* Department of Molecular Biology and Department of Pathology, Yokohama City University School of Medicine, Yokohama
236-0004, Japan; § Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Gunma University School of Medicine, Maebashi 371-8511, Japan;
Fundamental Research Laboratories, NEC Corporation, Tsukuba 305-0841, Japan; and ¶ Section of Genetics and Development,
101 Biotechnology Building, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853
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Abstract |
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Cell polarity is fundamental to differentiation and function of most cells. Studies in mammalian
epithelial cells have revealed that the establishment
and maintenance of cell polarity depends upon cell adhesion, signaling networks, the cytoskeleton, and protein transport. Atypical protein kinase C (PKC) isotypes PKC and PKC
have been implicated in
signaling through lipid metabolites including phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphates, but their physiological role remains elusive. In the present study we report the
identification of a protein, ASIP (atypical PKC isotype-specific interacting protein), that binds to aPKCs,
and show that it colocalizes with PKC
to the cell junctional complex in cultured epithelial MDCKII cells and
rat intestinal epithelia. In addition, immunoelectron microscopy revealed that ASIP localizes to tight junctions in intestinal epithelial cells. Furthermore, ASIP
shows significant sequence similarity to Caenorhabditis
elegans PAR-3. PAR-3 protein is localized to the anterior periphery of the one-cell embryo, and is required
for the establishment of cell polarity in early embryos.
ASIP and PAR-3 share three PDZ domains, and can
both bind to aPKCs. Taken together, our results suggest a role for a protein complex containing ASIP and
aPKC in the establishment and/or maintenance of epithelial cell polarity. The evolutionary conservation of
the protein complex and its asymmetric distribution in
polarized cells from worm embryo to mammalian-differentiated cells may mean that the complex functions
generally in the organization of cellular asymmetry.
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Introduction |
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THE stimulus-coupled turnover of membrane lipids is
an important event during cellular signal transduction (Nishizuka, 1995). Members of the protein kinase C (PKC)1 family are among the prominent candidates that transduce a variety of extracellular stimuli to
the cellular signaling networks through lipid-derived second messenger molecules. PKC comprises at least 10 closely related isoforms that can be subdivided into three classes: cPKC (PKC
, PKC
I, PKC
II, and PKC
),
nPKC (PKC
, PKC
, PKC
, and PKC
), and aPKC
(PKC
and PKC
/
) (Nishizuka, 1995
). The cPKC and
nPKC isotypes can be positively regulated by a variety of
lipid-derived messenger molecules including diacylglycerols, and are receptors for phorbol esters such as TPA. Unlike other PKC isotypes, aPKCs do not seem to be regulated directly by Ca2+, phorbol esters, or diacylglycerols
(Nishizuka, 1995
). Some studies have shown that ceramide
regulates the activity of PKC
(Lozano et al., 1994
; Müller
et al., 1995
). Purified PKC
is also regulated by phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (PI-3,4,5-P3), a product of
phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-kinase) (Nakanishi et
al., 1993
), and PKC
is activated upon PDGF receptor
stimulation through a pathway involving PI3-kinase (Akimoto et al., 1996
; Toker and Cantley, 1997
). Stimulation of
insulin receptors also results in PKC
activation through
the PI3-kinase pathway (Standaert et al., 1997
; Bandyopadhyay et al., 1997
). A series of studies using a pseudosubstrate peptide or kinase-deficient dominant negative forms of PKC
and PKC
suggest that atypical PKC isotypes (aPKC) plays roles distinct from those of the cPKC
and nPKC isotypes in a variety of cellular functions. These
include Xenopus oocyte maturation (Dominguez et al.,
1992
; Berra et al., 1993
), proliferation and survival of fibroblasts (Berra et al., 1993
; Diaz-Meco et al., 1996), differentiation of PC12 (Wooten et al., 1994
) and leukemic
cells (Ways et al., 1994
), activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) (Berra et al., 1995
) and gene expression (Lozano et al., 1994
; Akimoto et al., 1996
; Xu et
al., 1996
), and insulin-induced glut4 translocation (Standaert et al., 1997
). Furthermore, several proteins have
been shown to interact directly with aPKC isotypes (Diaz-Meco et al., 1994
; Diaz-Meco et al., 1996a
; Diaz-Meco et
al., 1996b
; Puls et al., 1997
; Sanchez et al., 1998
). However,
the downstream effectors and the exact cellular function
of aPKCs remain elusive. In this paper we present evidence consistent with a hypothesis that atypical PKC isotype-specific interacting protein (ASIP) and aPKC complex is involved in establishment or maintenance of cell
polarity.
Cell polarity is the reflection of complex mechanisms
that establish and maintain functionally specialized domains in the plasma membrane and cytoplasm, and is fundamental to differentiation and function of most cells
(Drubin and Nelson, 1996; Caplan, 1997
). Cell polarity is
being studied in model genetic systems like Caenorhabditis elegans and in tissue culture in epithelial cells. Studies
of asymmetric cell division in embryogenesis have provided evidence that transient asymmetric distribution of
proteins at the cell periphery is essential for cell polarity
(Knoblich, 1997
). In early C. elegans embryos, PAR proteins such as PAR-3 are required for embryonic polarity,
and become localized asymmetrically at the periphery of
the one-cell embryo (Etemad-Moghadam et al., 1995
; Guo
and Kemphues, 1996
). The cue that triggers cell polarization and determines the axis of polarity is provided by the
sperm (Goldstein and Hird, 1996
). Mutations in the par-3
gene affect the asymmetric distribution of other proteins
involved in cell fate determination and the orientation of
mitotic spindles in successive cell cycle (Guo and Kemphues, 1996
; Bowerman et al., 1997
). How the sperm cue
triggers asymmetric distribution of PAR proteins is not
clear; neither is it clear how the asymmetric distribution of
PAR proteins leads to other cellular asymmetries.
