Article |
Address correspondence to Nobutaka Hirokawa, Dept. of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan. Tel.: 81-3-5841-3326. Fax: 81-3-5802-8646. E-mail: hirokawa{at}m.u-tokyo.ac.jp
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Abstract |
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Key Words: MAP1B; MAP2; neuronal migration; dendrite; microtubule
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Introduction |
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Several efforts have been made to elucidate the functions of MAPs in vivo by analyzing a series of knockout mice. Analysis of tau knockout mice revealed a decrease in the number of MTs in small caliber axons; however, they have extended axons indistinguishable from those of wild-type controls (Harada et al., 1994). MAP1B-deficient mice have shown an abnormal brain architecture including delayed myelination, reduced axon caliber, tract malformation, and layer disorganization (Edelmann et al., 1996; Takei et al., 1997, 2000; Gonzalez-Billault et al., 2000; Meixner et al., 2000). On the other hand, phenotypes analysis of MAP2-deficient mice has never been reported.
In this study, we present data of MAP2-deficient (map2-/-) mice that showed a normal cytoarchitecture of their nervous system. We considered that MAP1B may share functions with MAP2 and could compensate for the loss of MAP2 based on the following reasons. (a) They are colocalized in both axons and dendrites, particularly in developing neurons, whereas in later stages MAP2 is localized mainly in dendrites (Hirokawa, 1991, 1994). They form cross-bridge structures between MTs (Sato-Yoshitake et al., 1989; Hirokawa, 1991; 1994). In the case of Tau and MAP2, they were suggested to determine the MT spacing in axons and dendrites, respectively (Chen et al., 1992). (b) Studies using an in vitro culture system suggest that MAP2 and MAP1B have similar functions in neuronal morphogenesis. Attenuation of expression of either MAP1B expression in PC12 cells (Brugg et al., 1993) or casein kinase II, which catalyzes a site-specific phosphorylation of MAP1B (Ulloa et al., 1993) in neuroblastoma cells by antisense oligodeoxynucleotides has indicated the inhibition of neuritogenesis. Suppression of MAP2 expression in cultured cerebellar macroneurons (Caceres et al., 1992) or in rat cortical neurons (Sharma et al., 1994) has also indicated the inhibition of neurite outgrowth concomitant with disorganized MTs. (c) MAP2 and MAP1B are similar in their effects on MT dynamics and organization in vitro. Both of them can promote tubulin assembly and bind and stabilize MTs (Hirokawa, 1994; Tögel et al., 1998). (d) In the case of axonal elongation, Tau and MAP1B have overlapping functions in MT organization, particularly in their neuronal growth cones (Takei et al., 2000; Garcia and Cleveland, 2001).
With these as a background, we generated mice with disrupted map2 and map1b genes to study the possible synergistic functions of MAP2 and MAP1B in vivo. The loss of MAP2 and MAP1B in mice leads to perinatal lethality. Our findings are summarized as follows. (a) There were striking abnormalities in their cortical and subcortical cytoarchitectures. Neuronal birth-dating analyses revealed a significant retardation in neuronal migration. The packing order of cortical neurons in map2-/-map1b-/- mice was in an "inside-out" pattern, which is different from that of reeler mice. (b) There was suppression of axonal and dendritic elongation and microtubule bundling in cultured neurons from the mutant mice. Synergistic effects caused by the loss of MAP2 and MAP1B were more apparent in dendrites than in axons. (c) Distances between MTs were reduced markedly in both axons and dendrites. This study demonstrated clearly that MAP2 and MAP1B cooperatively play significant functions for both axonal and dendritic morphogenesis, whereas their roles in dendritic morphogenesis are more dominant.
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Results |
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Thus, all three isoforms of MAP2 (MAP2A, B, and C) were absent in the crude extracts from map2-/- mouse brains at P0 (Fig. 1 C), and the mutation introduced into the murine map2 gene abolishes all expression of MAP2. From these results, it appears that MAP2 is not essential for basic neuronal development.
