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Article |
Address correspondence to S.E. Moss, Division of Cell Biology, Institute of Ophthalmology, 11-43 Bath St., London EC1V 9EL, England, UK. Tel.: 020 7608 6973. Fax: 020 7608 4034. email: s.moss{at}ucl.ac.uk
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Abstract |
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Key Words: calcium; mitosis; telophase; cell cycle; kinesin
Abbreviations used in this paper: BFA, brefeldin A; RNAi, RNA interference.
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Introduction |
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The NH2-terminal domain of annexin 11 has also been shown to contain the binding sites for at least two intracellular polypeptide ligands, namely calcyclin (S100A6) and the apoptosis-linked protein ALG-2 (Tokumitsu et al., 1993; Satoh et al., 2002). In both cases, the interaction between annexin 11 and its ligand has been shown in in vitro experiments to be Ca2+ dependent, but neither the purpose of the interaction nor indeed the function of either of the participating proteins is known. The differential expression of calcyclin during the cell cycle (Calabretta et al., 1986) and evidence that annexin 11 may have a role both in mitosis (Mizutani et al., 1992) and in nuclear envelope dynamics during prophase (Tomas and Moss, 2003) prompted us to examine more closely the subcellular localization of annexin 11 during the different stages of cell division. We show here that from late mitosis through to cytokinesis, annexin 11 colocalizes with established components of the central spindle and midbody, such as CHO1 and the Aurora B kinase. Furthermore, in experiments using siRNA we show that cells depleted of annexin 11 do not present a midbody matrix at the middle of the central spindle, and subsequently undergo abortive cell separation in which daughter cells remain connected by bridgelike cytoplasmic structures and ultimately die by apoptosis. These results demonstrate an essential function for annexin 11 in the last phase of cytokinesis.
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Results |
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Annexin 11 associates with midbody components during cytokinesis
The staining pattern of annexin 11 from anaphase to cytokinesis bears striking similarities to that reported for the mitotic kinesin-like protein CHO1, an alternatively spliced product of the MKLP1 gene with essential roles in the maintenance of the microtubule bundles at the central spindle and in the organization of the midbody matrix (Matuliene and Kuriyama, 2002). To further investigate a possible relationship between these two proteins, we examined their localization in A431 cells at various times in the cell cycle (Fig. 3 A). Although annexin 11 and CHO1 are predominantly nuclear in interphase and metaphase cells, there is no tight colocalization at this time. However, from anaphase through to cytokinesis, and at the midbody, there is marked colocalization of annexin 11 and CHO1. Both proteins are also highly enriched in isolated midbodies (Fig. 3 B). This finding is consistent with previous reports for CHO1 (Sellitto and Kuriyama, 1988) and indicates that the association of annexin 11 with this structure is stable.
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Annexin 11 knockdown inhibits completion of cytokinesis and leads to apoptosis
To investigate the role of annexin 11 in cytokinesis, we used RNA interference (RNAi) to depress the level of annexin 11 in A431 and HeLa cells. Incubation with a 21-base pair RNA duplex corresponding to nucleotides gACggCTTACggCAAggAT of annexin 11 led to a time-dependent decrease in the levels of annexin 11 protein and mRNA (Fig. 4, A and B), although the kinetics of annexin 11 depletion appeared more rapid in A431 cells. In HeLa cells, after two rounds of transfection over 6 d, annexin 11 was barely detectable by Western blotting or RT-PCR, whereas closely related molecules such as annexin 1 and annexin 5 were unchanged. Immunofluorescence analysis of HeLa cells after 5 d in annexin 11 siRNA revealed the absence of detectable annexin 11 staining in the nucleus, with residual punctate annexin 11 staining in the cytoplasm (Fig. 4 C). These results demonstrate the efficacy and specificity of siRNA-mediated suppression of annexin 11 expression in this experimental system.
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Phase-contrast time-lapse imaging revealed marked differences between control and annexin 11 siRNA-treated A431 cells undergoing cytokinesis (Fig. 7, A and B; and Videos 1 and 2, available at http://www.jcb.org/cgi/content/full/jcb.200311054/DC1). Depletion of annexin 11 resulted in a highly abnormal cellular morphology characterized by cell bodies connected by long cytoplasmic bridgelike extensions. The images of live cells entering cytokinesis show that although furrowing progresses normally in annexin 11depleted cells, abscission does not occur (Fig. 7 B). Instead, the daughter cells become separated by increasingly thin cytoplasmic extensions, a process that is accompanied by rounding up of the optically refractive cell bodies, eventual detachment from the surface of the coverslip, and cell death. To extend these observations to a large cell population, we performed flow cytometry on A431 cells at various stages of culture in annexin 11 siRNA (Fig. 7 C). By measuring forward scatter, we observed an increase in cell length at days two and three, corresponding to the peak period of abortive cytokinesis, after which cell/particle size diminished as the cells died and fragmented.