Mammalian epithelial cells provide an experimental system that has revealed essential features of cell polarity
(Eaton and Simons, 1995; Drubin and Nelson, 1996
; Gumbiner, 1996
). Epithelial cells respond to asymmetric cell
adhesion to organize cytoskeletal and membrane proteins
into distinct apical and basal-lateral membrane domains;
this apical/basal polarity provides a basis for directed transport across the epithelium. Tight junctions are specialized structures that play an essential role in epithelial
cell polarity by creating a barrier to diffusion between cells
in the epithelial sheet and forming an intramembrane diffusion fence that restricts intermixing of apical and basal-lateral membrane components (Balda and Matter, 1998
).
As in the C. elegans one-cell embryos, establishing of cell
polarity in epithelial cells starts with a cortical spatial cue.
The spatial cue in epithelial cells is cell adhesion. E-cadherin-mediated cell-cell contact and the contact between
integrins and the extracellular matrix trigger the specialized assembly of actin-based cytoskeleton and signaling
networks around the adhesion receptors and tight junctions, and position other cytoskeletal complexes and protein-sorting compartments (Eaton and Simons, 1995
; Drubin and Nelson, 1996
; Gumbiner, 1996
). How adhesion
receptors trigger the establishment of cellular asymmetry
is not clear; neither is it clear how tight junctions reinforce
and maintain the cellular asymmetry.
During experiments to clarify the role of aPKC isotypes,
we searched for aPKC-interacting proteins using an interaction cloning approach using purified recombinant PKC
as a probe. In the present study, we show that a novel protein, ASIP, interacts with aPKC isotypes, and that the interaction involves the kinase domain of aPKC and occurs
within a region of 225 amino acids of ASIP. ASIP shows
significant sequence similarity to a C. elegans polarity protein, PAR-3. Furthermore, the direct interaction with
aPKC is conserved from worm PAR-3 to mammalian
ASIP. Endogenous ASIP and PKC
form a complex in
NIH3T3 cells and epithelial MDCKII cells. In addition,
ASIP colocalizes with PKC
to the tight junction and adherens junction-containing junctional complex in MDCKII cells. ASIP also colocalizes with ZO-1, a tight junction
protein, in MDCKII cells, and localizes to the tight junction in rat intestinal epithelium.
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Materials and Methods |
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Materials and Chemicals
PKC expression vectors encoding PKC (YK504), PKC
(M241), PKC
(M246), PKC
(MLNP45), and PKC
RD (MLRD) have been described previously (Akimoto et al., 1994
; Ohno et al., 1994
; Akimoto et al., 1996
;
Izumi et al., 1997
). PKC
KD encoding amino acid (a.a.) residues 191-586
of PKC
was constructed by K. Akimoto. Tag-ASIP (SRHis-ASIP) encodes the entire ASIP sequence fused downstream of the six histidine residues and a 12-amino acid sequence from the T7 gene 10 leader sequence.
Anti-PKC
(
Rb2) was raised against the COOH-terminal peptide of
mouse PKC
(from residues 578-592). Anti-glutathione-S-transferase
(GST) was raised against the purified protein for glutathione-S-transferase. Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) of anti-PKC
and anti-PKC
were
purchased from Transduction Laboratories (Lexington, KY), and anti-T7
tag was from Novagen. The mAb of PKC
was purchased from Transduction Laboratories. This antibody was generated against the kinase domain
of PKC
, a human homologue of mouse PKC
, and specifically recognizes
PKC
, but not PKC
. The anti-PKC
(
2) antibody is a polyclonal antibody against the D2/D3 region of mouse PKC
. Both anti-PKC
(mAb)
and anti-PKC
(
2) recognize cellular PKC
specifically, and not PKC
(data not shown). The anti-ASIP antibody (C1 and C2) was raised against the GST fusion protein of aPKC-binding region (a.a. residues 712-936), and P1 was raised against the GST fusion protein of the third PDZ domain (a.a. residues 584-708). Anti-ZO-1 and MDCKII cells were kindly
provided by Dr. S. Tsukita (Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan). FITC-conjugated goat anti-rabbit and Cy3-conjugated goat anti-mouse antibodies
were purchased from E.Y. Laboratories, Inc. (San Mateo, CA) and Amersham Life Science, Inc. (Arlington Heights, IL), respectively.
Purification and 32P-labeling of PKC
Mouse PKC (2.1 µg) purified from recombinant baculovirus-infected
Sf21 cells (Fujise et al., 1994
) was labeled with 32P by autophosphorylation
in 155 µl of kinase buffer containing 20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 5 mM
MgCl2, 10% glycerol, 0.6 µCi/ml [
-32P]ATP, and 40 µg/ml phosphatidylserine at 30°C for 2 h. After the reaction, the [32P]-labeled PKC
was
separated from the unreacted ATP by gel filtration on Sephadex G-50
equilibrated with 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, 0.1 mM DTT,
and 0.5% Triton X-100, and was used as a probe for screening a
EXlox
cDNA expression library.
Isolation of cDNA Clones Encoding ASIP
Poly(A)+ RNA was isolated from NIH3T3 cells, and randomly primed
cDNA was synthesized using a HindIII primer adapter (Novagen Inc.,
Madison, WI). cDNA was ligated to EXlox vector arm (Novagen Inc.),
and was packaged in phage particles using a Phage Marker System
(Novagen Inc.). This library contains ~0.95 × 106 independent clones.
