From the
Departments of Molecular Microbiology and
Immunology, ¶Pathology, and
||Biochemistry and Molecular Biology in Disease,
Institute of Atomic Bomb Disease, Nagasaki University Graduate School of
Biomedical Sciences, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan
Received for publication, April 8, 2003
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ABSTRACT |
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INTRODUCTION |
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We previously established a line of PrP-deficient mice, designated Ngsk Prnp0/0, that exhibited late-onset ataxia because of cerebellar Purkinje cell degeneration (4), which was rescued by the mouse wild-type PrP gene (Prnp) (5). Subsequently, these results were reproduced in two independent lines, Rcm0 and Zrch II Prnp0/0 mice (6, 7). In contrast, two other independent lines, Zrch I and Edbg Prnp0/0, have never revealed such a phenotype (8, 9). Recent studies have provided evidence that the ectopic expression of a PrP-like protein/Doppel (PrPLP/Dpl) in the neuron of ataxic Prnp0/0 mouse lines but not non-ataxic lines could explain the discrepancy between phenotypes (6, 10). Disruption of a part of the Prnp intron 2, including its splicing acceptor, in all the ataxic lines leads to unusual intergenic splicing between Prnp and the downstream gene, designated Prnd, encoding PrPLP/Dpl. As a consequence, the PrPLP/Dpl gene comes under the control of the Prnp promoter, leading to the ectopic expression of PrPLP/Dpl in the neuron. In the physiological situation, PrPLP/Dpl mRNA is expressed at a high level in the testis and heart but is not detectable in the brain except for transient expression by brain endothelial cells around 1 week after birth (11). A study using PrPLP/Dpl-deficient mice has suggested a physiological role for PrPLP/Dpl in spermatogenesis (12). Recent reports demonstrated that introduction of a transgene encoding PrPLP/Dpl rendered Zrch I Prnp0/0 mice capable of reproducing the Purkinje cell degeneration observed in the Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice (13). This is direct evidence confirming that both ectopic expression of PrPLP/Dpl and functional loss of PrP are required for the neurodegeneration in Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice.
PrPLP/Dpl, a glycoprotein expressed on the cell surface with a
glycosylphosphatidylinositol moiety
(14), consists of 179 amino
acids with 23% identity to PrP in the primary structure but lacking the unique
octapeptide-repeat region and hydrophobic region present in the N-terminal
half of PrP (10). An NMR study
revealed similarities in the tertiary structure between PrPLP/Dpl and the
C-terminal half of PrP, both of which are composed of two short -strands
and three
-helices
(15). Interestingly,
expression of a transgene encoding truncated PrP lacking N-terminal residues
32121 or 32134 in nonataxic Zrch I
Prnp0/0 mice also resulted
in severe cerebellar degeneration, which was abrogated by reintroduction of
the wild-type mouse PrP gene
(16). These results have
suggested that PrPLP/Dpl and N-terminal-truncated (del32121 or
32134) PrP are toxic to neurons through similar mechanisms and that
wild-type PrP may have a neuroprotective function.
In the present study, to further elucidate mechanisms of the Purkinje cell death, we generated five different transgenic mouse lines expressing, respectively, heterologous, chimeric, and mutant PrPs on the Ngsk Prnp0/0 background. A transgene encoding PrP-lacking N-terminal residues 2388 failed to rescue the Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice from Purkinje cell degeneration, indicating a crucial role for the residues. The roles of PrPLP/Dpl aggregation and impaired metabolism of reactive oxygen species in the brain tissues of Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice were also evaluated.
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES |
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AntibodiesThe anti-PrP polyclonal mouse antiserum used was described previously (5). We produced anti-PrPLP/Dpl polyclonal rabbit antiserum using full-length (27155) recombinant mouse PrPLP/Dpl. 3F4 anti-PrP antibody was purchased from Dako. SAF-mix antibody was a kind gift from Dr. S. Lehmann (22). Horseradish peroxidase-conjugated anti-mouse IgG and anti-rabbit IgG antibodies were purchased from Amersham Biosciences.
