Regulation of Lipocalin-type Prostaglandin D Synthase Gene Expression by Hes-1 through E-box and Interleukin-1beta via Two NF-kappa B Elements in Rat Leptomeningeal Cells*

Ko FujimoriDagger §, Yasushi FujitaniDagger , Keiichi KadoyamaDagger , Haruko KumanogohDagger , Koichi Ishikawa||, and Yoshihiro UradeDagger **

From the Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Corporation and the Dagger  Department of Molecular Behavioral Biology, Osaka Bioscience Institute, 6-2-4 Furuedai, Suita, Osaka 565-0874 and the || Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, Showa-machi, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8512, Japan

Received for publication, August 13, 2002, and in revised form, October 18, 2002

    ABSTRACT
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

The promoter function of the rat lipocalin-type prostaglandin D synthase (L-PGDS) gene was characterized in primary cultures of leptomeningeal cells prepared from the neonatal rat brain. Luciferase reporter assays with deletion and site-directed mutation of the promoter region (-1250 to +77) showed that an AP-2 element at -109 was required for activation and an E-box at +57, for repression. Binding of nuclear factors to each of these cis-elements was demonstrated by an electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Several components of the Notch-Hes signaling pathway, Jagged, Notch1, Notch3, and Hes-1, were expressed in the leptomeningeal cells. Human Hes-1 co-expressed in the leptomeningeal cells bound to the E-box of the rat L-PGDS gene, and repressed the promoter activity of the rat L-PGDS gene in a dose-dependent manner. The L-PGDS gene expression was up-regulated slowly by interleukin-1beta to the maximum level at 24 h. The reporter assay with deletion and mutation revealed that two NF-kappa B elements at -1106 and -291 were essential for this up-regulation. Binding of two NF-kappa B subunits, p65 and c-Rel, to these two NF-kappa B elements occurred after the interleukin-1beta treatment. Therefore, the L-PGDS gene is the first gene identified as the target for the Notch-Hes signal through the E-box among a variety of genes involved in the prostanoid biosynthesis, classified to the lipocalin family, and expressed in the leptomeninges. Moreover, the L-PGDS gene is a unique gene that is activated slowly by the NF-kappa B system.

    INTRODUCTION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Lipocalin-type prostaglandin (PG)1 D synthase (L-PGDS) was first identified in the rat brain as an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion to PGD2 from PGH2, the latter being a common precursor of all prostanoids (1). Later, L-PGDS was found to be identical to beta -trace (2, 3), which had been identified earlier (4) as the major protein in human cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). PGD2 is a major prostanoid in the brain, known as the most potent endogenous somnogenic substance thus far identified (5), and is involved in various physiological events such as regulation of sleep and pain responses (5-8). Because human L-PGDS-overexpressing transgenic mice (9) and L-PGDS-gene knock-out mice (10, 11) showed abnormality in the regulation of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and pain responses, PGD2 produced by L-PGDS is thought to play important roles in the regulation of NREM sleep and pain sensation in the central nervous system. Alternatively L-PGDS binds small lipophilic molecules such as retinal and retinoic acid (Kd = 70-80 nM) (12) and biliverdin and bilirubin (Kd = 33-37 nM) (13) with affinities higher than those of other members of the lipocalin family. Therefore, L-PGDS is a unique bifunctional protein acting as a PGD2-producing enzyme and as a lipophilic molecule-binding protein (6-8).

L-PGDS is expressed abundantly in the human heart (14), the male genital organs (15-17), and the central nervous system (18-20) of various mammals. In the brain, this enzyme is expressed dominantly in the leptomeninges, chroid plexus, and oligodendrocytes but poorly in neurons, astrocytes, and microglial cells (18-20). These distribution profiles suggest that L-PGDS gene expression is differentially regulated in a tissue- and cell type-specific manner. García-Fernández et al. (21, 22) found that L-PGDS gene expression was regulated by the thyroid hormone during brain development in rats and demonstrated that the thyroid hormone responsive element was functional in COS-7 cells (23). White et al. (24) also demonstrated that L-PGDS gene expression was induced by the thyroid hormone through its responsive element in human TE671 cells derived from a medulloblastoma in the cerebellum. Moreover, L-PGDS gene expression was induced by dexamethasone in mouse neuronal GT1-7 cells (25). However, the regulatory mechanisms of L-PGDS gene expression have never been analyzed in the leptomeningeal cells, which show the highest expression of this gene (18-20). On the other hand, the L-PGDS level in the rat CSF was increased by the administration of a proinflammatory cytokine, interleukin (IL)-1beta (26). IL-1beta and tumor necrosis factor-alpha activate the NF-kappa B system (27) to elicit somnogenic activities (28, 29). The sleep-inducing effects of IL-1beta and tumor necrosis factor-alpha were proposed to be mediated by L-PGDS, because these effects were inhibited by administration of inhibitors of PG synthesis to animals (29). However, the transcriptional regulation of the L-PGDS gene by the NF-kappa B system has never been clarified.

In this study, we characterized the rat L-PGDS gene promoter in the primary cultures of leptomeningeal (LM) cells prepared from neonatal rat brains and identified an AP-2 element for the transcriptional activation, an E-box element for the repression, and two NF-kappa B elements for slow induction by IL-1beta . Among various genes involved in prostanoid biosynthesis, classified as members of the lipocalin family and expressed in the leptomeninges, the L-PGDS gene is the first one identified to be a target of Hes-1, a mammalian homolog of Drosophila Hairy and Enhancer of split of the Notch-Hes signal pathway. The L-PGDS gene is thus the second identified gene encoding an enzyme suppressed by the Notch-Hes signal, as the human acid alpha -glucosidase gene was the first one (30, 31). Moreover, the L-PGDS gene is a novel example of a small number of genes slowly up-regulated through activation of NF-kappa B subunits by IL-1beta , similar to the Mn-superoxide dismutase gene (32) but different from many of the IL-1beta -activated genes identified up to the present.

    EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Cell Culture-- The LM cells were prepared from the external leptomeninges surrounding the cerebral cortex of neonatal rats as described previously (33). Rat cell lines, i.e. F2408 (embryo), RNB (astrocyte), and C6 (glia), were obtained from the Institute for Fermentation (Osaka, Japan). Cells were cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (Sigma) or Ham's F-10 medium (Invitrogen) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (JRH Bioscience, Lenexa, KS), 50 units/ml penicillin G (Meiji Seika, Tokyo, Japan), and 50 µg/ml streptomycin sulfate (Meiji Seika) at 37 °C under 5% CO2.