Approximately 1.8 × 105 clones were plated at 10,000 phages per plate using Escherichia coli strain BL21 (DE3) pLysE as host cells. After incubation for 6 h at 37°C, the plaques were covered with Hybond-C extra (Amersham Life Science, Inc.), impregnated with 10 mM IPTG, and allowed to grow for an additional 3.5 h at 37°C. The filters were then washed with
TBS buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 0.5 M NaCl), blocked with 5% skim
milk at 4°C overnight, and incubated with 1 mM ATP solution (TBS
buffer containing 1 mM ATP) at room temperature for 2 h to saturate any
autophosphorylation sites or ATP-binding sites on the proteins. The filters were then incubated with [32P]-labeled PKC
(106 cpm/ml) in 50 mM
Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 0.5 M NaCl, 50 µg/ml phosphatidylserine, and 1% BSA
for 5 h at room temperature. After washing in TBS buffer, the filters were
exposed for autoradiography. Positive phage clones were converted to
plasmids (pEXlox + cDNA insert) using E. coli strain BM25.5 according
to the manufacturer's instructions. The initial isolate (clone I-1), which encodes amino acid residues 710-924, was used as a probe to screen a rat
3Y1-
ZAP II cDNA library to obtain a cDNA clone encoding the full-length ASIP coding sequence. The nucleotide sequence of the ASIP
cDNA has been submitted to the Genbank/EMBL databank with accession no. AB005549.
Northern Blot Analysis
Total RNA preparations from various mouse tissues were obtained as described (Osada et al., 1992). Poly(A)+ RNA preparations from various
cell lines were isolated using a QuickPrep mRNA Purification Kit (Pharmacia Biotech, Inc., Piscataway, NJ). Northern blot analysis was performed according to the standard protocol.
FISH Mapping of ASIP on Chromosomes
Lymphocytes isolated from human blood were cultured in -MEM supplemented with 10% FBS and phytohemagglutinin at 37°C for 68-72 h.
The lymphocyte cultures were treated with BrdU (0.18 mg/ml: Sigma
Chemical Co.) to synchronize the cell population. The synchronized cells
were washed three times with serum-free medium to release the block,
and were recultured at 37°C for 6 h in
-MEM containing thymidine (2.5 µg/ml; Sigma Chemical Co.). The cells were harvested, and slides were
made by standard procedures including hypotonic treatment, fixation, and
air-drying. For in situ hybridization and FISH detection, the rat ASIP
cDNA probe was biotinylated with dATP using a BioNick labeling kit
(15°C, 1 h; GIBCO BRL, Rockville, MD; Heng et al., 1992
). The procedure for FISH detection was performed according to Heng et al. (1992)
and
Heng and Tsui (1993)
. In brief, the slides were baked at 55°C for 1 h. After
RNase treatment, the slides were denatured in 70% formamide in 2× SSC
for 2 min at 70°C, and were dehydrated with ethanol. Probes were denatured at 75°C for 5 min in a hybridization mix consisting of 50% formamide
and 10% dextran sulphate. The probes were loaded on denatured chromosomal slides. After overnight hybridization, the slides were washed and
amplified for detection. FISH signals and the DAPI banding pattern were
recorded separately by photograph, and assignment of the FISH mapping
data to the chromosomal bands was achieved by superimposing the FISH
signals on the DAPI banded chromosomes (Heng and Tsui, 1993
).
Cell Cultures
COS and MDCKII cells were grown in DME containing 10% FCS, penicillin, and streptomycin in an air-5% CO2 atmosphere at constant humidity. NIH3T3 cells were grown in DME containing 7% calf serum, penicillin, and streptomycin in an air-5% CO2 atmosphere at constant humidity. For the Ca2+ switch assay, subconfluent MDCKII cells were grown in normal growth medium, and were transferred to low Ca2+ medium (growth medium containing 4 mM EGTA) for 6 h and then transferred back to the normal Ca2+ medium.
Transfection, Cell Lysis, Immunoprecipitation, and Immunoblotting
COS cells were transfected with cDNA expression plasmids by electroporation (Gene Pulser; Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA). Cells (NIH3T3, MDCKII, and cDNA-transfected COS cells) in 10-cm dishes were suspended in 200 µl of lysis buffer containing 20 mM Hepes, pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 50 mM NaF, 1 mM Na3VO4, 10 µg/ml leupeptin, 1 mM PMSF, 1.8 µg/ml aprotinin, 1% Triton X-100, 0.1% deoxycholate, and 0.1% SDS. After a 30-min incubation on ice, the lysates were clarified by centrifugation at 14,000 rpm for 30 min, and were incubated with antibodies preabsorbed on Protein G-Sepharose (Pharmacia Biotech, Inc., Piscataway, NJ) for 1 h at 4°C. The immunocomplexes on Sepharose were washed six times with lysis buffer, after which the proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE, transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membranes, and probed with the indicated antibodies.
Gel Electrophoresis and Western Blot Analysis
SDS-PAGE was based on the discontinuous Tris-glycine system of Laemmli (1970). Western blot analysis was performed by one-dimensional electrophoresis, followed by electrophoretic transfer to PVDF membranes
which were then incubated with various antibodies. Antibodies were
detected by chemiluminescence ECL (Amersham Life Science, Inc., Arlington Heights, IL).
Blot Overlay Assay Using Recombinant aPKC, GST-ASIPs, and GST-PAR-3
GST-fusion proteins were produced in Escherichia coli, and were purified
on Glutathione Sepharose 4B (Pharmacia Biotech, Inc.) by a standard
procedure. GST-ASIP 584/708 and GST-ASIP 712/936 encode amino acid
residues 584-708 and 712-936, respectively, of ASIP fused downstream of
GST. GST-PAR-3 (p30-5) encodes amino acid residues 678-932 of PAR-3.