Western BlottingBrain homogenates (10%, w/v) were prepared in a lysis buffer containing 150 mM NaCl, 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 0.5% Triton X-100, 0.5% sodium deoxycholate, 1 mM EDTA, and protease inhibitor mixture (Roche Applied Science). Postnuclear supernatants were collected after low speed centrifugation, and protein concentrations were determined using the BCA protein assay (Pierce). Samples were electrophoresed through SDS-polyacrylamide gel and transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride membrane (Millipore). Anti-PrP polyclonal mouse antiserum or anti-PrPLP/Dpl polyclonal rabbit antiserum was used as a probe, and immunoreactive bands were visualized using the ECL system (Amersham Biosciences).
PNGase F DigestionPNGase F digestion of brain homogenates
was performed according to the manufacturer's protocol (New England Bio-labs).
Briefly, glycoproteins of each sample were denatured by boiling for 10 min in
0.5% SDS and 1% -mercaptoethanol.
volume of 10% Nonidet
P-40,
volume of 0.5
M sodium phosphate (pH 7.5), and 2 µl of PNGase F (500
units/µl) were added to each sample. After incubation for 2 h at 37 °C,
samples were subjected to Western blotting analysis.
Detergent Insolubility of PrPLP/DplPostnuclear supernatants were diluted to a 4 mg/ml protein concentration in the lysis buffer with or without Sarcosyl (1% final concentration). After incubation on ice for 30 min, samples were centrifuged at 108,000 x g for 45 min at 4 °C. Proteins in the pellets and supernatant were analyzed by Western blotting.
ImmunohistochemistryDeparaffinized sections were digested with 1 mg/ml trypsin for 15 min at 37 °C and then placed in 3% H2O2 in methanol for 30 min at room temperature to abolish endogenous peroxidase activity. The tissue sections were incubated overnight at 4 °C with anti-spot 35 (calbindin) polyclonal antibody. To detect spot 35 immunoreactivities, we used the EnVision+, in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations (Dako). The antibody-bound peroxidase was revealed with 0.04% diaminobenzidine (Sigma).
Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) and Glutathione Peroxidase (Gpx) ActivitiesBrain homogenates were prepared in phosphate-buffered saline containing 1 mM EDTA and protease inhibitor mixture (Roche Applied Science). Homogenates were centrifuged at 10,000 x g for 10 min, and supernatants were subjected to analysis. The protein concentration of the supernatants was determined using the BCA protein assay (Pierce). The total SOD activity was measured by inhibition of the reduction rate of nitro blue tetrazolium, monitored at 560 nm using xanthine and the xanthine oxidase system. One unit of SOD activity was defined as the amount of the enzyme required to inhibit the reduction rate of nitro blue tetrazolium by 50%. The activity was expressed as units/mg of protein. To measure Mn-SOD activity, the reaction mixture was treated with 2 mM potassium cyanide. To obtain Cu/Zn-SOD activity, the amount of Mn-SOD activity was subtracted from the total SOD activity. The Gpx activity was measured by determining the rate of NADPH oxidation to NADP, monitored at 340 nm using glutathione reductase and the NADPH system. The activity was expressed as nmol/min/mg of protein.
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RESULTS |
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Immunostaining with anti-spot 35 (calbindin) antibody of the brain sections derived from 20-month-old Ngsk Prnp0/0 and Tg-MHM2.del2388/Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice revealed an extensive loss of Purkinje cells throughout most of the cerebellar vermis (Fig. 2, B and G). No difference was found in the extent of Purkinje cell loss between the two mouse lines. In contrast, the Tg-SHa, Tg-MH2M, Tg-MHM2, and Tg-Mo.E199K/Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice showed no Purkinje cell loss (Fig. 2, A, C, D, E, and F).