RNA Analysis-- Total RNA was prepared by the acid guanidinium-thiocyanate/phenol/chloroform method (34). For reverse transcription (RT)-PCR analysis, first-strand cDNAs were synthesized from total RNA (1 µg) by RNase H- SuperScript II reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen) and oligo(dT)-adapter primer (Takara Shuzo, Kyoto, Japan) at 42 °C for 60 min after denaturation of the RNA at 72 °C for 3 min. PCR was conducted with RT products used as the template, LA Taq DNA polymerase (Takara Shuzo), and gene-specific primer sets under the following conditions: initial denaturation at 96 °C for 5 min, followed by 96 °C for 20 s, 55 °C for 20 s, and 72 °C for 1 min for 30-40 cycles. The gene-specific primer sets used were chemically synthesized with the reference to the deposited sequence information. L-PGDS-T (5'-GACAAGTTTCTGGGGCGCTGGT-3') and L-PGDS-C (5'-GCTGTAGAGGGTGGCCATGCGG-3') for L-PGDS (35), G3PDH-5' (5'-ACCACAGTCCATGCCATCAC-3') and G3PDH-3' (5'-TCCACCACCCTGTTGCTGTA-3') for glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (G3PDH) (36), Jagged-F (5'-ATGCGGTCCCCACGGACGCGC-3') and Jagged-R (5'-GCCTTTTCAATTATGCTATCAGG-3') for Jagged (37), Jagged2-F (5'-CCCGTGCTGGGTAGCAACTCC-3) and Jagged2-R (5'-GCCCTGCCAGCCATAGCTGCACC-3') for Jagged2 (38), HES1-F (5'-GTCATCAAAGCCTATCATGGAG-3') and HES1-R (5'-GTGCGCCTGCCCGGGGTAGGTC-3') for Hes-1 (36), HES2-F (5'-ATGAGACTGCCTAGAGGAGTAGGGG-3') and HES2-R (5'-CTACCATGGCCTCCAAAGTCCAAGGC-3') for Hes-2 (39), HES3-F (5'-ATGGAGAAGAAGCGTCGTGCCCGC-3') and HES3-R (5'-TCACCAGGGCCGCCACACGCGAAACC-3') for Hes-3 (40), HES5-F (5'-ATGGCCCCAAGTACCGTGGCGG-3') and HES5-R (5'-TCACCAGGGCCGCCAGAGGCCG-3') for Hes-5 (41), Notch1-F1 (5'-ATGCCGCGGCTCCTGGCGCCC-3') and Notch1-F2 (5'-CGTGCTATGTTGTGGACCATGGC-3') as the forward primers and Notch1-R (5'-CACACTCGTGGGTGGTGTCCCCCG-3') as the reverse primer for Notch1 (42), Notch2-F1 (5'-GTCCTCAGGCTTCCCTGGAGGAC-3') and Notch2-F2 (5'-GGCAATCCTTTGCTTGCATCCC-3') as the forward primers and Notch2-R (5'-GGGGTGAGAGGTCGAGTATTGGC-3') as the reverse primer for Notch2 (43), and Notch3-F1 (5'-CCCCCTTGTCTGGATGGAAGCCC-3') and Notch3-F2 (5'-CCCGGGAGGCTGCTTGCCTGTGC-3') as the forward primers and Notch3-R (5'-GCCAGGAAGACAAGCACAGTC-3') as the reverse primer for Notch3 (GenBankTM accession number AF164486). Notch mRNAs were detected by nested PCR. In the first-step PCR, the following primer sets were used: Notch1-F1 for Notch1, Notch2-F1 for Notch2, or Notch3-F1 for Notch3 as the forward primer and M13 M4 primer (Takara Shuzo) as the reverse primer. In the nested PCR, Notch1-F2 and Notch1-R for Notch1, Notch2-F2 and Notch2-R for Notch2, or Notch3-F2 and Notch3-R for Notch3 were used as the forward and reverse primers, respectively. The resultant PCR products were analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis, purified, and cloned into pGEM-T Easy vector (Promega, Madison, WI) to verify the nucleotide sequences.

To ensure the transcription level of L-PGDS mRNA, we performed the competitive RT-PCR. Briefly, 200 ng of total RNA was converted to the first-strand cDNAs using RNase H- SuperScript II reverse transcriptase in the presence of serial diluted RNA standard (competitor) with random 9-mer primer (Takara Shuzo). PCR amplification was performed using sets of specific primers of L-PGDS-T and L-PGDS-C for L-PGDS or G3PDH-5' and G3PDH-3' for G3PDH, ExTaq DNA polymerase (Takara Shuzo), and the RT products. After the initial denaturation at 95 °C for 5 min, PCR was carried out for 15 s at 94 °C, 15 s at 55 °C, and 20 s at 74 °C for 28 cycles. The amplified products were analyzed by electrophoresis on 2% agarose gel followed by staining with ethidium bromide. The stained products were scanned and analyzed by ChemiImager system (Alpha Innotech, San Leandro, CA). The expression level of L-PGDS gene was expressed relative to that of the G3PDH gene.

For Northern blot analysis, total RNA (2 µg) was separated electrophoretically in a 2.2 M formaldehyde-1.2% (w/v) agarose gel in MOPS buffer (44) and then transferred to a Hybond XL nylon membrane (Amersham Biosciences) in 20× SSC. Probes were labeled with [alpha -32P]dCTP by the random priming method (45). Hybridization was performed at 42 °C overnight in a solution consisting of 50% (v/v) formamide, 5× Denhardt's solution, 6× SSC, 0.5% (w/v) SDS, and 100 µg/ml shared salmon sperm DNA (44). The blots were washed twice in 2× SSC/0.1% (w/v) SDS at room temperature for 10 min and twice in 0.2× SSC/0.1% (w/v) SDS at 55 °C for 15 min. Blots were analyzed with a fluorescent imaging analyzer (FLA2000; Fuji Photo Film, Tokyo, Japan).

Determination of Transcription Initiation Site-- The transcription initiation site of the rat L-PGDS gene was determined by the Cap Site Hunting method (46) with rat brain CapSite cDNA (Nippon Gene, Toyama, Japan). Briefly, first-step PCR was performed by using LA Taq DNA polymerase (Takara Shuzo) with L-PGDS-E (5'-CGGAATTCTCTCACCTGTGTTTACTC-3') and 1RDT (5'-GATGCTAGCTGCGAGTCAAGTC-3'; Nippon Gene) as the primers under the following amplification conditions: initial denaturation at 95 °C for 5 min, followed by 94 °C for 15 s, 55 °C for 15 s, and 72 °C for 1 min for 35 cycles. Nested PCR was carried out by using L-PGDS-C and 2RDT (5'-CGAGTCAAGTCGACGAAGTGC-3'; Nippon Gene) as the primers and first-step PCR products as the template under the same condition as used for the first-step PCR. Resultant PCR products were cloned into pGEM-T Easy vector. Nucleotide sequences were determined by the dideoxy termination method with a Thermo Sequenase cycle sequencing kit (Amersham Biosciences) and a Long Tower Read DNA sequencer (Amersham Biosciences).

Construction of the Promoter-Luciferase Gene Plasmids-- An ~1.3-kb fragment (-1250 to +77) consisting of the rat L-PGDS gene promoter was amplified by PCR with the gene-specific primer set with XhoI (sense) or HindIII (antisense) sites at their respective 5'-end. PCR fragments doubly digested with XhoI and Hind III were cloned into the upstream region of the luciferase reporter gene of the pGL3-Enhancer vector (Promega). The luciferase-reporter construct carrying the promoter region from -1250 to +77 was designated as -1250/+77. A deletion series was constructed in the same manner. Site-directed mutations were introduced into the putative cis-elements by PCR using mutated primers. All constructs were subjected to nucleotide sequencing to verify their correct sequence and orientation.

Transient Transfection and Luciferase Assay-- For transfection, LM cells or those of the three cell lines were seeded at a density of ~2 × 105 cells/well in 24-well plates and co-transfected with each construct (0.4 µg) and pRL-CMV (0.1 µg; Promega), the latter carrying the Renilla luciferase gene under the control of the cytomegalovirus promoter as the transfection control, by use of Effectene (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) according to the method prescribed by the manufacturer. The cells were cultured for 48 h. In the case of IL-1beta stimulation, the cells were transfected in the same way as described above. After 48 h of transfection, the medium was replaced with fresh medium with or without IL-1beta (1 ng/ml; R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN), and the cells were then incubated further for 24 h. The luciferase activities were measured by using a dual luciferase reporter assay kit (Promega). The reporter activity was calculated relative to that of pGL3-Enhancer vector and was defined as 1. All data were obtained from at least three independent experiments, and each experiment was performed in duplicate. The relative promoter activities were depicted as the mean ± S.D.

Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay (EMSA)-- Nuclear extracts were prepared as follows: cells were suspended in 500 µl of ice-cold buffer comprising 10 mM HEPES-KOH, pH 7.5, 10 mM KCl, 0.1 mM EDTA, 1 mM dithiothreitol, 0.5 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), a mixture of pepstatin, leupeptin, and aprotinin at 2 µg/ml each, and 0.1% (v/v) Nonidet P-40 and vortexed vigorously. After centrifugation at 1,000 × g for 1 min at 4 °C, the nuclear pellet was resuspended in 100 µl of 50 mM HEPES-KOH, pH 7.5, containing 400 mM KCl, 0.1 mM EDTA, 1 mM dithiothreitol, 0.5 mM PMSF, and a mixture of pepstatin, leupeptin, and aprotinin at 2 µg/ml each, and incubated for 1 h at 4 °C with continuous agitation. Nuclear extracts were prepared by centrifugation at 12,000 × g for 30 min at 4 °C. Protein concentrations were determined according to the method of Bradford (47). EMSA was performed as described previously (48).

Co-expression Study with Hes-1-- The expression vector for human Hes-1 was kindly provided by Dr. Michael Caudy (Cornell University) and contained the human Hes-1 coding region fused to a FLAG-tagged sequence (49). Rat LM cells were co-transfected with the human Hes-1 expression vector and the -1250/+77 construct as described above. After 48 h of transfection, the cells were harvested, and the luciferase activities were then measured.

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) Assay-- LM cells were cross-linked with 1% formaldehyde at 37 °C for 10 min and subsequently washed with ice-cold phosphate-buffered saline containing 0.5 mM PMSF and a protease inhibitor mixture of pepstatin, leupeptin, and aprotinin at 2 µg/ml each. The cells were then lysed in 200 µl of buffer containing 1% (w/v) SDS, 10 mM EDTA, 50 mM Tris-Cl, pH 8.0, and 0.5 mM PMSF and a mixture of pepstatin, leupeptin, and aprotinin at 2 µg/ml each and then sonicated. After centrifugation to remove the cell debris, the supernatant was diluted with 20 mM Tris-Cl, pH 8.0, buffer containing 150 mM NaCl, 2 mM EDTA, 1% (v/v) Triton X-100, 0.01% (w/v) SDS, and 0.5 mM PMSF and a mixture of pepstatin, leupeptin, and aprotinin at 2 µg/ml each and incubated at 4 °C for 1 h with 60 µl of 50% slurry of protein G-Sepharose (Amersham Biosciences), 20 µg of shared salmon sperm DNA (Sigma), and 60 µg of bovine serum albumin (Sigma). After the protein G-Sepharose had been removed by centrifugation, the resulting supernatant was incubated with the specific antibody and then 50 µl of protein G-Sepharose was added, and the incubation was continued at 4 °C for 1 h. The Sepharose beads were washed five times with washing buffer containing 50 mM Tris-Cl, pH 8.0, 150 mM NaCl, and 0.05% (v/v) Triton X-100 and twice with 10 mM Tris-Cl, pH 8.0, and 1 mM EDTA. The immunoprecipitated DNA-protein complexes were eluted with 500 µl of 1% (w/v) SDS and 0.1 M NaHCO3. DNA-protein cross-links were reversed at 65 °C for 5 h, after which the DNA was purified with a Qiaquick PCR purification kit (Qiagen) and then used for PCR amplification with the following gene-specific primer sets: S1-F (5'-CTGTATAAAGCAGGAGAGTGC-3') and S1-R (5'-GGCTGATTTGGGAGTTTTCTCC-3'), S2-F (5'-TGTGAGAAGCAGGTCTTAGCC-3') and S2-R (5'-CATACCTCAGTGAAGAACGGG-3'), and H1-F (5'-CTCCAGTGGGCAGTCCTTGGG-3') and H1-R (5'-GGGCTGCACGGAGACCTGGGC-3') as the sense and antisense primers for NF-kappa B site 1, site 2, and E-box, respectively, of the rat L-PGDS promoter. PCR amplification was performed as follows: initial denaturation at 95 °C for 3 min, followed by 94 °C for 25 s, 55 °C for 25 s, and 72 °C for 30 s for 34-40 cycles. The resultant PCR products were analyzed on 2% (w/v) agarose gels.

Western Blot Analysis-- Nuclear extracts were prepared as described above and separated by SDS-PAGE and transferred onto polyvinylidene difluoride membranes (Immobilon P; Millipore Corp., Bedford, MA). The membranes were incubated with specific primary antibodies (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc., Santa Cruz, CA), washed, and then incubated with second antibodies conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.). Immunoreactive proteins were detected by using the ECL Western blotting detection system according to the manufacturer's instructions (Amersham Biosciences).

    RESULTS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Cell Type-specific Expression of the Rat L-PGDS Gene-- The expression of the L-PGDS gene in the rat LM cells and rat cell lines was examined by RT-PCR. The rat L-PGDS mRNA was expressed abundantly in the LM cells (Fig. 1A, lane 1) and negligibly in F2408 (lane 2), RNB (lane 3), and C6 (lane 4) cell lines, whereas the expression of the mRNA for G3PDH as the internal control was almost identical in each cell (Fig. 1A). Transient transfection experiments with the -1250/+77 construct in the rat LM cells and each of the three rat cell lines demonstrated that efficient reporter activity was detected only in the LM cells (Fig. 1B). This result is in agreement with the expression of the L-PGDS mRNA demonstrated by the RT-PCR analysis and shows that the promoter region from -1250 to +77 contains the critical element(s) responsible for the cell type-specific expression of the rat L-PGDS gene. Therefore, we used this promoter region to study the transcriptional regulation mechanism involving the activation and/or suppression of L-PGDS gene expression in the LM cells.


View larger version (17K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 
Fig. 1.   Cell type-specific expression of the rat L-PGDS gene. A, total RNA was prepared from the rat LM cells or each rat cell line, and the L-PGDS mRNA was detected by RT-PCR analysis as described under "Experimental Procedures." M, molecular size marker. Lane 1, LM cells; lane 2, F2408 cells; lane 3, RNB cells; and lane 4, C6 cells. G3PDH mRNA was also amplified as the internal control. Sizes of expected PCR products were 342 and 452 base pairs for L-PGDS and G3PDH, respectively. B, promoter activity of the L-PGDS gene in rat cells. The -1250/+77 construct was used to transfect the rat LM cells (lane 1) and rat cell lines F2408 (lane 2), RNB (lane 3), and C6 (lane 4). The luciferase activity in the rat LM cells was defined as 100%.