These proteins were subjected to SDS-PAGE and blotted onto a PVDF
membrane. After treatment with a 5% skim milk solution, the PVDF
membrane was incubated with 4 µg/ml of purified mouse PKC in 50 mM
Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, containing 0.5 M NaCl and 1% BSA for 3 h at room
temperature. The membrane was washed with TBS buffer, and the bound
proteins were detected with an anti-PKC
antibody (
Rb2), an alkaline
phosphatase-conjugated second antibody (Tago Inc., Burlingame, CA),
and an artificial substrate for alkaline phosphatase (Vector Labs, Inc.,
Burlingame, CA).
Immunofluorescence Microscopy
MDCKII and NIH3T3 cells plated on glass coverslips were fixed with
methanol-acetone (1:1) for 10 min at 20°C, and were then air-dried. The
cells were incubated with TBST (20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 150 mM NaCl,
0.05% Tween 20) containing 10% calf serum for 10 min at room temperature, incubated with primary antibodies for 45 min at 37°C, and washed
three times for 5 min each with TBST. After the first incubation, the cells
were incubated for 45 min at 37°C with secondary antibodies (FITC-conjugated goat anti-rabbit and Cy3-conjugated goat anti-mouse antibodies),
and were washed three times for 5 min each with TBST. Samples were viewed using an Olympus BX50. Images were captured with a Princeton Instruments digital camera. Images were manipulated using Adobe Photoshop software.
Immunocytochemistry of Rat Intestinal Epithelium and Hepatic Bile Capillary
Rat (10-wk-old) tissue samples were frozen in liquid nitrogen, and the frozen sections (~7 µM) were cut in a cryostat. The samples were mounted
on glass slides, fixed with methanol/acetone (1:1) for 10 min at 20°C, and
air-dried. After the samples were incubated with TBST containing 10%
calf serum for 10 min at room temperature, they were incubated with primary antibodies for 45 min at 37°C, and were washed three times for 5 min
each with TBST. After the first incubation, the cells were incubated for 45 min at 37°C with secondary antibodies (FITC-conjugated goat anti-rabbit and Cy3-conjugated goat anti-mouse antibodies) and washed three times
for 5 min with TBST. Samples were viewed using an Olympus BX50. Images were captured with a Princeton Instruments digital camera (Princeton Instruments, Trenton, NJ). Images were manipulated using Adobe
Photoshop software.
Immunoelectron Microscopy
Small pieces of rat small intestine were fixed in 2% formaldehyde (freshly
depolymerized from paraformaldehyde; Merck & Co., Whitehouse Station, NJ) in 0.1 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.4, and 5% sucrose for 30 min at 4°C. After rinsing, the tissue specimens were infused with a mixture
of sucrose and polyvinylpyrrolidone (Sigma Chemical Co.; Tokuyasu,
1989) and frozen rapidly in liquid nitrogen. Ultrathin (50-70 nm) cryosections were prepared as described (Liou et al., 1996
) and subjected to indirect immunolabeling with 10 nm colloidal gold-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG antibody (Amersham Life Science, Inc., Arlington Heights, IL).
The specimens were embedded in a mixture of 2% methylcellulose (Nacalai Tesque, Kyoto, Japan) and 0.4% uranyl acetate (Griffiths et al., 1986
).
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Results |
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Molecular Cloning, Primary Structure, and mRNA Expression of ASIP
To identify proteins that interact directly with aPKC, we
screened an NIH3T3 cDNA expression library using purified and autophosphorylated PKC as a probe. One
cDNA found, clone I-1, encoded a truncated form of a
novel protein, and we next screened a rat fibroblast 3Y1
cDNA library to obtain a full-length cDNA clone encoding the entire protein-coding sequence. This cDNA was
5,500 nucleotides in length, and contained a 1,337-amino
acid open reading frame. The open reading frame is preceded by 259 nucleotides containing an in-frame termination codon at nucleotide position -96 (compared with A at
the putative initiation codon), and is followed by a 1,227-nucleotide 3' noncoding sequence. Since the encoded protein shows binding for aPKC isotypes of the PKC family
(see below), we named it ASIP (aPKC-specific interacting
protein). The sequence of ASIP does not contain any apparent structural motif suggesting catalytic activity, but
contains three PDZ domains that are potentially involved
in protein-protein interactions (Saras and Heldin, 1996
; Sheng, 1996
) in addition to the aPKC-binding region (see
below; Fig. 1 d). A database search for sequence similarity
revealed Caenorhabditis elegans PAR-3 as the only protein with a significant overall sequence similarity (Fig. 1, a
and b). PAR-3 localizes asymmetrically to the periphery of
the C. elegans one-cell embryo, and is required for embryonic cell polarity (Etemad-Moghadam et al., 1995
). The
similarity between ASIP and PAR-3 involves an NH2-terminal conserved region (CR1), the three PDZ domains
(CR2), and a conserved sequence (CR3) in the aPKC-binding region. A Drosophila EST cDNA clone, AA439413,
also contains a sequence that shows significant similarity
to the sequence of CR1 (Fig. 1 c).