Perinatal lethality in map2-/-map1b-/- mice
We hypothesized that some other neuronal MAPs could compensate for the lack of MAP2 and that the candidate is MAP1B based on reasons summarized in the introduction. To test this hypothesis, double homozygous mice with disrupted map2 and map1b genes (map2-/-map1b-/-) were generated by intercrossing map2+/-map1b+/- double heterozygous mice, which were obtained by crossing a map2-/- mouse line with a map1b-/- mouse line (Takei et al., 1997). Map2+/-map1b+/- mice developed normally and are indistinguishable from map2+/+map1b+/+mice. Map2-/- map1b-/- mice could not survive beyond P0, whereas both map2-/-, map1b+/+, and map2+/+map1b-/- mice were viable at this stage (Takei et al., 1997, 2000). There was no significant difference in the body size between map2-/- map1b-/- mice and mice of other genotypes (Fig. 1 D). MAP2 could not be detected in brain lysates derived from map2-/-map1b-/- mice, whereas anti-MAP1B antibodies very faintly stained a band of protein in brain lysates from map2+/+map1b-/- and map2-/-map1b-/- mice (Fig. 1 C). This faint immunoreactivity is suggested to be derived from a minor transcript, encoding an NH2 terminally truncated MAP1B (Takei et al., 1997), which might render the phenotypes of the map1b-/- mice more moderate than those of a newly reported map1b mutant (MAP1B93), which have a complete deletion of the map1b gene (Meixner et al., 2000).
Unique neuropathological findings in map2-/-map1b-/- mice
The dominant expressions of MAP2 and MAP1B in the brain were suggestive of possible neuronal dysfunction in map2-/-map1b-/- mice. Histopathological analysis of the brain sections revealed abnormalities in the layer formation and the positioning of neurons in the brains of map2-/- map1b-/- mice (Fig. 2). Normal stratification of neocortical neurons was not observed in their cerebral cortex where the molecular layer was thinner than that of map2+/+map1b+/+ mice, the supra-/infragranular parts were unclear, and the subplate was diffuse (Fig. 2 D). The hippocampus was affected also, showing a dispersed arrangement of cell layers (Fig. 2 H). Many other parts of the brain, including the olfactory bulb and cerebellum, exhibited disrupted laminar structures (unpublished data). The inferior olivary complex showed an abnormal folding similar to that of reeler mice (Fig. 2 L) (Goffinet, 1984). Inordinate separation of the basilar pons cells was also observed (Fig. 2 P, arrows). On the other hand, map2-/-map1b+/+ mice (Fig. 2, B, F, J, and N) showed no apparent abnormalities in the layer formation compared with map2+/+map1b+/+ mice (Fig. 2, A, E, I, and M). The brains of map2+/+map1b-/- mice did show defects in laminar formation (Fig. 2, C, G, K, and O), which were similar to but not as drastic as those observed in map2-/- map1b-/- brains (PFig. 2, D, H, L, and P).
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Since it is known that the lack of reelin results in an abnormal cortical pattern in reeler mice, we compared the expression of Reelin between map2+/+map1b+/+ and map2-/- map1b-/- mice by immunohistochemistry to obtain insights into the possible relationship of the mutant mice with the Reelin pathway. However, map2-/-map1b-/- mice expressed Reelin in their cortical Cajal-Rezius cells, and there was no difference in the staining pattern between the mice of different genotypes (unpublished data).
Impairment of axonal and dendritic elongation of hippocampal neurons with disrupted MT organization
To compare the neurite development of control and mutant mice, cultured hippocampal neurons were analyzed. This culture system enabled us to investigate the polar development of individual neurons maintained separately from glias (Goslin and Banker, 1998). At first, we examined the expression of MAP2 and MAP1B in cultured hippocampal neurons. In map2+/-map1b+/+ mouse neurons cultured for 2 d, MAP2 and MAP1B were expressed abundantly in axons and minor processes including their growth cones (unpublished data) as reported previously (Boyne et al., 1995; Cunningham et al., 1997). The majority of map2+/-map1b+/+ neurons cultured for 3 d developed a single axon and several minor processes (Fig. 6 A). They were classified as neurons at stage 3 of development (Goslin and Banker, 1998). Neurons from map2-/- map1b+/+, map2+/-map1b-/-, and map2-/-map1b-/- mice were also polarized. Map2+/-map1b+/+ and map2-/- map1b+/+ mouse neurons did not differ in their lengths of axon and dendritic minor processes (P > 0.05, post hoc test) (Fig. 6, A and B, and Table I). However, the neurite lengths of map2+/-map1b-/- and map2-/-map1b-/- mouse neurons (Fig. 6, C and D) decreased significantly compared with those of map2+/-map1b+/+ mouse neurons (P < 0.01) (Table I). We compared the neurite lengths between map2+/-map1b-/- and map2-/-map1b-/- mouse neurons. The lengths of minor processes of map2-/- map1b-/- mouse neurons were significantly shorter than those of map2+/-map1b-/- ones (P < 0.05), whereas the length of axons did not differ between the two mouse genotypes (P > 0.05) (Fig. 6, C and D, and Table I). Taken together, map2 and map1b mutations have cell autonomous effects on neurite outgrowth, which is more synergistic in dendritic minor processes than in axonal ones. After 18 d of culture, the difference in the dendritic length between map2-/-map1b-/- and the control or single knockout mouse neurons becomes more apparent as shown in Fig. 6, EH. In these figures, dendrites are visualized by immunostaining using an anti-GluR1 antibody.