Transcription Initiation Sites of the Rat L-PGDS Gene-- Transcription initiation sites were determined by the CapSite Hunting method. The sequence analysis of 18 clones demonstrated that nine of them had a nucleotide C of 77 base pairs upstream (defined as +1) of the A of the translation initiation codon, ATG, and that the remaining nine had a C of 75 base pairs upstream (Fig. 2), indicating that rat L-PGDS gene expression was initiated predominantly from both of these transcription initiation sites in the brain. Surrounding both transcription initiation sites, a TATA-like box (ATAAATA) was found at a position from -28 to -22, but no typical CCAAT box was observed. Through a TRANSFAC search of the promoter region, several putative cis-elements such as NF-kappa B elements at -1106 and -291, an Sp-1 element at -926, an AP-2 element at -109, and an E-box at +57 were found. To elucidate the evolutional conservation of the promoter sequences between the human and rat L-PGDS genes, we aligned the 5'-flanking regions of both sequences (Fig. 2). The overall homology (61.9%) between them was observed in a region of ~400 bp around the transcriptional initiation site. One of the transcription initiation sites of the rat L-PGDS gene showed a one-nucleotide difference from that of the human L-PGDS gene (24). Furthermore, several cis-elements were conserved between them, including the TATA-like box (-28 to -22 for rat and human), the AP-2 element (-109 to -101 and -98 to -90 for rat and human, respectively), and the E- or N-box (+57 to +62 and -334 to -329 for rat and human, respectively). These results suggest that the human and rat L-PGDS genes are regulated in a similar manner.


View larger version (43K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 
Fig. 2.   Conservation of the promoter regions of the rat and human L-PGDS genes. Dashes show the gaps to make maximum identity. Conserved nucleotide residues are dotted, and putative cis-elements for transcription factors are underlined and indicated. TATA-like box is boxed and indicated. Transcription initiation sites of the rat L-PGDS gene are indicated, and numbers refer to the number of 5'-end of transcripts in the 5'-oligo capping analysis. The first transcription initiation site is defined as +1. The transcription initiation site identified previously at +39 (50) is circled. The translational initiation codon, ATG, is shown in bold.

Promoter Activity of the Rat L-PGDS Gene-- To determine the promoter activity and the important cis-elements involved in the regulation of L-PGDS gene expression, we introduced deletion and site-directed mutation into the promoter region and then conducted reporter analyses using rat LM cells. When the region from -1250 to +77 was used for the luciferase-reporter assay, efficient reporter activity was detected, indicating that this region contained cis-element(s) responsible for the regulation of gene expression (Fig. 1B). By deletion of the region from -1250 to -281, which contained two NF-kappa B elements at -1106 and -291, and the Sp-1 element at -926, the promoter activity was decreased by ~30% compared with that of the -1250/+77 construct (Fig. 3), indicating that this region contained weak activation activity for the expression.


View larger version (21K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 
Fig. 3.   Deletion and site-directed mutation analyses of the promoter region of the rat L-PGDS gene. A, each of two putative cis-elements, AP-2 and E-box, was subjected to site-directed mutagenesis with mutations indicated by the nucleotide changes. B, scheme of the rat L-PGDS promoter-luciferase constructs used in the transient transfection experiments and the relative luciferase activity. The putative cis-acting and TATA-like elements are indicated at the top. Site-directed mutagenesis was introduced by PCR using primers with mutations. Relative reporter activities of the deletion and mutated constructs are shown by black and gray columns, respectively. Empty vector means pGL3-Enhancer vector. Data are the means ± S.D. from at least three independent experiments.

A deletion from -280 to -100 resulted in a drastic decrease in the promoter activity by nearly 80% as compared with that of the -1250/+77 construct. This region contained the AP-2 element at -109. By introduction of the site-directed mutagenesis into the AP-2 element, the luciferase reporter activity was decreased to almost the same level as when the AP-2 element had been deleted. These results indicate that the AP-2 element is an important cis-element for the transcriptional activation of the rat L-PGDS gene. Furthermore, when the -1250/-75 construct was used for transfection, measurable reporter activity was no longer detected, indicating that the region from -74 to +1, containing the TATA-like box at -28 was essential for the basal expression of the L-PGDS gene in the LM cells.

In contrast, the deletion of the region from +40 to +77 in exon 1 caused the reporter activity to increase significantly by ~160% compared with that of the -1250/+77 construct, indicating that a negative regulator binds to this region from +40 to +77. This region contained the E-box at +57 involved in the Notch-Hes signaling pathway. Introduction of a mutation into the E-box increased the reporter activity by ~130% compared with that of the wild-type -1250/+77 construct. These results clearly indicate that L-PGDS gene expression was suppressed through the E-box in the LM cells.

Analysis of Factor Binding to Regulatory Elements by EMSA-- To demonstrate the nuclear factor(s) specific for binding to the putative cis-element(s) identified by the promoter luciferase assay, we conducted an EMSA using 32P-labeled double-stranded oligonucleotides containing the putative cis-element, shown in Table I, and nuclear extracts prepared from the rat LM cells. As shown in Fig. 4A, when the double-stranded rL3 oligonucleotide carrying the AP-2 element was incubated with the nuclear extracts, two major DNA-protein complexes were found (Fig. 4A, lane 1). The formation of these complexes was inhibited by the addition of a 10- or 50-fold excess amount of the unlabeled rL3 oligonucleotide (lanes 2 and 3) or the authentic AP-2 wild-type (WT) DNA probe (lane 6). In contrast, a 100-fold excess amount of the nonspecific pUC19 DNA (lane 4) or the inactive AP-2 mutant (mu) DNA probe (lane 5) did not prevent the complex formation. These results demonstrate the specific binding of nuclear factors to the AP-2 element.

                              
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 
Table I
Oligonucleotide used for EMSA


View larger version (81K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 
Fig. 4.   EMSA for the rat L-PGDS promoter. Each of the [gamma -32P]-labeled double-stranded oligonucleotides, rL3 containing the AP-2 element (A) and rL4 containing the E-box (B), was incubated for 20 min at room temperature with the nuclear extracts prepared from the rat LM cells. The incubation mixture was analyzed by electrophoresis on 5% polyacrylamide gels as described under "Experimental Procedures." The shifted complexes are indicated by arrows. Unlabeled oligonucleotides were added as the competitor.

Furthermore, 32P-labeled rL4 oligonucleotide containing the E-box bound a nuclear factor (Fig. 4B, lane 1). The formation of this DNA-protein complex was decreased in a concentration-dependent manner by the addition of a 10- or 50-fold excess amount of the unlabeled rL4 oligonucleotide (lanes 2 and 3) but was not inhibited by a 100-fold excess amount of the nonspecific pUC19 DNA (lane 4) or the inactive E-box (mu) mutant oligonucleotide (lane 5). Thus, the nuclear factor prepared from the rat LM cells bound to the E-box in a nucleotide sequence-specific manner.

Function of the E-box in the Regulation of L-PGDS Gene Expression-- The E-box is well known as the cis-element for the Hes protein that is involved in the Notch-Hes signaling pathway. Thus, we examined the expression of the genes involved in the Notch-Hes signaling pathway by RT-PCR and found that Jagged, a ligand for Notch receptors, Notch1 and Notch3, and Hes-1 were expressed in the rat LM cells (Fig. 5A).