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Northern analysis of the ASIP mRNA from mouse tissues and mammalian cell lines shows that there are at least two different mRNA sizes, and that both are expressed ubiquitously in adult tissues and cell lines in slightly different manners (Fig. 2 A). The two kinds of ASIP mRNAs might be products of the same gene produced by alternative splicing, promoter usage, poly(A) addition, or they may be products of a related gene. Human chromosome mapping of the gene for ASIP using rat ASIP cDNA as a probe (Fig. 2 B, a and b) shows a single chromosomal localization on chromosome 10, band p11.2. This result suggests that the human ASIP gene is a single gene, although the possibility of the presence of tandem aligned multiple genes can not be excluded.
|
Association Between ASIP and aPKC in COS Cells
To confirm the association between aPKC and ASIP in intact cells and to examine the binding specificity of ASIP to
various PKC isotypes, we coexpressed ASIP and PKC isotypes in COS cells, and performed immunoprecipitation
experiments. When epitope-tagged-ASIP (tag-ASIP) is
immunoprecipitated from cells transfected with tag-ASIP and PKC, the overexpressed exogenous PKC
(lane tag-ASIP/PKC
) coprecipitates with ASIP along with the endogenous PKC
or PKC
(lane tag-ASIP; Fig. 3 a). The
reverse experiment, where PKC
is first immunoprecipitated and the immunoprecipitates are then probed with
anti-tag antibody, yields a tag-ASIP band (Fig. 3 b). Similar experiments using other PKC isotypes indicate that PKC
can also interact with ASIP in COS cells (Fig. 3 c),
while PKC
, a conventional PKC, and PKC
, a novel
PKC, do not (Fig. 3, d and e). Furthermore, the kinase domain of PKC
coprecipitates with ASIP (Fig. 3 f). These
results indicate that ASIP interacts with aPKC isotypes,
and that the kinase domain of aPKC is sufficient for the interaction.
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Direct Association of ASIP and C. elegans PAR-3 with aPKC
The original mouse ASIP cDNA (clone I-1), identified by
screening for protein interactions, contains only a part of
ASIP from amino acid residues 710-924; this region is sufficient for direct association with aPKC. An overlay assay
where rat ASIP was expressed as a GST fusion protein,
fixed on a filter, mixed with purified recombinant PKC,
and probed with an anti-PKC
antibody (Fig. 4), clearly
indicates that the interaction between ASIP and aPKC is a
direct one, and that the region from amino acids 712-936 of ASIP is sufficient for the interaction. Importantly, as
suggested by the sequence similarity between ASIP and C.
elegans PAR-3, the overlay assay also revealed that mouse
PKC
binds to GST-PAR-3 (a.a. residues 678-932; Fig. 4).
These regions in the two proteins are in the same relative
position with respect to the PDZ domains, and contain a
small segment (CR3) with 73% amino acid identity that
fits the consensus for phosphorylation by PKC (Fig. 1, a and b).
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In Vivo Association of ASIP with PKC in MDCKII
Epithelial Cells and NIH3T3 Fibroblasts
The experiments described above establish that ASIP and aPKC interact with each other directly in vitro and in COS cells. To evaluate the physiological significance of this interaction, we next examined the interaction in vivo. First, we raised anti-ASIP antibodies against two portions of the protein in three rabbits. One anti-serum, P1, was raised against the third PDZ domain (amino acid residues 584- 708), and the others, C1 and C2, were raised against the aPKC-binding region (712-936). All three antisera recognized bands of 180 and 150 kD on Western blots of proteins from MDCKII cells, a single band of 180 kD in NIH3T3 cells, and a major band of 150 kD in COS cells. The 180-kD band comigrates with the major band in COS cell extracts transfected with full-length ASIP cDNA (Fig. 5 a), indicating that the 180-kD band corresponds to ASIP encoded by the full-length cDNA sequence. Importantly, both the 180-kD and 150-kD bands disappear in the presence of excess amounts of antigen (Fig. 5 a). Although the present results strongly suggest that the 150-kD band observed in MDCKII and COS cells is a splicing variant of ASIP or the product of a related gene, its exact nature remains to be clarified in future experiments.
For immunohistochemical determination of the distribution of different aPKC isoforms, we searched among
available antibodies that can distinguish PKC from
PKC
. We selected anti-PKC
mouse monoclonal antibody (mAb), which specifically detects PKC
(data not
shown). Unfortunately, in our hands all the available antibodies directed against PKC
also recognize PKC
(data
not shown), so we have restricted our analysis to PKC
,
which complicates understanding of the distribution of
PKC
reported in previous publication. Western analysis
using the anti-PKC
(mAb) revealed a single band migrating at 70 kD in extracts of NIH3T3 and MDCKII cells, indicating that both cell lines express the PKC
isoform of
aPKC (Fig. 5 a).
To test the association of ASIP with PKC in vivo, we
used the ASIP-specific antibody, C2, and PKC
(mAb).
Immunoprecipitation of NIH3T3 cell extracts with anti-ASIP antibodies followed by Western blotting using anti-PKC
antibody detected a band corresponding to PKC
(Fig. 5 b). In MDCKII cells, immunoprecipitates obtained using anti-ASIP antibodies (C2) contain PKC
as well as
the two ASIP bands (180 kD and 150 kD; Fig. 5 c). These
results provide strong evidence that ASIP associates with
PKC
in vivo. Whether endogenous PKC
also interacts
with ASIP remains to be clarified because of the lack of
PKC
-specific antibodies.
Colocalization of ASIP with PKC at the Junctional
Complexin MDCKII and NIH3T3 Cells
C. elegans PAR-3 becomes localized asymmetrically in the
anterior periphery, and affects the asymmetric distribution
of other cytoplasmic components. Conservation of the
overall amino acid sequence and the aPKC-binding activity between ASIP and C. elegans PAR-3 led to our recent
findings that a C. elegans homologue of aPKC, PKC-3, is
required for establishing embryonic polarity, that PKC-3
localizes in the anterior periphery of the C. elegans one-cell embryo in a manner very similar to that of PAR-3, and that PKC-3 and PAR-3 are mutually required for their
asymmetric distributions (Tabuse et al., 1998). These findings not only provide strong evidence that aPKC and
PAR-3 cooperate together to determine cell polarity in
the C. elegans embryo, but also suggest the physiological importance of the interaction between ASIP and aPKC.
