From the Canadian Institutes of Health Research Membrane Protein Research Group, Department of Physiology, and Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada
Received for publication, August 1, 2002, and in revised form, November 4, 2002
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ABSTRACT |
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Human AE1 performs electroneutral exchange of
Cl Human AE1, also called Band 3, is the most abundant integral
membrane protein of the erythrocyte membrane (50% membrane protein, 1.2 × 106 copies per cell) (1). AE1 facilitates the
electroneutral exchange of Cl Human AE1 belongs to a multigene family consisting of three members.
AE1 is found in the erythrocytes, and an N-terminal truncated form is
present in the kidney; AE2 is found in a variety of tissues; and AE3 is
found in the brain, retina, and heart. AE1 is a 110-kDa protein
composed of 911 amino acids. AE1 has two domains: a 55-kDa membrane
domain, which is highly conserved with AE2 and AE3, and a 45-kDa
cytoplasmic domain. The membrane domain is responsible for anion
exchange activity and is predicted to span the lipid bilayer 12-14
times (10). The structure of the AE1 cytoplasmic domain was recently
determined by x-ray crystallography (11).
The C-terminal portion of the AE1 membrane domain is implicated in the
anion translocation process. Two AE1 inhibitors, pyridoxal phosphate
(PLP) and DIDS,1 both react
with Lys851 in the C-terminal region (12, 13). Mutagenesis
and methylation studies also highlight the functional importance of
Lys851 (14, 15). The naturally occurring P868L mutation in
this region substantially increased anion exchange activity (16). Also,
the Asp821-His834 region is involved in the
adhesion of malaria-infected erythrocytes to endothelial cells (5).
This stretch was also identified as the senescence antigen of aged
erythrocytes (17). Some proteolytic sites in the AE1 C-terminal region
were accessible only after treatment of erythrocytes with high
concentrations of sodium hydroxide, suggesting that those regions
normally are folded into the AE1 structure (18). In addition, carbonic
anhydrase II binds to the LDADD motif in the cytoplasmic C-terminal
tail to facilitate HCO Determination of the topology of AE1 is important because of the role
of AE1 as a cell surface protein and in the anion translocation process. Although topology of the membrane domain of AE1 has been studied extensively, a clear picture of the C-terminal region remains
elusive. Hydropathy analysis of the region yields ambiguous results,
with unclear transmembrane segments (10). Topology models have been
proposed for this region based on experimental evidence including,
epitope mapping (20), N-glycosylation-scanning mutagenesis
(21, 22), pro-tease accessibility (23), and cysteine-scanning
mutagenesis (24, 25). In this report, we examined the topology of the
C-terminal region of AE1, using cysteine-scanning mutagenesis and
sulfhydryl-specific chemical labeling. Cysteine-scanning mutagenesis
has been applied widely to study membrane transporters (26, 27).
Mutation of individual amino acids to cysteine represents a minor
structural modification. Therefore, it possesses some potential
advantages over other approaches, as most mutant proteins remain
functional. We constructed 80 introduced cysteine mutants at each
position between amino acid Phe806 and Cys885,
spanning the C-terminal quarter of the membrane domain. Accessibility of each individual cysteine mutant protein to membrane permeant and
impermeant chemical reagents was assayed. On the basis of these
results, we propose a topology model for the C-terminal region of human
AE1. A preliminary version of this work has been published as an
abstract (28).
Materials--
Restriction endonucleases were from New England
Biolabs. Pwo DNA polymerase was from Roche Molecular
Diagnostics. Plasmid preparation kits were from Qiagen. T4
DNA ligase, DMEM and all cell culture reagents were from Invitrogen.
3-(N-Maleimidylpropionyl) biocytin (biotin maleimide) and
lucifer yellow iodoacetamide (LYIA) were from Molecular Probes.
Monobromotrimethylammoniobimane (qBBr) was from Toronto Research
Chemicals. Protein A-Sepharose-CL4B, streptavidin/biotinylated-horseradish peroxidase complex, sheep anti-mouse IgG-conjugated horseradish peroxidase and ECL
chemiluminescent reagent were from Amersham Biosciences. Igepal and
polylysine were from Sigma. Polyvinylidene difluoride membranes were
from Millipore.
Site-directed Mutagenesis--
A previously constructed human
AE1 cDNA with all five endogenous cysteine codons mutated to serine
(AE1C Protein Expression--
Mutant AE1 cDNAs were expressed by
transient transfection of human embryonic kidney 293 cells (HEK), as
previously described (25). Briefly, HEK cells were plated onto 60-mm
dishes in 4 ml of DMEM, containing 5% (v/v) fetal bovine serum, 5%
(v/v) calf serum (Invitrogen). 6-8 h following seeding, cells were
transfected with mutant plasmids, using the calcium phosphate
precipitation method (25). Cells were grown at 37 °C in a 5%
CO2 atmosphere and harvested 48 h post-transfection.
In some experiments, dishes were precoated with polylysine, to increase
cell adhesion. Culture dishes were incubated with polylysine solution
(0.1 mg/ml in distilled water) for 30 min in the tissue culture hood.
Dishes were washed with water and dried under UV light overnight.