View larger version (45K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 
Fig. 5.   Transcriptional suppression of the rat L-PGDS gene by Hes-1. A, expression of the genes involved in the Notch-Hes signaling pathway in the LM cells. Expression was analyzed by RT-PCR with the gene-specific primer sets shown in Table I. M indicates the 100-base pair ladder marker. The predicted sizes of the PCR products for Jagged, Jagged2, Notch1, Notch2, Notch3, Hes-1, Hes-2, Hes-3, and Hes-5 were 563, 523, 512, 560, 502, 373, 474, 528, and 501 base pairs, respectively. Amplified signals are indicated by arrows. B, recombinant Hes-1 protein in the nuclear fraction of the LM cells transfected with the indicated amount of Hes-1 expression vector. Recombinant Hes-1 protein fused with FLAG tag in the nucleus was detected with anti-FLAG monoclonal antibody. C, suppression of L-PGDS gene expression by Hes-1. Rat LM cells were co-transfected with the -1250/+77 construct and 0, 0.1, 1, or 5 µg of the human Hes-1 expression vector. The luciferase activities were measured 48 h after transfection. When no expression vector was used, the reporter activity was defined as 100%. Firefly and Renilla luciferase activities are indicated by closed and open columns, respectively. D, double-stranded rL4 oligonucleotide containing the E-box labeled with [gamma -32P]ATP was incubated with nuclear extracts prepared from the rat LM cells transfected with the human Hes-1 expression vector, and the mixtures were then subjected to EMSA. Unlabeled rL4 oligonucleotide was added as the competitor. The shifted band is indicated by an asterisk. Supershift assay was conducted by using anti-FLAG monoclonal antibody, and the supershifted signal is indicated by a double asterisk. E, in vivo binding of the Hes-1 protein to the E-box of the rat L-PGDS gene. The LM cells transfected with the Hes-1 expression vector were treated with formaldehyde to cross-link DNA and proteins. The DNA-protein complexes were immunoprecipitated by the anti-FLAG antibody, and the extracted DNA was used as the template for PCR amplification (IP). A small aliquot before immunoprecipitation was used for PCR amplification as the input control (Input). N.C. means the negative control for this assay using a primer set of S1-F and S1-R for the NF-kappa B site 1, whose expected amplified region does not contain the E-box consensus sequence. Results are representative of two independent experiments.

Co-expression of the -1250/+77 construct with the human Hes-1 protein was performed in the rat LM cells. The recombinant human Hes-1 protein fused with a FLAG tag was detected with anti-FLAG antibody in the nuclear extracts prepared from the transfected LM cells (Fig. 5B). The recombinant human Hes-1 protein level in the nucleus of the transfected LM cells was dependent on the amount of the expression vector used for the transfection (Fig. 5B). Furthermore, the promoter activity was decreased in a concentration-dependent manner by the Hes-1 expression vector (Fig. 5C). On the other hand, Renilla luciferase activities as the internal control for transfection were almost the same in all experiments, even when the Hes-1 protein was overexpressed in the LM cells (Fig. 5C).

We then conducted EMSA by incubating the rL4 oligonucleotide containing the E-box with nuclear extracts prepared from rat LM cells transiently expressing the human Hes-1 protein. Evidence of formation of a DNA-protein complex was observed (Fig. 5D, lane 2), but no complex was found in the absence of the nuclear extracts (lane 1). This complex failed to form in the presence of 10- or 50-fold excess amount of the unlabeled rL4 oligonucleotide (lanes 3 and 4). The formation of the complex was not inhibited by a 100-fold excess amount of nonspecific pUC18 DNA (lane 5). In the supershift assay, this DNA-protein complex migrated more slowly when anti-FLAG monoclonal antibody had been added (lane 6). In the non-transfected LM cells, the corresponding shifted band (*) was observed in both in the presence or absence of the FLAG antibody (lanes 7 and 8). In contrast, no corresponding supershifted band (**) was observed even when FLAG antibody was added (lane 8).

Furthermore, we confirmed the in vivo binding of the recombinant Hes-1 protein to the E-box of the rat L-PGDS gene by using the ChIP assay. The Hes-1 protein bound to the E-box. The amount of DNA-protein complex was increased in a concentration-dependent manner by the transfection with the Hes-1 vector (Fig. 5E). In the negative control experiment, when S1-F and S1-R as primers for NF-kappa B site 1 of L-PGDS gene were used for the subsequent PCR amplification, the amplification of its region containing no E-box consensus sequence was not detected (N.C. in Fig. 5E). Therefore, these results, taken together, indicate that the Hes-1 protein binds specifically to the promoter region of the L-PGDS gene in vivo, as well as in vitro, and thereby suppresses the L-PGDS gene expression through the E-box in the rat LM cells. This is the first proof that the L-PGDS gene, which is involved in prostanoid biosynthesis, classified as a member of the lipocalin gene family, and expressed in the leptomeninges, is regulated transcriptionally by the Notch-Hes signal pathway.

Enhancement of Transcription by IL-1beta -- We examined the change of L-PGDS mRNA level in the rat LM cells treated with or without IL-1beta (1 ng/ml) by the competitive RT-PCR assay. When the LM cells were treated with IL-1beta , L-PGDS mRNA level was increased slowly with a peak at 24 h after the start of treatment (~2.5-fold over the control) (Fig. 6A). We also confirmed its induction by Northern blot analysis. L-PGDS gene expression was enhanced to a level of ~2.5-fold over the control after 24 h of IL-1beta treatment (Fig. 6B, upper panel), whereas G3PDH gene expression was not altered by the IL-1beta treatment (Fig. 6B, lower panel). In the nuclear fraction of the LM cells, NF-kappa B subunits, p65 and c-Rel, but not p50, were detected by Western blot analysis, and their nuclear accumulations was enhanced by the treatment with IL-1beta (Fig. 6C).


View larger version (28K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 
Fig. 6.   Identification of the cis-elements responsible for the effect of IL-1beta treatment. A, rat LM cells were cultured in the presence or absence of IL-1beta (1 ng/ml) for the indicated time and then collected for the isolation of RNA and the subsequent competitive RT-PCR assay. Open and closed bars indicate no-treatment (control) and IL-1beta treatment. The data represent the mean ± S.D. from three independent assays. B, induction of L-PGDS gene expression by IL-1beta . The cells were cultured for 24 h with or without 1 ng/ml IL-1beta . Total RNA (2 µg) was utilized for the Northern blot analysis with rat L-PGDS cDNA (upper panel) (35) or G3PDH cDNA (lower panel) (36) as the probes. C, induction of the NF-kappa B proteins by the treatment of LM cells with IL-1beta . NF-kappa B proteins, p50, p65, or c-Rel were detected with each specific antibody in the nuclear fraction prepared from LM cells incubated with (+) or without (-) IL-1beta (1 ng/ml) for 24 h. D, a site-directed mutation was introduced into each of the two NF-kappa B elements, and the nucleotide changes are indicated. E, each region-deleted or mutated NF-kappa B element was connected to the luciferase reporter gene, and LM cells were transfected with each construct along with the Renilla luciferase expression plasmid. After 48 h, IL-1beta (1 ng/ml) was added (closed columns) or not (open columns), and the cells were then cultured for 24 h. Data are presented as the means ± S.D. from at least three independent experiments.

Through the data base search, we found two NF-kappa B elements in the promoter region of the rat L-PGDS gene and termed them NF-kappa B site 1 at -1106 and site 2 at -291 (see Fig. 3B and Fig. 6D). Progressive deletion analysis of the L-PGDS promoter region of the -1250/+77 construct demonstrated that two regions containing the NF-kappa B element from -1250 to -950 and from -450 to -280 were required for the IL-1beta -mediated induction of L-PGDS gene expression (Fig. 6E). By introducing mutation into each of these two NF-kappa B sites, we found the luciferase reporter activity in the presence of IL-1beta to have decreased to almost the same extent as when the region containing the NF-kappa B site had been deleted (Fig. 6D).