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Discussion |
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In a recent study it was noted that CHO1 is the only protein so far identified as a component of the detergent-resistant midbody matrix (Matuliene and Kuriyama, 2002). Our demonstration here that annexin 11 also remains tightly associated with the midbody after biochemical isolation confirms annexin 11 as the second characterized protein of this matrix. Moreover, depletion of annexin 11 by RNAi in A431 and HeLa cells leads to the absence of a detectable midbody matrix at cytokinesis, showing that annexin 11 is required for the formation of this matrix in at least two different human cell lines. The only other protein known to be required for the formation of the midbody matrix is CHO1. Thus, overexpression of a mutant form of CHO1 that is unable to concentrate in the midbody or a significant reduction in the level of endogenous CHO1 by RNAi treatment both resulted in cells furrowing normally but lacking a midbody matrix during telophase and cytokinesis (Matuliene and Kuriyama, 2002). However, complete depletion of CHO1 by RNAi also caused disorganization of the central spindle microtubule bundles, indicating a dual function for CHO1 in cytokinesis, both in the formation of a midbody matrix and in the maintenance of the central spindle organization. This last phenotype was not observed in annexin 11depleted cells, implying that the function of annexin 11 in cytokinesis is linked exclusively to the formation of a midbody matrix and completion of the terminal phase of cytokinesis. Significantly, failure to form a midbody as a result of annexin 11 depletion led to mislocalization of CHO1. Taken with previous published work (Matuliene and Kuriyama, 2002), this finding suggests that annexin 11 and CHO1 are both indispensable for midbody formation, supporting the idea that the two proteins are in some way functionally linked.
In cells treated with siRNA specific for annexin 11, the last stage of cytokinesis is highly impaired, with daughter cells entering interphase while still connected by abnormal cytoplasmic bridges that they are unable to resolve, and eventually undergoing cell death by apoptosis. Although in most reported examples of failed cytokinesis, furrow regression and cell binucleation occur before cell death, there are a few instances of abortive cytokinesis in which daughter cells remain connected by bridgelike cytoplasmic structures. These instances include overexpression of a mutant form of CHO1 (Matuliene and Kuriyama, 2002); siRNA-mediated depletion of centriolin (Gromley et al., 2003); overexpression of the Rho inhibitory domain of Nir2, a RhoA-binding protein that associates with the small GTPase in the cleavage furrow (Litvak et al., 2002); cells transfected with a mutant form of the type III intermediate filament protein GFAP lacking its Rho-kinase phosphorylation sites (Yasui et al., 1998); and the blockage of phosphatidylethanolamine translocation at the cleavage furrow (Emoto and Umeda, 2000), which inhibits disassembly of the actomyosin constriction ring. These studies collectively define a subset of midbody proteins that, like annexin 11, are likely to be functionally coordinated to execute the final stages of cytokinesis.
The discovery of an essential role for annexin 11 in cell division is unexpected when considered in the broader context of annexin biology. Although annexins are now firmly implicated in various cellular activities, including endocytosis, calcium signaling, and apoptosis, no member of this protein family has been demonstrated to function in the cell cycle. The membrane binding and vesicle fusogenic properties that define annexins in biochemical terms could provide clues as to the possible role of annexin 11 in the last stage of cytokinesis. Before cells can be completely separated in a process known as abscission, the actomyosin constriction ring at the cleavage furrow has to be disassembled and the central spindle must separate. During this series of events, it is likely that the plasma membrane must be tightly attached to the midbody microtubules for abscission to be successfully completed. CHO1 has previously been suggested to be responsible for this connection (Kuriyama et al., 2002), but there is no evidence that this kinesin is able to bind to the cell membrane. The role of annexin 11 could be to facilitate this interaction. Alternatively, annexin 11 could be involved in the vesicle fusion process that mediates the insertion of new membrane at the cleavage furrow, which is widely established as a key requirement for completion of cytokinesis (Straight and Field, 2000), or it may have a role in the rearrangement of membrane phospholipids at the cleavage furrow, which is known to be crucial for the disassembly of the actomyosin constriction ring (Emoto and Umeda, 2000). In mammalian cells the origin of the membrane or vesicular material that is inserted at the cleavage furrow has not been formally identified. In Drosophila melanogaster, it has been reported that Golgi-derived membrane is required for furrow formation during cellularization (Sisson et al., 2000), and Golgi-associated proteins such as Arf1 (Altan-Bonnet et al., 2003) and syntaxin 5 (Xu et al., 2002) have been shown to have roles in cytokinesis. Here, we found no evidence of annexin 11 association with Golgi-derived vesicles, suggesting that annexin 11 is more likely to be involved in membrane dynamics at the cleavage furrow than in vesicle transport to this site.