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Normal vesicle transport
Because neuronal MTs serve as tracks for the membrane organelle transport process, it is possible that the altered MT spacing in neuritic shafts impairs fast axonal transport, resulting in defects in neuritic outgrowth. To test this possibility, we examined vesicle transport in living hippocampal neurons. Vesicles were visualized by infection with recombinant adenoviruses expressing the GAP-43green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion protein (Nakata et al., 1998). GAP-43 is a protein that is transported to axons and localized at nerve terminals (Skene, 1989). In both control (map2 +/map1b+/) and map2-/-map1b-/- mouse neurons, the GAP-43GFP fusion protein was targeted and localized to the neurites and growth cones (Fig. 10, A and B, arrows). In the axons, tubular or spherical vesicles were observed to move along the axons in both control and map2-/-map1b-/- mouse neurons (Fig. 10, C and D, arrowheads). No apparent difference was observed in the movement of vesicles between the genotypes. We measured the speed of the vesicles for quantitative comparison. There was no significant difference in the mean vesicle speed between the genotypes (P > 0.05, Student's t test). The average speed of vesicles in the control is 0.63 ± 0.06 Ìm (mean ± standard deviation), whereas the average speed in map2-/-map1b-/- mouse neurons is 0.59 ± 0.07 Ìm (from three independent experiments, 69194 vesicles per experiment were analyzed). This data suggests that the vesicle transport is maintained in spite of the altered MT spacing in neuritic shafts.
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Discussion |
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Role of MAP2 and MAP1B in neuronal migration
Lines of genetic evidence suggest that MTs play central roles in neuronal migration, a critical event in the development of the nervous system. X-linked disease lissencephaly and Miller Dieker lissencephaly caused by doublecortin (des Portes et al., 1998; Gleeson et al., 1998) and Lis1 (Reiner et al., 1993) gene mutations, respectively, are a result of abnormal neuronal migration. Doublecortin has been identified as a novel MAP (Francis et al., 1999; Gleeson et al., 1999), and LIS1 functions as an unconventional MAP (Sapir et al., 1997; Hirotsune et al., 1998). Furthermore, two classic MAPs, Tau and MAP1B, are also involved in neuronal migration (Takei et al., 2000). These data indicate that a disturbance in MT dynamics and/or organization caused by the loss of MAPs results in an abnormal motility of migrating neurons. In the present study, we characterized the phenotypes of MAP2- and MAP1B-deficient mice and conclude that these proteins are synergistically involved in neuronal cell migration.
Based on our neuronal birth-dating analysis, map2-/- map1b-/- mouse cortical neurons exhibited migration defects without an inverted (outside-in) laminar formation pattern that was reported in reeler and related mutant mice (Rakic, 1988; Sheldon et al., 1997; Trommsdorff et al., 1999). This difference in migratory defects suggests a pathophysiological mechanism in map2-/-map1b-/- mice that is distinct from that of in reeler mice. One possible explanation is that the loss of regulation by Cdk5/P35 is responsible for the perturbed neuronal migration because the Cdk5/P35 complex may regulate the affinity of MAP2 and MAP1B to MTs by phosphorylation (Paglini et al., 1998; Sanchez et al., 2000), and knockout mice lacking either cdk5 or p35 have represented mice with disrupted cortical layering (Ohshima et al., 1996; Chae et al., 1997). However, this explanation is not adequate because the cortical layering in these mice has an outside-in order, which differs from that observed in map2-/-map1b-/- mice. We consider that there are multiple molecular mechanisms in the histogenesis of cortical layers and that MAP2 and MAP1B are involved in a pathway different from the Reelin or Cdk5/P35 pathway.