The conservation of the biochemical relationship between
ASIP/PAR-3 and aPKC/PKC-3 led us to investigate whether
ASIP and PKC
are involved in regulating cell polarity as
observed in C. elegans embryos.
In mammals, cell polarity has been studied intensively
using cultured epithelial cells such as MDCKII cells. To
evaluate the above possibility that the protein complex of
ASIP and aPKC is involved in regulating epithelial cell polarity, and to test further whether ASIP and PKC physically interact in vivo, we examined the cellular distribution
of ASIP and PKC
in MDCKII cells by double-label immunofluorescence microscopy. The results were as expected and exciting in that ASIP and PKC
showed overlapping localizations in vivo. Furthermore, they localize at
junctional complexes including tight junctions and adherens junctions.
As shown in Fig. 6, ASIP staining (green) appears as a
noncontinuous belt-like structure along the cell-cell contact region (Fig. 6 a). PKC staining (red) appears in a
very similar pattern in addition to punctate staining
throughout the cytoplasm (Fig. 6 b). Importantly, there is
considerable overlap in the staining patterns for ASIP and
PKC
at the cell-cell contact region (orange/yellow) (Fig.
6 c). Furthermore, ASIP staining (green; Fig. 6 d) almost completely overlaps in double immunostaining with ZO-1
(red; Fig. 6, e and f), a protein known to localize at the
tight junctions of epithelial cells. Confocal dissection revealed that signals for both antibodies are concentrated in
the cell-cell contact region facing the apical membrane
domain (data not shown). These results not only strongly
support the in vivo association of ASIP and PKC
, but
also suggest that both proteins are components of the epithelial junctional complex. Light microscopy doesn't allow us to distinguish whether this staining reflects localization to the tight junction, the adherens junction, or to both. As
described above, the anti-ASIP antibodies used in the
present study all detect two ASIP bands, at 180 kD and
150 kD in MDCKII cell extracts. Overexpression of the
180-kD band by introducing full-length ASIP cDNA results in an increase in the staining at the cell-cell contact region (data not shown), clearly indicating that the 180-kD
ASIP localizes to the junctional complex in MDCKII cells.
|
Essentially similar results are obtained for confluent cultures of NIH3T3 cells (Fig. 7), where adherens junctions
are formed at the cell-cell contact region (Reynolds et al.,
1996). In NIH3T3 cells, however, localization of ASIP and
PKC
to the cell-cell contact region is not so complete as
observed for MDCKII cells. More precisely, PKC
staining (red) mostly appears as a punctate pattern throughout
the cytoplasm (Fig. 7 b), whereas localization of ASIP is
mostly concentrated in the cell-cell contact region (Fig. 7
a). Importantly, there is again considerable overlap in the
staining patterns for ASIP and PKC
in the cell-cell contact region (orange/yellow; Fig. 7 c). In addition, the ASIP
staining (green; Fig. 7 d) also overlaps with that of ZO-1
(Fig. 7, e and f) in the cell-cell contact region in NIH3T3
cells. ZO-1 has been reported to localize at adherens junctions in confluent fibroblast cultures (Howarth et al., 1992
;
Itoh et al., 1993
; Yonemura et al., 1995
). Since NIH3T3
cells express only the 180-kD ASIP, the ASIP staining in
NIH3T3 cells is derived from this isoform. ASIP staining
in nonconfluent cultures of NIH3T3 cells appears as punctate structures distributed in the cytoplasm in a manner
similar to that of PKC
(data not shown).
|
Ca2+-dependent Distribution of PKC and ASIP at the
Junctional Complex of MDCKII Cells
To examine the requirement of cell-cell contact for the localization of PKC and ASIP at the junctional complex in
MDCKII cells, we monitored the localization of PKC
and ASIP during the formation and disappearance of cell-
cell contacts. Previous experiments have shown that Ca2+
depletion from the culture medium of MDCKII cells results in the disappearance of cell-cell contacts and loss of
tight junctions and adherens junctions (Gonzalez-Mariscal
et al., 1985
; Rajasekaran et al., 1996
; Yamamoto et al.,
1997
). Furthermore, adding Ca2+ to the culture medium
causes formation of cell-cell contacts with functional junctional complexes. As shown in Fig. 8, a and b, Ca2+ depletion from the culture medium results in cell rounding and disappearance of the specific staining for ASIP (green)
and PKC
(red) at the cell surface. Most of the staining
shows a cytoplasmic distribution that is slightly different
for PKC
and ASIP. These results suggest that colocalization of ASIP and PKC
require the presence of cell-cell
contacts. Fig. 8, c and d, show that adding Ca2+ results in
reconcentration of PKC
and ASIP in the cell-cell contact
region within 2 h. These properties of ASIP and PKC
are very similar to those of ZO-1 and E-cadherin (data not
shown; Rajasekaran et al., 1996
), and support the notion
that ASIP and PKC
are peripheral components of cell-
cell junctions.
|
Localization of ASIP and PKC at Tight Junctions in
Intestinal Epithelial Cells
To analyze the subcellular localization of the ASIP-PKC
complex in epithelial cells, we examined the distribution of
ASIP and PKC
in several rat tissues with epithelial junctional complexes. Small intestine is a typical tissue with
differentiated epithelial cells containing well-developed
cell-cell junctions. As shown in Fig. 9, a and b, ASIP staining (green) is concentrated at the lumen side of the epithelial cells where tight junctions and adherens junctions are
concentrated. Fig. 9 c shows another example of well-differentiated cell-cell junctions at the bile capillary formed
from hepatocytes. Again, ASIP staining is concentrated at
the cell-cell junctions. Fig. 9, d, e, and f show enlarged views of the intestinal epithelium, clearly indicating localization of both ASIP (green) and PKC
(red) staining at
the cell-cell junctions; double staining indicates colocalization of the two proteins (Fig. 9 f). Fig. 9, g, h, and i show
the results of similar experiments using antibodies for
ASIP (green) and ZO-1 (red), indicating colocalization of
ASIP and ZO-1. These results not only confirm the association between ASIP and PKC
in vivo, but also demonstrate the strong correlation between the ASIP-PKC
complex and the junctional complex.