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Expression of Transgene-encoded PrP in the Brain Tissues of Tg/Ngsk Prnp0/0 Mouse LinesExpression of the transgene products, PrPs, in the brain tissues of 4-month-old Tg mice was examined by Western blotting using polyclonal anti-PrP mouse serum (Fig. 3) and SAF-mix anti-PrP monoclonal antibody (data not shown). Two lines, Tg-MHM2 and Tg-MHM2.del2388/Ngsk Prnp0/0, overexpressed PrP about four to eight times more than wild-type mice. The expression levels of the remaining three, Tg-SHa, Tg-MH2M, and Tg-Mo.E199K/Ngsk Prnp0/0, appeared to be equivalent to that of wild-type mice.
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As shown in Fig. 4A, after deglycosylation by PNGase F, SAF-mix visualized two clear bands of 18 and 27 kDa and a faint band of 21 kDa in the brain homogenates from Tg-SHa and Tg-MHM2/Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice, but 3F4 monoclonal antibody failed to detect an 18-kDa product (Fig. 4B). It has been demonstrated that PrPC undergoes physiological proteolytic cleavage at amino acid residues 110/111 or 111/112, leading to the production of a C-terminal fragment, C1 (23). Because the cleavage occurs within the linear 3F4 epitope, C1 is recognized by SAF-mix but not by 3F4. The 18-kDa band is thus most likely to correspond to C1. The remaining 27- and 21-kDa bands are likely to be the full-length PrP and another C-terminal minor product, C2, respectively. The brain tissues from MHM2.del2388/Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice also expressed an 18-kDa band that reacted with SAF-mix but not 3F4, in addition to its full-length product of 20 kDa (lane 6 in Fig. 4, A and B).
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Expression Levels and Detergent Insolubility of PrPLP/Dpl in the Brain Tissues of Tg/Ngsk Prnp0/0 Mouse LinesPrPLP/Dpl expression levels in the brains were examined by Western blotting with polyclonal anti-PrPLP/Dpl rabbit antiserum. Although the brain tissues of Prnp+/+ mice expressed no detectable PrPLP/Dpl, the Tg/Ngsk Prnp0/0 mouse lines all exhibited PrPLP/Dpl expression at levels equivalent to those of Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice (Fig. 5). The expression levels remained stable during aging, even after the onset of ataxia (data not shown).
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Accumulating evidence has indicated that certain neurodegenerative conditions are caused by aggregation of detergent-insoluble proteins, such as PrPSc, in the central nervous system (24). To evaluate the possibility of PrPLP/Dpl aggregation in the brain tissues, we examined the detergent-insolubility of PrPLP/Dpl in the brains of ataxic Ngsk Prnp0/0 and Tg-SHa/Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice at 98 weeks of age. As shown in Fig. 6A, PrPLP/Dpl was partially insoluble in the buffer containing 0.5% Triton X-100 and 0.5% sodium deoxycholate but completely solubilized by 1% sarcosyl. The levels of Triton X-100-insoluble fraction of PrPLP/Dpl were similar between Ngsk Prnp0/0 and Tg-SHa/Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice even at 98 weeks of age and did not increase during aging (Fig. 6B).
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SOD and Gpx Activities in the Brain Tissues of Ngsk Prnp0/0 Mice Are Not ReducedFinally, the possible involvement of the down-regulation of anti-oxidative enzyme activities in the neurodegeneration in Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice was evaluated. The activities of SOD and Gpx in the brain tissues of Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice at 6 months of age were measured and compared with those of two age-matched control mouse lines, Prnp+/+and Tg-Mo.PrP/Ngsk Prnp0/0. Cu/Zn-SOD activities of Prnp+/+, Ngsk Prnp0/0, and Tg-Mo.PrP/Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice were 169.2 ± 3.1, 182.8 ± 14.9, and 183.4 ± 10.5 units/mg protein (mean ± S.D.), respectively, and Mn-SOD activities were 19.8 ± 2.3, 19.2 ± 2.7, and 18.2 ± 0.4 units/mg protein, respectively (Fig. 7A). There was no statistically significant difference. Gpx activities were also similar among the mouse lines: 67.1 ± 4.8, 63.7 ± 5.3, and 62.9 ± 0.8 nmol/min/mg protein, respectively (Fig. 7B).