In this context, it is interesting to note that annexin 11 is not expressed in invertebrates, and is therefore absent in the two experimental models most used for the study of cytokinesis, namely D. melanogaster and C. elegans. It is possible that unrelated annexins present in these organisms fill this function, or it may be that the role of annexin 11 in cytokinesis is performed by other proteins in simpler eukaryotes.
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Materials and methods |
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Antibodies
Antibodies used for immunofluorescence were L-19 goat polyclonal antihuman annexin 11 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.), mouse monoclonal antimouse annexin 11 (BD Biosciences), mouse monoclonal antichicken -tubulin (Zymed Laboratories), rabbit polyclonal antihuman
-tubulin (gift of K. Matter, Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, UK), E18 rabbit polyclonal antichicken CHO1 (gift of R. Kuriyama, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN; Kuriyama et al., 2002), mouse monoclonal antirat Aim-1 (BD Biosciences), N-19 rabbit polyclonal anti-MKLP1 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.), E-15 goat polyclonal anti-ARK-2 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.), and M-20 goat polyclonal antimouse lamin B (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.). Secondary antibodies were donkey anti-goat-Alexa Fluor 488 (Molecular Probes), goat antimouse-Alexa Fluor 488 (Molecular Probes), donkey antimouse-Alexa Fluor 488 (Molecular Probes), donkey antirabbit-Cy5, donkey antimouse-Cy5, and donkey antimouse-TRITC. Antibodies used for Western blotting were as for CHO1, L-19 goat polyclonal antihuman annexin 11 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.), sheep polyclonal antichicken annexin 11 (raised against full-length recombinant chicken annexin 11), mouse monoclonal antichicken
-tubulin (Zymed Laboratories), mouse monoclonal antiß-tubulin (Sigma-Aldrich), and rabbit polyclonal antihuman PARP (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.). Antisera to annexins 1 and 5 have been described previously (Hawkins et al., 1999).
Cell synchronization and isolation of midbodies
Cells were grown to 50% confluence and incubated in medium containing 4 mM thymidine (Sigma-Aldrich) overnight to achieve S phase block. Dishes were extensively washed in PBS and cultured for a further 6 h in medium containing 0.07 µg/ml nocodazole (Sigma-Aldrich) for growth arrest at prometaphase. Cells were extensively washed and allowed to recover in normal medium for 3060 min or incubated for 45 min in the presence of 15 µg/ml BFA (Sigma-Aldrich). For midbody isolation, cells were synchronized at prometaphase and spindles were prepared as described previously (Kuriyama et al., 1984).
Fluorescence microscopy
Cells grown on coverslips or in 35-mm glass bottom microwell dishes were washed in PBS, fixed/permeabilized on ice for 30 min in 2% PFA + 0.1% Triton X-100, washed four times in PBS, and blocked for 15 min with 1% BSA (Sigma-Aldrich). Fixed cells were incubated in a moist chamber with primary antibody dissolved in 1% BSA for 1 h, followed by four washes of 510 min each in PBS before incubation with the secondary antibody dissolved in 1% BSA for another hour. After four further washes in PBS, samples were either observed immediately in PBS or mounted onto slides with Moviol and sealed with nail polish. Stained cells were observed under a Radiance 2000 AGR-3 (Q) confocal (Bio-Rad Laboratories) attached to an inverted microscope (model Axiovert S100TV; Carl Zeiss MicroImaging, Inc.) using 60x or 100x oil immersion lenses, and images were processed using Metamorph 4.6r9.
Electron microscopy
A431 cells were cultured on thermanox coverslips (Agar Scientific) and, after annexin 11 depletion, were fixed, processed, and treated with tannic acid as described by Stinchcombe et al. (1995). Coverslips were mounted on Epon stubs, the Epon polymerized overnight at 60°C, and the coverslips removed by heating. 70-nm sections were cut en face and stained with lead citrate before examination in a JEOL 1010 electron microscope.
Video time-lapse microscopy
A431 cells were placed in a 37°C preheated microscope chamber with 5% CO2 supply and observed using phase illumination on an inverted microscope (model Axiovert S100M; Carl Zeiss MicroImaging, Inc.) using a 40x oil immersion lens. Images were acquired with Openlab (Improvision) and analyzed using Metamorph 4.6r9 (Universal Imaging Corp.).