Furthermore, we confirmed that nuclear factors bound to each of the NF-kappa B elements by conducting EMSA using nuclear extracts prepared from the rat LM cells treated with IL-1beta and specific oligonucleotides, rL1 and rL2 containing NF-kappa B site 1 and 2, respectively. Fig. 7A shows that nuclear factor-DNA complexes (alpha  and beta ) were observed in both NF-kappa B sites (lanes 2 and 6). In addition, a weak signal (gamma ) was often observed only in the site 2 (lane 6). Each signal was absent when an excess amount of the corresponding DNA probes was added (lanes 3, 4, 7, and 8). To confirm the binding of NF-kappa B subunits to each of the two NF-kappa B sites, we carried out the ChIP assay using specific antibodies for p50, p65, and c-Rel of NF-kappa B subunits. No binding of NF-kappa B subunits was observed at either NF-kappa B site when the LM cells were not treated with IL-1beta (Fig. 7B). When the LM cells were treated with IL-1beta , however, p65 and c-Rel predominantly bound to both NF-kappa B site 1 and site 2. These results indicate that L-PGDS gene expression was induced by IL-1beta through these two NF-kappa B elements in the LM cells and that this induction occurred through the binding of p65 and c-Rel to both NF-kappa B site 1 and site 2. 


View larger version (44K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 
Fig. 7.   Binding of nuclear factors to the two NF-kappa B elements. A, double-stranded rL1 or rL2 oligonucleotide containing NF-kappa B site 1 or site 2 labeled with [gamma -32P]ATP was incubated with nuclear extracts prepared from the rat LM cells that had been treated with 1 ng/ml IL-1beta for 24 h, and the mixtures were then subjected to EMSA. Unlabeled rL1 or rL2 oligonucleotide was added as the competitor. Shifted bands are indicated by arrows. B, ChIP assay to detect the in vivo binding between NF-kappa B proteins and L-PGDS promoter. The LM cells were treated (+) or not (-) with IL-1beta for 24 h and then fixed with formaldehyde. Chromatin prepared from the formaldehyde-fixed cells was sonicated and then immunoprecipitated with anti-p50, anti-p65, or anti-c-Rel antibodies. Cross-linkage of the co-precipitated DNA-protein complexes was reversed, and DNA was used as the template for PCR amplification with specific primers for NF-kappa B site 1 or site 2 of the L-PGDS promoter (IP). The aliquot prior to immunoprecipitation was also amplified as the input control (Input). Results are representative of two or three independent experiments.


    DISCUSSION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

We earlier reported that the L-PGDS gene was expressed predominantly in the leptomeninges in the rat brain (18, 19). Indeed, its expression in the rat LM cells was higher than that in other cell lines such as astrocytes and other glial cells (Fig. 1). These results indicate that rat L-PGDS gene expression is strictly regulated in a cell type-specific manner. In this study, we examined the promoter function of the rat L-PGDS gene in the LM cells. Fig. 8 shows a schematic representation of our proposed regulatory mechanism governing the transcription of the rat L-PGDS gene in the LM cells.


View larger version (14K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 
Fig. 8.   Schematic representation of the proposed mechanism for transcriptional regulation of the rat L-PGDS gene in LM cells.

In a previous study, the transcription initiation site for the rat enzyme was determined at +39 by primer extension analysis (50). However, recent efforts at expressed sequence tags sequencing gave several rat expressed sequence tags clones showing high homology to L-PGDS and carrying the upstream region of the transcription initiation site decided previously. We determined the novel transcription initiation sites of the rat L-PGDS gene by the 5'-oligo capping method to be located 77 or 75 base pairs upstream from the translational initiation ATG codon (Fig. 2). The upstream transcription initiation site showed only a 1-base difference from that for the human L-PGDS gene (24) or the mouse gene.2 Furthermore, the transcription of the mouse gene was initiated from one other position2 that was identical to the one decided previously at +39 in the rat (50). Therefore, the initiation site identified previously at +39 in the rat gene is considered to also be one of the transcriptional initiation sites of the rat gene. A TATA-like sequence (-28ATAAATA-22) was found around the transcription initiation site in the rat gene. The deletion of this TATA-like element abolished completely the promoter activity, indicating that the TATA-like element was essential for the basal expression of the rat L-PGDS gene. The sequences around the TATA-like element and transcription initiation sites of human and rat genes showed a high degree of conservation, indicating that the transcriptional regulation of these L-PGDS genes is similar among various animal species.

We analyzed the 5'-flanking region of the rat L-PGDS gene in the LM cells. The AP-2 element at -109, GCCGCCCGC, whose consensus sequence is GCCNNNGCC (51), is a cis-element that binds AP-2 proteins, which are involved in the regulation of numerous cellular events and are responsible for transmitting the signal from cAMP or phorbol ester (52, 53). Deletion of the AP-2 element caused a significant decrease in the promoter activity, but the basal promoter activity still remained intact (see Figs. 3 and 6). EMSA demonstrated that a nuclear factor bound to the AP-2 element (Fig. 4B). These findings indicate that AP-2 activates rat L-PGDS gene expression but is not associated with the basal promoter activity, unlike the case of the human hematopoietic PGDS gene, where it is associated with both (48).

The rat L-PGDS promoter carries the thyroid hormone responsive element at -596, and it was shown to function in COS-7 cells (23). On the contrary, this element was not functional in the LM cells under our experimental conditions (Fig. 3). In hyperthyroidism, L-PGDS gene expression was decreased in the interlaminar meninges but not in the external leptomeninges surrounding the cerebellum, although its expression was strong in both membranes in normal rats (22). Thus L-PGDS gene expression in the leptomeninges is not affected by thyroid hormone and is regulated by a cell type-specific mechanism.

The Notch-Hes signaling contributed to the regulation of rat L-PGDS gene expression in the LM cells. Hes is a member of the basic helix-loop-helix protein family and acts as a transcriptional repressor by binding to the E- or N-box of target genes (39, 54). The Notch-Hes signaling pathway is important for the determination of the cell fate or the embryonic development by inhibiting cellular differentiation in a variety of cells (55, 56). The rat L-PGDS gene expression was repressed through the E-box, and the binding of the Hes-1 protein to the E-box was proved in vitro and in vivo by EMSA and ChIP assay. Further evidence for the role of Hes-1 as a transcriptional repressor was provided by the observation that co-expression of the human Hes-1 protein decreased the reporter activity of the -1250/+77 construct in the LM cells (Fig. 5C). In the human L-PGDS promoter, an N-box (CACCAG) was found at -334, and the lack of the region containing the N-box increased significantly the reporter activity, indicating that this N-box might be functional for transcriptional repression and probably that its regulation is the same as in the case of the rat gene (24). However, such action was not discussed with respect to the human gene (24). Major component proteins involved in the Notch-Hes signaling pathway such as Jagged, Notch1, Notch3, and Hes-1 were expressed in the rat LM cells (Fig. 5A). Thus it is possible that the Notch-Hes signal is functionally involved in the regulation of L-PGDS gene expression through the binding of the Hes-1 to the E-box in the rat LM cells. Recently, presenilin-1 was found to digest the intracellular domain of the Notch receptor to activate the Notch-Hes signal (57). Furthermore, presenilin-1 is involved in the development of the central nervous system. Its mRNA is expressed in the leptomeninges in the mouse brain, and, moreover, in presenilin-1-deficient mice, the leptomeninges appeared to be thicker (58). Thus, the L-PGDS gene, highly expressed in the leptomeninges, might have potential roles mediated by the signal of the Notch-Hes pathway during development. Our present data provide the first proof that the Notch-Hes signal regulates transcriptionally a gene involved in prostanoid biosynthesis, classified as a member of the lipocalin gene family, and expressed dominantly in the leptomeninges. Roles of L-PGDS under the control of the Notch-Hes signal need to be further elucidated.