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DISCUSSION |
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Although various hypothetical models have been proposed, precise mechanisms
for the neurodegeneration seen in Ngsk
Prnp0/0 mice remain to be
elucidated. In addition to the structural similarities between PrP and
PrPLP/Dpl, the previous finding that a recombinant C-terminal PrP
(121231) fragment could convert into a -sheet-rich structure at
acidic pH in vitro
(26) prompted us to examine
the involvement of abnormal PrPLP/Dpl aggregation in the neurodegeneration.
However, we failed to detect detergent-insoluble PrPLP/Dpl accumulation in the
central nervous system of Ngsk
Prnp0/0 mice even after the
onset of ataxia. PrPLP/Dpl contains two intramolecular disulfide bonds at the
C-terminal portion (14), in
contrast to PrP with a single disulfide bond, which has been shown to be
necessary for conversion to the pathogenic isoform, PrPSc. The
structures determined by intramolecular disulfide bonds may account for the
difference between the two proteins in the potential for structural
conversion.
It is noteworthy that the MHM2.del2388 transgene, which encoded a product lacking almost the entire unique octapeptide-repeat region, failed to rescue Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice from neurodegeneration. Little difference was observed in the pathology and onset of ataxia between Ngsk Prnp0/0 and Tg-MHM2.del2388/Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice. The PrP expression level of Tg-MHM2.del2388/Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice was higher than that of Tg-SHa and Tg-MH2M/Ngsk Prnp0/0 but similar to that of Tg-MHM2/Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice. This strongly indicates that the N-terminal part of PrP is essential to the rescue from Purkinje cell death. In contrast, MHM2.del2388 PrP was shown to retain the potential to convert into the pathogenic isoform in prion-infected cell cultures (27) and brain tissues of Tg-MHM2.del2388 mice (19). The N-terminal region could thus be a key factor for determining whether physiological function is maintained but is likely to be less important in pathogenic structural conversion.
Because the unique octapeptide-repeat region has the potential to bind copper (28), PrP may function in the transport or metabolism of copper in the neuron (2931). Copper is involved in various aspects of reactive oxygen species metabolism (32). It could thus be possible that impaired copper transport may result in reactive oxygen species accumulation, leading to cell death. Indeed, the reduced activity of Cu/Zn-SOD in the brains of Zrch I Prnp0/0 mice has been reported (33). However, along with other contradictory reports (34), the present study failed to show reduced activities of Cu/Zn-SOD, Mn-SOD, and Gpx in the brains of Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice. The fact that Cu/Zn-SOD-deficient mice have never developed any neurological signs such as ataxia (35) also argues against a causal relationship between reduced activity of Cu/Zn-SOD and Purkinje cell death.
Interestingly, Tg mice expressing PrP.del32121 or 32134 on the Zrch I Prnp0/0 background also developed cerebellar cell death, but those with wild-type Prnp background did not (16). The two mutant PrPs lack a part of or most of the hydrophobic region (111134), in addition to the octapeptide-repeat region, which are also absent in PrPLP/Dpl. The structural similarities between PrP.del32121/32134 and PrPLP/Dpl strongly suggested that a common mechanism is involved in the neurodegeneration in the Tg mice and Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice. Behrens and Aguzzi (36) have hypothesized an as yet unidentified ligand, which harbors affinities to both PrP and PrPLP/Dpl or the N terminus-truncated PrPs. In the absence of PrP, binding of the putative ligand to PrPLP/Dpl or PrP.del32121/32134 may trigger an apoptotic signal or prevent a survival signal. On the other hand, in the presence of PrP, the binding would be impeded because of much lower affinity. If this is the case, the failure of MHM2.del2388 PrP in the phenotype rescue suggests that residues 2388 include a site critical for ligand binding or functional transduction of ligand signals. Recent studies have demonstrated that copper binds not only to the octapeptide-repeat region but also to the C-terminal PrP-(91231/121231) fragments (37, 38) and PrPLP/Dpl (39). Hence, copper could be one candidate for this hypothetical ligand, acting to raise a neurotoxic signal or prevent a survival signal through binding to PrPLP/Dpl or PrP.del32121/32134.