Immunoprecipitation, SDS-PAGE, and Western blotting
A431 cell monolayers were washed in PBS, resuspended in 500 µl lysis buffer (50 mM Tris-Cl, pH 7.4, 50 mM NaCl, 30 mM sodium pyrophosphate, 50 mM sodium fluoride, 100 µM sodium orthovanadate, 0.2 mM CaCl2, 1% Triton X-100, 0.1% BSA, and 0.02% sodium azide) supplemented with 10 µl of protease inhibitor cocktail (Sigma-Aldrich) per 107 cells, and lysed by three rounds of sonication on ice. Lysates were precleared at 16,000 g for 30 min at 4°C, followed by incubation with 30 µl of 50% protein GSepharose 4 Fast Flow slurry (Amersham Biosciences) for 30 min, and then 5 min centrifugation at 16,000 g at 4°C. L-19 goat antihuman annexin 11 antibody (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.) was immobilized on protein GSepharose beads and added to the precleared lysates for 2 h at 4°C, centrifuged, and the supernatant discarded. Beads were washed four times in lysis buffer minus BSA and once in ice-cold PBS. After removal of the supernatant, the immunoprecipitates were resuspended in SDS-PAGE sample buffer, boiled for 5 min, and resolved by SDS-PAGE on discontinuous mini-gels. Proteins were electroblotted for 45 min at 400 mA onto Hybond-P PVDF Transfer Membrane (Amersham Biosciences).
Membranes were treated with blocking solution (10% skimmed milk or 10% BSA in PBS-Tween [PBS + 0.05% Tween 20]) for 40 min at RT and incubated for 16 h at 4°C with primary antibody in PBS-Tween. After three PBS-Tween washes, membranes were incubated with secondary antibody for 90 min, also in PBS-Tween (1/10,000 dilution). IgG-HRP conjugates were used as secondary antibodies. Blots were developed after three further PBS-Tween washes using the ECL Plus Western blotting detection system (Amersham Biosciences) and visualized in a Fujifilm Intelligent Dark Box II coupled to a LAS-1000 CCD camera.
Depletion of annexin 11 in HeLa and A431 cells by RNAi
Preparation of siRNA oligonucleotides was performed as follows. A search was performed for AA(N19)TT sequences with 50% G/C-content in human annexin 11 cDNA. One such sequence was located at nt 727 in the coding sequence. Sense (5'-gACggCUUACggCAAggAUdTdT-3') and antisense (5'-AUCCUUgCCgUAAgCCgUCdTdT-3') siRNA oligonucleotides were purchased from Dharmacon Research, Inc. Oligonucleotides were diluted with 1 ml of RNase-free water to a concentration of 50 µM and annealed by combining 30 µl of each with 15 µl of 5x annealing buffer (Dharmacon Research, Inc.). The solution was incubated at 90°C for 1 min followed by 1 h at 37°C. The final concentration of the siRNA duplex was 20 µM.
Transfection of cells with siRNA was performed as follows. Cells were seeded on 24-well plates in normal medium without antibiotics and transfected at 30 to 40% confluency as follows. For each well, 3 µl Oligofectamine reagent (Invitrogen) was dissolved in 12 µl Opti-MEM I medium (Invitrogen), and 35 µl of siRNA duplex was added to 50 µl of Opti-MEM I medium. The solutions were incubated for 10 min at RT, combined, and mixed by inversion. The mixture was incubated for 25 min at RT, and 3032 µl of Opti-MEM I medium was added to bring the final volume to 100 µl. The complexes were added to the cells for 1 to 3 d before analysis by FACS®, immunofluorescence, or Western blotting. In some experiments, to further increase the depletion of annexin 11, transfected cells were split after 3 d and retransfected as aforementioned.
Fluorescence-activated cell sorting
To determine the level of apoptosis caused by annexin 11 depletion, siRNA-treated cells were analyzed by FACS®. Cells were collected, washed in PBS, fixed for 30 min in 70% ethanol at 20°C, centrifuged at 560 g for 5 min at 4°C, washed in PBS, and resuspended in 100 µl of 1 mg/ml RNase I-A (Sigma-Aldrich) solution in PBS for 30 min. To stain the DNA, 150 µl of propidium iodide solution (50 µg/ml propidium iodide [Sigma-Aldrich], 0.1% sodium citrate, and 0.1% Triton X-100) was added to this preparation. Samples were processed using a FACscanTM flowcytometer (BD Biosciences), and the results were analyzed with WinMDI 2.8.
Online supplemental material
Two supplemental figures are available showing the localization of annexin 11 and the Golgi marker GM130 in A431 cells undergoing cytokinesis and the localization of MKLP1 and Aurora B in annexin 11depleted A431 cells undergoing cytokinesis. Videos showing control and annexin 11depleted cells failing to complete cytokinesis are available as supplements to Fig. 7. Note that in Video 2 the apoptosing cells detach from the plate after the final frame. Online supplemental material is available at http://www.jcb.org/cgi/content/full/jcb.200311054/DC1.
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Acknowledgments |
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This work was supported by the Wellcome Trust, the Medical Research Council, and Fight for Sight.
Submitted: 11 November 2003
Accepted: 10 May 2004
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References |
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