Organization of growth cone microtubules
The growth cone is a key structure for generating new neurites in which the MT organization is changed sequentially (Tanaka and Sabry, 1995). In brief, the growth cones can be divided into the following three stages: (a) MTs are dispersed and splayed throughout the growth cone; (b) MTs are looped, contorted, and compressed; and (c) MTs are bundled into tight arrays (Tanaka and Kirschner, 1991). In the growth cones from map2-/-map1b-/- mouse neurons, the frequency of stages 1 and 2 is increased significantly. This suggests that stage 3 was impaired selectively in these neurons due to the loss of MAP2 and MAP1B activities cross-linking MTs. We consider that MTs in map2-/- map1b-/- mouse growth cones take longer time to form tight arrays, resulting in the increased dispersed and looped MT formations, which could lead to reduced growth cone motility (Tsui et al., 1984; Halloran and Kalil, 1994).
On the other hand, neuronal cell migration is also guided by growth cones situated at the tip of leading processes as in neuritic elongation (Rakic et al., 1996). A similar pathology of MT disorganization could also exist in the growth cones of migrating neurons.
MT spacing in neuritic shafts
MAPs are known to form cross-bridge structures between MTs (Hirokawa, 1994). A previous study using Sf9 cells indicated that the difference in NH2-terminal projection domains between Tau and MAP2 could determine the length of cross-bridge structures between MTs; therefore, the different organizations of MT domains characterize axons and dendrites (Chen et al., 1992). However, there has been no in vivo evidence supporting the significance of MAPs in determining MT spacing. In this study, we present for the first time genetic data showing that the lack of MAPs results in altered MT spacing. Moreover, we investigated a possible change in fast transport due to the altered MT organization by visualizing transported vesicles in living cells. However, the vesicle transport was intact in map2-/-map1b-/- mouse neurons. Taken together, we consider that the most influential factor that causes these morphological defects is the disorganization of growth cone MTs, which could lead to reduced growth cone motility, leading in turn to the abnormal shape of neurons.
Future directions
A large number of gene-targeting studies have revealed that neurons use their molecular machinery in a redundant manner. In the present study, we found novel aspects of MAP2 and MAP1B function by comparative analysis between double knockout mice and their corresponding single knockout mice. Such an approach will be useful in elucidating cooperative interactions of proteins in vivo.
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Materials and methods |
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SDS-PAGE and immunoblot
Crude extracts from whole brains were prepared as described previously (Takei et al., 1997). After gel electrophoresis, proteins were transferred onto an Immobilon TM membrane (Millipore), and they were probed with 3d2 antibody for anti-MAP1B (Noble et al., 1989) and with HM-2 (Sigma-Aldrich) and AP-14, -18, -20, -21, -23, and -25 (Kalcheva et al., 1994) antibodies for anti-MAP2. Peroxidase-conjugated antimouse IgG antibody (Cappel Labs) was used as a secondary antibody. Chromogenic reaction was carried out using 4-chlorol-1-naphthol.
Histopathology
The brains of mice at P0 were dissected out and fixed with FEA overnight. The tissues were dehydrated in ethanol, embedded in Paraplast (Oxford Labware), sectioned serially at 12 Ìm thickness using Microm (HM355; Rotary Micotome) and stained by the Bodian method, a silver staining procedure for visualizing nerve fibers (Takei et al., 2000).
Whole-mount immunohistochemistry
Embryos were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.3). Activities of endogenous peroxidases were quenched by 2% hydrogen peroxide in Dent's fixative (1 part DMSO, 4 parts 100% methanol). The neurofilament antibody 2H3 (Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank) was used as the first antibody. As the secondary antibody, HRP-conjugated goat antirabbit IgG (Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories) was used. The secondary antibody was detected with 0.5% diaminobenzidine plus 0.02% hydrogen peroxide. In this experiment (Fig. 4), we regard map2+/map1b+/ as the control, map2-/-map1b+/ as map2 single mutant, and map2+/map1b-/- as map1b single mutant mice to achieve efficient sample collection and compare the same developmental stage of embryos among littermates.
