an Axoclamp 2B amplifier (Axon Instruments). Preparations were fixed overnight (3% glutaraldehyde, 1% formaldehyde, and 0.1% phosphate buffer; pH 7.4), processed for EM as described in Pieribone et al. (1995), and imaged (28,500x) using a microscope (model CM10; Philips).
To measure the cross-sectional profile of the plasma membrane, a straight line was drawn between the outer edge of the active zone and a point on the plasma membrane located 1 µm away. The curved profile of the plasma membrane between these two points was measured and then divided by the straight distance.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Chrissie Horensavitz for EM assistance, Sergey Voronov for ITC data analysis, and Henry Tan for help with digital reproduction.
This work was supported by National Institutes of Health (NIH) grants (NS36251 and CA46128) to P. De Camilli, NIH NRSA (F32 MH067385) and Grass Foundation Fellowship to J.R. Morgan, a DFG fellowship to H. Werner, and a NIH grant (NS037823) to V.A. Pieribone.
Submitted: 15 June 2004
Accepted: 25 August 2004
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