We demonstrated that MHM2.del2388 PrP, as well as full-length PrP, underwent proteolytic cleavage leading to the production of C1. This indicated that loss of the N-terminal residues 2388 did not affect the cleavage, and C1 was not necessary for the phenotype rescue. It has also been shown that a N-terminal cleavage product, PrP-(23110/111), designated N1, was released into the supernatant of cultured cells (40). An intriguing hypothesis is that N1 may play a neuroprotective role outside of the cells. For instance, it may bind to copper or other molecules to produce a neuroprotective signal. The N1 derived from MHM2.del2388 PrP lacking the octapeptide-repeat region is unlikely to preserve this function. It would be of value to examine the potential of N1 to rescue Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice from the Purkinje cell death.
Another model for the neurodegeneration to be evaluated is that the absence of PrP might make cerebellar cells vulnerable to a constitutive weak apoptotic signal transduced by PrPLP/Dpl (36). PrP could raise an anti-apoptotic signal independently and protect from the PrPLP/Dpl-induced apoptosis. Accumulating evidence has supported an anti-apoptotic role of PrP. For instance, overexpression of PrP protected human primary neurons from Bax-mediated apoptosis (41). The protective effect was abolished by deletion of the octapeptide-repeat region, residues 5688, of human PrP. Serum withdrawal-induced apoptosis of immortalized hippocampal cells derived from Prnp0/0 mice was also prevented by overexpressed PrP or Bcl-2 (42). Chiarini et al. (43) recently demonstrated evidence that a peptide capable of binding to residues 113128 of PrP protected developing retina neurons from apoptosis via activation of cAMP-dependent protein kinase. The same group has identified stress-inducible protein 1, a heat-shock protein, which binds residues 113128 of PrP and promotes a neuroprotective signal (44). Interestingly, expression of PrP.del32121/32134 in Zrch I Prnp0/0 mice induced cerebellar neurodegeneration, but MHM2.del2388 PrP preserving residues 113128 did not. The absence of the potential to bind to stress-inducible protein 1 may be crucial for the neurotoxic effects of PrP.del32121/32134 and PrPLP/Dpl.
In prion diseases, the constitutive conversion of PrP into the pathogenic isoform, PrPSc, is likely to result in the functional loss of normal PrP (45). If PrPSc mimics the neurotoxic role of PrPLP/Dpl or PrP.del32121/32134, Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice lacking PrP but ectopically expressing PrPLP/Dpl in neurons could be a valuable model for the neurodegeneration. Alternatively, it is also possible that the mechanisms of neurodegeneration in mice are distinct from those of prion diseases, based on the present finding that no detergent-insoluble PrPLP/Dpl was detectable in mouse brain tissues. Elucidation of the molecular mechanisms responsible for the neurodegeneration in Ngsk Prnp0/0 mice would provide new insights into the understanding of the pathogenesis of prion diseases and other neurodegenerative conditions, as well as the physiological function of PrP.
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FOOTNOTES |
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Research Resident of the Japan Health Sciences Foundation.
** To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel.: 81-95-849-7059; Fax: 81-95-849-7060; E-mail: ryu-ngs{at}umin.ac.jp.
1 The abbreviations used are: PrP, prion protein; PrPLP/Dpl, PrP-like
protein/Doppel; SOD, superoxide dismutase; Gpx, glutathione peroxidase; Mo.,
mouse; Tg, transgenic.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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REFERENCES |
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