Neuronal birth-dating analysis
Experiments were performed as described previously (Takahashi et al., 1992). Pregnant mice at E12 and E14 were intraperitoneally given a single injection of BrdU (5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine) (5 mg/ml in saline solution which contained 0.007 N sodium hydroxide; Sigma-Aldrich) at a dose of 50 Ìg/g body weight. At E18, the brains of embryos were examined. The sections were counterstained with Nuclear Fast red (Vector Laboratories).
For quantitative measurements of BrdU-labeled nuclei, comparable sections were chosen at the level of anterior commissure, which was divided into 10 horizontal bins from the superficial to the deep, and labeled nuclei in each bin were counted. In each genotype, at least three mice were examined.
Immunostaining of cryostat sections
Brains of embryos were dissected out and fixed with 2% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 M PBS (pH 7.4) for 2 h at room temperature. Cryostat coronal sections of cerebral walls (16 or 20 Ìm) were prepared using a cryomicrotome (CM3000; Leica) mounted on APS-coated microscope slides and air dried. As primary monoclonal antibodies, RC2 supernatant (Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank), antichondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (CSPG) (clone CS56; Sigma-Aldrich), and anti-Reelin CR-50 antibodies (provided by Dr. Kazunori Nakajima, Jikei University) (Yoneshima et al., 1997) were used.
Hippocampal cell culture and immunofluorescence microscopy
Cultures of hippocampal neurons were prepared as described previously (Goslin and Banker, 1998). In this experiment (Fig. 6), we intercrossed map2+/-map1b+/- and map2-/-map1b+/- mice and compared neurons derived from map2+/-map1b+/, map2-/-map1b+/, map2+/map1b-/-, and map2-/-map1b-/- littermate mice to collect samples efficiently. The cultures were photographed directly using an inverted phasecontrast microscope (Nikon) and observed with a conventional fluorescence microscope AX (Olympus) or a confocal laser scanning microscope (LSM510; ZEISS or MRC-1000; Bio-Rad Laboratories) after immunostaining. The lengths of axons and dendrites were measured in three independent experiments.
Immunocytochemistry was performed as described previously (Takei et al., 2000). A monoclonal antityrosine tubulin TUB-1A2 antibody (Sigma-Aldrich) and a polyclonal anti-GluR1 IgG (Chemicon) were used as the primary antibodies. For actin staining, FITC-conjugated phalloidin (Sigma-Aldrich) was used.
Rescue experiment on cultured hippocampal neurons
The full-length cDNA of rat MAP2C (Chen et al., 1992) was tagged with EGFP (CLONTECH Laboratories, Inc.) at the NH2 termini and ligated into pAdexCAw1 vector with CAG promoter to produce the recombinant adenovirus as described previously (Nakata et al., 1998). Cultured hippocampal neurons (prepared as described above except for the deletion of coculture with glia and supplementation with B27 supplement; GIBCO BRL) were infected by the adenovirus on the day of plating and observed after 3 d.
Electron microscopy
Mice and cultured hippocampal cells were fixed with 2% paraformaldehyde and 2.5% glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M sodium cacodylate buffer (pH 7.4). Brains were dissected out and sectioned using a microslicer. Matching areas of each tissue were chosen, fixed overnight, processed by the conventional method, and observed with a transmission electron microscope (JEOL-2000 EX or 2010 H). Distances between the nearest adjacent MTs in the axon and dendrites of each genotype were measured directly and counted, respectively, from prints. For each genotype, at least two independent mice were examined.
Time-lapse analysis of vesicle transport
The recombinant adenovirus expressing a GFP-tagged GAP-43 (Nakata et al., 1998) were infected into 17-d-old cultured hippocampal cells over a period of 20 min. The cells were examined 36 h after infection using the MRC1024 confocal laser scanning unit (Bio-Rad Laboratories) at room temperature. The axons were excited using a krypton-argon laser at 488 nm wavelength. Following the method previously described (Nakata et al., 1998), the axons were first bleached by continuous scanning for 1 min with 100% laser power at zoom 6.0 and then observed under 30 or 10% laser power at zoom 4.0. The speed of the vesicles was determined by measuring the distance the vesicles moved between two successive frames (5 s).
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Footnotes |
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Acknowledgments |
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This work has been supported by a Center of Excellence grant from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology to N. Hirokawa.
Submitted: 5 June 2001
Accepted: 23 August 2001
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References |
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