The region from -1250 to -280 contained three putative cis-elements, two NF-kappa B elements at -1106 and -291 and the Sp-1 element at -926; however, deletion of this region did not result in a significant decrease in the promoter activity. On the other hand, when the cells were treated with the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1beta , L-PGDS gene expression was enhanced ~2.5-fold, but it was slowly induced to its maximal level, which was attained after 24 h of treatment. Such a slow induction by proinflammatory cytokines resembles the case of Mn-superoxide dismutase gene, in which there was a peak at 24 h after the start of IL-1beta treatment (59). These two NF-kappa B sites (GGGGGTTTCA at -1106 and GGGCTTTGCT at -291) of the L-PGDS gene are well in line with the NF-kappa B consensus sequence, GGGNNTYYCC (60). Site-directed mutation analysis and EMSA demonstrated that these two NF-kappa B sequences were required for IL-1beta -mediated promoter activity of the L-PGDS gene. Moreover, the ChIP assay with antibodies against NF-kappa B subunits demonstrated that each of the two NF-kappa B sites was recognized and bound in vivo by the NF-kappa B p65 and c-Rel as the homodimeric or heterodimeric complex. These results indicate the activation mechanism of the L-PGDS gene by proinflammatory cytokine IL-1beta acting through these two NF-kappa B elements in the LM cells. Moreover, IL-1beta induces the L-PGDS level in the CSF (26), in which case its induction may occur through enhancement of L-PGDS gene expression via activation of NF-kappa B subunits. Cyclooxygenase-2, an upstream enzyme of PGDS, is responsible for the inflammation signal and is also transcriptionally activated by NF-kappa B (61, 62). However, IL-1beta -mediated induction of the cyclooxygenase-2 gene is rapid and completely different from the slow induction of the L-PGDS gene. The molecular mechanism and physiological roles of such slow induction of L-PGDS gene expression are currently under investigation.

L-PGDS gene is involved in the regulation of NREM sleep (9), and IL-1beta is one of the somnogenic substances and is involved in NREM sleep induction through the activation of NF-kappa B (27-29). Furthermore, IL-1beta receptor was detected in high concentration in the leptomeninges (63, 64). Our present findings, together with previous results, indicate that the IL-1beta -mediated NREM sleep may, at least in part, occur by enhancement of L-PGDS gene expression in the leptomeninges.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. Michael Caudy (Cornell University) for kindly providing the human Hes-1 expression vector and Dr. Osamu Hayaishi (Osaka Bioscience Institute) for continuous encouragement and support of this study. We also thank Shuko Sakae for secretarial assistance.

    FOOTNOTES

* This work was supported in part by a grant from the program for Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology of Japan Science Technology Corporation (to Y. U.), Grant-in-aid for Scientific Research 12558078 from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (to Y. U.), grants from the Ground Research Announcement for Space Utilization Promotion from the Japan Space Forum (to Y. U.), the Pilot Applied Research Project for the Industrial Use of Space from the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) and Japan Space Utilization Promotion Center (JSUP) (to Y. U.), the Takeda Science Foundation (to K. F., Y. F., H. K., and Y. U.), the Special Coordination Fund for Promoting Science and Technology (to Y. U.), and Osaka City.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

§ Present address: Environmental Health Science Laboratory, Sumitomo Chemical Co., Ltd., 1-98 Kasugadenaka 3-chome, Konohana-ku, Osaka 554-8558, Japan.

Present address: Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Chemical Industries, Ltd., 17-85, Jusohonmachi 2-chome, Yodogawa-ku, Osaka 532-8686, Japan.

** To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel.: 81-6-6872-4851; Fax: 81-6-6872-2841; E-mail: uradey@obi.or.jp.

Published, JBC Papers in Press, December 17, 2002, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M208288200

2 K. Fujimori and Y. Urade, unpublished data.

    ABBREVIATIONS

The abbreviations used are: PG, prostaglandin; L-PGDS, lipocalin-type PGD synthase; CSF, cerebrospinal fluid; NREM, non-rapid eye movement sleep; IL, interleukin; LM, primary cultures of leptomeningeal; RT, reverse transcription; G3PDH, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; EMSA, electrophoretic mobility shift assay; ChIP, chromatin immunoprecipitation; PMSF, phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride; WT, wild-type; mu, mutant; MOPS, 4-morpholinepropanesulfonic acid.