|
We next used immuno-gold EM to examine whether ASIP localizes to tight junctions or adherens junctions in rat epithelia. Fig. 10 shows examples indicating that ASIP localizes to tight junctions, but not to adherens junctions in intestinal epithelia. This feature is very similar to that of ZO-1. These results provide strong evidence that ASIP and aPKC are peripheral components of tight junctions in epithelial cells.
|
![]() |
Discussion |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
ASIP is a Physiological Partner of PKC in
Differentiated Mammalian Cells
Protein kinase C plays a major role in intracellular signaling through lipid-derived second messengers (Nishizuka,
1995). However, the existence of multiple protein kinase C
isoforms, their different sensitivities to lipids and calcium,
and their diverse tissue and subcellular distribution suggest that different isoforms may have quite different physiological roles (Nishizuka, 1995
; Mochly-Rosen and Gordon, 1998
). Although overexpression studies and the use
of pseudosubstrate peptides or dominant negative mutants
of PKC isotypes have provided evidence consistent with the involvement of specific PKC isotypes in distinct cellular functions, their roles remain mostly elusive. As an alternative way to sort out these roles, efforts are being
made to identify and study proteins that interact directly
with different PKC isotypes. For example, attempts to understand the role of the atypical class of PKCs have led to
the identification of several interacting proteins. These include p62/ZIP (PKC
interacting protein), LIP (PKC
interacting protein), PAR-4 (which is induced upon cell apoptosis and is completely different from C. elegans polarity gene par-4), and Ras (Puls et al., 1997
; Diaz-Meco et al.,
1996a
; Diaz-Meco et al., 1996b
; Diaz-Meco et al., 1994
).
Demonstrating that these interactions are physiologically
relevant is the next step.
In this study, we identified a novel protein, ASIP, that
interacts with aPKC isotypes, PKC and PKC
, but not
with other PKC isotypes including cPKC (PKC
) and
nPKC (PKC
). This interaction is direct and involves the
kinase domain of aPKC binding to ASIP within a 225-
amino acid region. Importantly, this interaction is shown
for endogenous proteins in NIH3T3 cells and in MDCKII cells. Furthermore, we provide evidence that a protein
complex containing ASIP and PKC
is a peripheral component of tight junctions in epithelial cells. Quite interestingly, ASIP shows strong overall sequence similarity to the
C. elegans polarity protein PAR-3, and the interaction between ASIP and aPKC is conserved for PAR-3 and aPKC.
As described above, this led to our recent findings that a
C. elegans homologue of aPKC, PKC-3, is required for establishing embryonic polarity, binds to PAR-3 in COS
cells, and colocalizes with PAR-3 at the anterior periphery
of the one-cell embryo (Tabuse et al., 1998
).
ASIP as well as PAR-3 does not contain any sequence
motifs, suggesting catalytic activity, but does contain three
PDZ domains in CR2. PDZ domains (also called DHR or
GLGF) are found in many proteins such as the Drosophila
Dlg, PSD-95, and ZO-1, leading to the current understanding that PDZ domains serve as protein-protein interaction domains to localize protein complexes to the cell periphery (Saras and Heldin, 1996; Sheng, 1996
). Furthermore, analysis of the InaD protein, which contains five
PDZ domains each interacting with a different protein in
the Drosophila phototransduction pathway, suggested that
PDZ domain-containing proteins may serve as scaffolds
upon which components of signaling complexes are assembled (Tsunoda et al., 1997
). In addition to CR2, the CR1 region is conserved from worm to mammals, and may promote self-association of ASIP since the CR1 motif can interact with itself in the yeast two-hybrid system (T. Hirose,
Y. Izumi, and S. Ohno, unpublished results). Thus, we propose that ASIP and PAR-3 serve as scaffolds for aPKC
and other proteins to organize a signaling complex. Candidates for additional components in the ASIP/PAR-3 signaling complex include the previously reported aPKC-binding proteins, proteins localizing at tight junctions (see
below), and the putative mammalian homologues of C. elegans of par-5 and par-6, genes required for the proper localization of PAR-3 (Watts et al., 1996
; Guo and Kemphues, 1996
).
ASIP and aPKC are Peripheral Components of Cell-Cell Junctions
Immunofluorescence microscopy reveals that ASIP and
PKC colocalize to the most apical end of the cell-cell
contact region in MDCKII cells, and to the apical junction
in intact epithelial cells in rat intestine. Evidence that this
distribution reflects association with the tight junction
comes from colocalization of ASIP with the tight junction
component ZO-1 in both cases examined, the requirement
for Ca2+ to maintain this localization in MDCKII cells,
and immunoelectron microscopy in intestinal epithelia.
The localization of PKC
to the cell-cell contact region is
consistent with the previous observation that the signals
obtained using anti-PKC
antibodies overlap with those of
ZO-1 in MDCKII cells (Saxon et al., 1994
; Stuart and Nigam, 1995
; Dodane and Kachar, 1996
).