    REFERENCES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

1. Urade, Y., Fujimoto, N., and Hayaishi, O. (1985) J. Biol. Chem. 260, 12410-12415[Abstract/Free Full Text]
2. Hoffman, A., Conradt, H. S., Gross, G., Nimtz, M., Lottspeich, F., and Wurster, U. (1993) J. Neurochem. 61, 451-456[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
3. Watanabe, K., Urade, Y., Mäder, M., Murphy, C., and Hayaishi, O. (1994) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 203, 1110-1116[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
4. Clausen, J. (1961) Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 107, 170-172
5. Hayaishi, O., and Urade, Y. (2002) Neuroscientists 8, 12-15[Abstract/Free Full Text]
6. Urade, Y., and Hayaishi, O. (2000) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1482, 259-271[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
7. Urade, Y., and Hayaishi, O. (2000) Vitam. Horm. 58, 89-120[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
8. Urade, Y, and Eguchi, N. (2002) Prostaglandins Lipid Mediators 68-69, 375-382[CrossRef]
9. Pinzar, E., Kanaoka, Y., Inui, T., Eguchi, N., Urade, Y., and Hayaishi, O. (2000) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 97, 4903-4907[Abstract/Free Full Text]
10. Eguchi, N., Minami, T., Shirafuji, N., Kanaoka, Y., Tanaka, T., Nagata, A., Yoshida, N., Urade, Y., Ito, S., and Hayaishi, O. (1999) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 96, 726-730[Abstract/Free Full Text]
11. Eguchi, N., Pinzar, E., Kuwahata, Y., Inui, T., Mochizuki, T., Urade, Y., and Hayaishi, O. (2003) in The 3rd International Conference on Oxygen and Life, Kyoto (Ishimura, Y., ed), Vol. 1233 , pp. 429-433, Elsevier Science, Amsterdam
12. Tanaka, T., Urade, Y., Kimura, H., Eguchi, N., Nishikawa, A., and Hayaishi, O. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272, 15789-15795[Abstract/Free Full Text]
13. Beuckmann, C. T., Aoyagi, M., Okazaki, I., Hiroike, T., Toh, H., Hayaishi, O., and Urade, Y. (1999) Biochemistry 38, 8006-8013[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
14. Eguchi, Y., Eguchi, N., Oda, H., Seiki, K., Kijima, Y., Matsu-ura, Y., Urade, Y., and Hayaishi, O. (1997) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 94, 14689-14694[Abstract/Free Full Text]
15. Ujihara, M., Urade, Y., Eguchi, N., Hayashi, H., Ikai, K., and Hayaishi, O. (1988) Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 260, 521-531[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
16. Gerena, R. L., Irikura, D., Urade, Y., Eguchi, N., Chapman, D. A., and Killian, G. J. (1998) Biol. Reprod. 58, 826-833[Abstract]
17. Tokugawa, Y., Kunishige, I., Kubota, Y., Shimoya, K., Nobunaga, T., Kimura, T., Saji, F., Murata, Y., Eguchi, N., Oda, H., Urade, Y., and Hayaishi, O. (1998) Biol. Reprod. 58, 600-607[Abstract]
18. Urade, Y., Kitahama, K., Ohishi, H., Kaneko, T., Mizuno, N., and Hayaishi, O. (1993) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 90, 9070-9074[Abstract]
19. Beuckmann, C. T., Lazarus, M., Gerashchenko, D., Mizoguchi, A., Nomura, S., Mohri, I., Uesugi, A., Kaneko, T., Mizuno, N., Hayaishi, O., and Urade, Y. (2000) J. Comp. Neurol. 42, 62-78[CrossRef]
20. Taniike, M., Mohri, I., Eguchi, N., Beuckmann, C. T., Suzuki, K., and Urade, Y. (2002) J. Neurosci. 22, 4885-4896[Abstract/Free Full Text]
21. García-Fernández, L. F., Iniguez, M. A., Rodriguez-Pena, A., Muñoz, A., and Bernal, J. (1993) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 196, 396-401[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
22. García-Fernández, L. F., Rausell, E., Urade, Y., Hayaishi, O., Bernal, J., and Muñoz, A. (1997) Eur. J. Neurosci. 9, 1566-1573[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
23. García-Fernández, L. F., Urade, Y., Hayaishi, O., Bernal, J., and Muñoz, A. (1998) Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 55, 321-330[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
24. White, D. M., Takeda, T., DeGroot, L. J., Stefansson, K., and Arnason, B. G. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272, 14387-14393[Abstract/Free Full Text]
25. García-Fernández, L. F., Iniguez, M. A., Eguchi, N., Fresno, M., Urade, Y., and Muñoz, A. (2000) J. Neurochem. 75, 460-470[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
26. Ishizaka, M., Ohe, Y., Senbongi, T., Wakabayashi, K., and Ishikawa, K. (2001) Neuroreport 12, 1161-1165[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
27. Kubota, T., Kushikata, T., Fang, J., and Krueger, J. M. (2000) Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 279, R404-R413[Abstract/Free Full Text]
28. Krueger, J. M., Fang, J., Taishi, P., Chen, Z., Kushikata, T., and Gardi, J. (1998) Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 856, 148-159[Abstract/Free Full Text]
29. Terao, A., Matsumura, H., and Saito, M. (1998) J. Neurosci. 18, 6599-6607[Abstract]
30. Yan, B., Heus, J., Lu, N., Nichols, R. C., Raben, N., and Plotz, P. H. (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 276, 1789-1793[Abstract/Free Full Text]
31. Yan, B., Raben, N., and Plotz, P. H. (2002) J. Biol. Chem. 277, 29760-29764[Abstract/Free Full Text]
32. Antras-Ferry, J., Maheo, K., Morel, F., Guillouzo, A., Cillard, P., and Cillard, J. (1997) FEBS Lett. 403, 100-104[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
33. Ishikawa, K., Ohe, Y., and Tatemoto, K. (1995) Brain Res. 697, 122-129[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
34. Chomczynski, P., and Sacchi, N. (1987) Anal. Biochem. 162, 156-159[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
35. Urade, Y., Nagata, A., Suzuki, Y., Fujii, Y., and Hayaishi, O. (1989) J. Biol. Chem. 264, 1041-1045[Abstract/Free Full Text]
36. Tso, J. Y., Sun, X.-H., Kao, T.-H., Reece, K. S., and Wu, R. (1985) Nucleic Acids Res. 13, 2485-2502[Abstract]
37. Lindsell, C. E., Shawber, C. J., Boulter, J, and Weinmaster, G. (1995) Cell 80, 909-917[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
38. Shawber, C., Boulter, J., Lindsell, C. E., and Weinmaster, G. (1996) Dev. Biol. 180, 370-376[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
39. Sasai, Y., Kageyama, R., Tagawa, Y., Shigemoto, R., and Nakanishi, S. (1992) Genes Dev. 6, 2620-2634[Abstract]
40. Ishibashi, M., Sasai, Y., Nakanishi, S., and Kageyama, R. (1993) Eur. J. Biochem. 215, 645-652[Abstract]
41. Akazawa, C., Sasai, Y., Nakanishi, S., and Kageyama, R. (1992) J. Biol. Chem. 267, 21879-21885[Abstract/Free Full Text]
42. Weinmaster, G., Roberts, V. J., and Lemke, G. (1991) Development 113, 199-205[Abstract]
43. Weinmaster, G., Roberts, V. J., and Lemke, G. (1992) Development 116, 931-941[Abstract/Free Full Text]
44. Sambrook, J., and Russell, D. W. (2001) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual , 3rd Ed. , Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY
45. Feinberg, A. P., and Vogelstein, B. (1983) Anal. Biochem. 132, 6-13[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
46. Maruyama, K., and Sugano, S. (1994) Gene 138, 171-174[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
47. Bradford, M. M. (1976) Anal. Biochem. 72, 248-254[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
48. Fujimori, K., Kanaoka, Y., Sakaguchi, Y., and Urade, Y. (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275, 40511-40516[Abstract/Free Full Text]
49. Castella, P., Wagner, J. A., and Caudy, M. (1999) J. Neurosci. Res. 56, 229-240[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
50. Igarashi, M., Nagata, A., Toh, H., Urade, Y., and Hayaishi, O. (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 89, 5376-5380[Abstract]
51. Williams, T., Admon, A., Luscher, B., and Tjian, R. (1988) Genes Dev. 2, 1557-1569[Abstract]
52. Imagawa, M., Chiu, R., and Karin, M. (1987) Cell 51, 251-260[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
53. Lüscher, B., Mitchell, P. J., Williams, T., and Tjian, R. (1989) Genes Dev. 3, 1507-1517[Abstract]
54. Takebayashi, K., Sasai, Y., Sakai, Y., Watanabe, T., Nakanishi, S., and Kageyama, R. (1994) J. Biol. Chem. 269, 5150-5156[Abstract/Free Full Text]
55. Artavanis-Tsakonas, S., Rand, M. D., and Lake, R. J. (1999) Science 284, 770-776[Abstract/Free Full Text]
56. Kageyama, R., Ohtsuka, T., and Tomita, K. (2000) Mol. Cells 10, 1-7[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
57. De Strooper, B., Annaert, W., Cupers, P., Saftig, P., Craessaerts, K., Mumm, J. S., Schroeter, E. H., Schrijvers, V., Wolfe, M. S., Ray, W. J., Goate, A., and Kopan, R. (1999) Nature 398, 518-522[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
58. Hartmann, D., De, Stroope, B., and Saftig, P. (1999) Curr. Biol. 9, 719-727[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
59. Antras-Ferry, J., Mahéo, K., Morel, F., Guillouzo, A., Cillard, P., and Cillard, J. (1997) FEBS Lett. 403, 101-104
60. Schmitz, M. L., and Baeuerle, P. A. (1995) Immunobiology 193, 116-127[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
61. Yamamoto, K., Arakawa, T., Ueda, N., and Yamamoto, S. (1995) J. Biol. Chem. 270, 31315-31320[Abstract/Free Full Text]
62. Schmedtje, J. F., Jr., Ji, Y.-S., Liu, W.-L., DuBois, R. N., and Runge, M. S. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272, 601-608[Abstract/Free Full Text]
63. Ban, E., Milon, G., Prudhomme, N., Fillion, G., and Haour, F. (1991) Neuroscience 43, 21-30[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
64. Ban, E. M. (1994) Immunomethods 5, 31-40[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]


Copyright © 2003 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.