Tight junctions are the most apical intercellular junctions of epithelial and endothelial cells, and create a regulatable semipermeable diffusion barrier between individual cells (Balda and Matter, 1998). On a cellular level, they
form an intramembrane diffusion fence that restricts the
intermixing of apical and basolateral membrane components, leading to the asymmetric distribution of proteins
and other cytoplasmic structures. These functions of tight
junctions are dynamically regulated, but the molecular
mechanism remains elusive. Identification of proteins localizing at tight junctions is starting to help us to understand the function of and regulation of tight junctions.
These include proteins localizing at tight junctions such as
ZO-1 (Stevenson et al., 1986
; Willott et al., 1993
; Itoh et
al., 1993
), ZO-2 (Gumbiner et al., 1991
; Jesaitis and Goodenough, 1994
), and p130/ZO-3 (Balda et al., 1993
; Haskins
et al., 1998
), which share sequence similarities to Drosophila tumor suppressor DlgA, a tumor suppressor and
peripheral component of septate junctions, the Drosophila
version of mammalian tight junction (Woods et al., 1996
).
In addition, cingulin (Citi et al., 1988
), 7H6 (Zhong et al.,
1993
), Rab3B (Weber et al., 1994
), symplekin (Keon et al.,
1996
), and AF-6 (Yamamoto et al., 1997
) are known to be
present at tight junctions. However, limited information is
available concerning the roles these proteins play in the
function and regulation of the tight junction.
Although some tight junction proteins such as ZO-1,
ZO-2, p130/ZO-3, and cingulin are phosphorylated, there
are no correlations between phosphorylation level and
tight junction assembly (Balda et al., 1993; Citi and Denisenko, 1995
). The presence of the consensus PKC phosphorylation sequence in the CR3 of ASIP and PAR-3
suggests that PKC
regulates this complex through phosphorylation. Consistent with this notion, ASIP domains,
expressed as GST-fusion proteins in E. coli, are efficiently
phosphorylated by recombinant mouse PKC
(data not
shown). The identification of ASIP and PKC
as proteins
locating at tight junctions has the potential to accelerate understanding of tight junction regulation or function.
We have shown that ASIP colocalizes with ZO-1 to the
cell-cell contact region in confluent cultures of NIH3T3
cells, which do not form tight junctions. Since ZO-1 localizes to the adherens junction in nonepithelial cells (Howarth et al., 1992; Itoh et al., 1993
; Yonemura et al., 1995
), it
appears that ASIP and PKC
are components of adherens
junctions in cells that do not form tight junctions. Not all
of the PKC
colocalizes with ASIP at putative junctional
complexes. Punctate staining is detectable in the cytoplasm of MDCKII cells and confluent NIH3T3 cells. One possibility is that this cytoplasmic staining represents
PKC
localization to the lysosome-targeted endosomal
compartment as was recently described for PKC
/
and its
binding partner ZIP/p62 (Sanchez et al., 1998
).
Analogy Between Epithelial Cell Polarity and That in Worm Embryogenesis
The conservation of a physical interaction between aPKC
and ASIP/PAR-3 in worms and mammals raises the intriguing possibility that they are components of a widely
used signaling complex whose role might include the determination of cell polarity. Another component of the C.
elegans polarity system, PAR-1, is a member of a conserved family of kinases with several mammalian members. Rat family members MARK1 and MARK2 have
been shown to phosphorylate microtubule-associated proteins, and the overexpression of MARK1 or MARK2 disrupts microtubule arrays in CHO cells (Drewes et al., 1997). Two other family members, a human protein, Kp78,
and a mouse protein, EMK, localize asymmetrically in polarized epithelial cells (Parsa, 1988
; Böhm et al., 1997
). Interestingly, the mouse homologue of MARK2, EMK, is
distributed on the lateral surface of MDCK cells, and this
distribution ends at the tight junction where ZO-1 localizes (Böhm et al., 1997
). Taken together with the findings
on C. elegans PKC-3 (Tabuse et al., 1998
), the present study supports earlier speculation about a possible parallel
between C. elegans embryos and mammalian epithelial
cells (Fig. 11; Böhm et al., 1997
).
|
As clearly demonstrated in the present study, ASIP and
aPKC are components of tight junctions in epithelial cells,
and may be involved in the function of tight junctions.
They also localize to adherens junctions in cells without
tight junctions, and are expressed in cells without cell-cell
junctions. These results support the hypothesis that the
protein complex of ASIP and PKC is involved in the organization of cell polarity in epithelial cells. Alternatively,
the protein complex might be a type of conserved biochemical machine used for diverse cellular functions. Clarification of the nature of the ASIP-aPKC protein complex
will greatly enhance our understanding of the function of
cell-cell junctions in the organization of cells, and hence
the mechanism regulating cell growth and differentiation
in multicellular organisms.
![]() |
Footnotes |
---|
Received for publication 19 July 1998 and in revised form 18 August 1998.
Address all correspondence to Dr. Shigeo Ohno, Department of Molecular Biology, Yokohama City University School of Medicine, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama 236-0004, Japan. Tel.: 81-45-787-2596. Fax: 81-45-785-4140. E-mail: ohnos{at}med.yokohama-cu.ac.jp
We thank Dr. Shoichiro Tsukita and Dr. Masahiko Ito (Kyoto University) for the anti-ZO-1 monoclonal antibody, MDCKII cells, and discussion, Dr. Hiroshi Nojima (Osaka University) for the rat 3Y1-cDNA library, and Kumi Noda for technical help. This work was supported by grants to S. Ohno and Y. Izumi from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture of Japan and Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science.
![]() |
Abbreviations used in this paper |
---|
ASIP, atypical PKC isotype-specific interacting protein; GST, glutathione-S-transferase; PKC, protein kinase C; PVDF, polyvinylidene difluoride; tag-ASIP, epitope-tagged-ASIP.
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