Biotin Maleimide Labeling Assay--
Labeling with biotin
maleimide proceeded as described previously (25). Transfected HEK cells
were washed with 5 ml of PBS (140 mM NaCl, 3 mM
KCl, 6.5 mM Na2HPO4, 1.5 mM KH2PO4, pH 7.4) and allowed to
detach in 2 ml of PBS for 10 min, at room temperature. Cells were
collected and sedimented by centrifugation for 5 min at 800 × g. Cells were then resuspended in 1 ml of PBSCM (PBS containing 0.1 mM CaCl2 and 1 mM
MgCl2, pH 7.0) and incubated with a final concentration of
0.2 mM biotin maleimide (added from a 20 mM
stock in Me2SO). After a 10-min incubation at room temperature, the reaction was stopped by the addition of 0.5 ml of stop solution (2% (v/v) 2-mercaptoethanol in DMEM (containing 10% (v/v) fetal bovine serum) and incubated at room temperature for 10 min. Cells were
sedimented by centrifugation and washed with 1 ml of PBSCM. Cells were
then lysed with 500 µl of IPB buffer (1% (v/v) Igepal, 5 mM EDTA, 150 mM NaCl, 0.5% (w/v) sodium
deoxycholate, 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5), containing 2% (w/v)
bovine serum albumin, 200 µM TPCK, 200 µM
TLCK, and 2 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, on ice for 10 min.
qBBr and LYIA Accessibility Assay--
Experiments were
performed with cells on the tissue culture dish to prevent cell lysis.
Briefly, cells were grown and transfected on 60-mm polylysine-coated
tissue culture dishes. 22-24 h later, cells were washed twice with 5 ml of PBS. One cell sample was incubated with 1 mM qBBr
(freshly prepared in PBS), at room temperature for 10 min, while the
second sample was incubated in parallel with PBS alone. The qBBr was
removed by aspiration, and cells were washed once with PBS. Both cell
samples were then incubated with biotin maleimide (prepared in
Me2SO, final concentration 0.2 mM), for 20 min
at room temperature. Reactions were stopped by adding 0.5 ml of stop
solution. Cells were then washed, collected, and lysed in IPB buffer.
As a control for the labeling procedure, the intactness of cells was
assessed by trypan blue exclusion. Exclusion of trypan blue following
the labeling protocol ensured that cells were intact during the
labeling procedure. LYIA experiments were performed with LYIA replacing
qBBr, and incubation time was 20 min.
Immunoprecipitation--
Cell lysates were centrifuged at
16,000 × g for 15 min to sediment any insoluble
material. The supernatant was transferred to a fresh
microcentrifuge tube containing 1.5 µl of preimmune rabbit
serum and 50 µl of protein A-Sepharose resin. The tubes were
incubated for 2 h at room temperature, with constant rotation. Resin was then removed by centrifugation at 7,500 × g,
5 min. The procedure was repeated using anti-AE1 polyclonal 1658 antibody (24) in place of preimmune serum, and the mixture was
incubated at 4 °C for 12-16 h. After incubation, resin was
collected by centrifugation and washed consecutively with wash buffer 1 (0.1% Igepal, 1 mM EDTA, 0.15 M NaCl, 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5), wash buffer 2 (2 mM EDTA,
0.05% SDS, 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5), and wash buffer 3 (2 mM EDTA, 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5). Resin was
then mixed with SDS sample buffer containing 2% (v/v)
2-mercaptoethanol and heated at 65 °C for 4 min.
SDS-PAGE and Immunoblotting--
Protein samples were cooled to
room temperature and centrifuged at 7,500 × g for 1 min to sediment insoluble material. Samples were electrophoresed on 8%
polyacrylamide gels and transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride
membrane. Biotinylated proteins were detected by incubation of blots
with 10 ml of 1:2500-diluted streptavidin-biotinylated horseradish
peroxidase (Amersham Biosciences) in TBSTB buffer (TBST buffer (0.1%
(v/v) Tween-20, 137 mM NaCl, 20 mM Tris, pH 7.5), containing 0.5% (w/v) bovine serum albumin). After 1.5 h of
incubation, blots were washed with TBST and visualized using ECL
reagent and Hyperfilm (Amersham Biosciences), or using a KODAK image
station 440CF.
After analyzing each sample for the incorporation of biotin, blots were
stripped by incubation in 100 mM 2-mercaptoethanol, 62.5 mM Tris-HCl, pH 6.8 at 50 °C for 20 min. Blots were then washed with TBST and incubated in 10 ml of TBSTM (TBST, containing 5%
(w/v) nonfat dry milk powder (Carnation)), containing 3 µl of
monoclonal anti-AE1 antibody, IVF12 (31), for 12-16 h at 4 °C.
After washing, blots were probed with 10 ml of 1:3000-diluted horseradish peroxidase conjugated to sheep anti-mouse IgG in TBSTM and
subsequently processed with ECL reagent.
Anion Exchange Assays--
HEK cells were grown on
polylysine-coated glass coverslips in 60-mm tissue culture dishes and
transfected as described. Two days post-transfection, cells were rinsed
with serum-free DMEM (Invitrogen) and incubated with in 4 ml of
serum-free DMEM medium containing 2 µM BCECF-AM
(37 °C, 30 min). Coverslips were mounted in a fluorescence cuvette
and perfused at 3.5 ml/min alternately with Ringer's buffer (5 mM glucose, 5 mM potassium gluconate, 1 mM calcium gluconate, 1 mM MgSO4,
2.5 mM NaH2PO4, 25 mM
NaHCO3, 10 mM Hepes, pH 7.4), containing either
140 mM sodium chloride (chloride buffer) or 140 mM sodium gluconate (chloride-free buffer). Both buffers
were bubbled continuously with air containing 5% carbon dioxide.
Intracellular pH was monitored by measuring fluorescence changes at
excitation wavelengths 440 and 502 nm and emission 520 nm, in a Photon
Technologies International RCR/Delta Scan spectrofluorometer.
Intracellular pH was calibrated, using the nigericin-high potassium
method (32), with three pH values between 6.5 and 7.5. Transport rates
were determined by linear regression of the initial linear rate of
change of pH, using Sigma plot software.
Image Analysis and Data Analysis--
Films from immunoblots and
chemical biotinylation blots were scanned with a Hewlett Packard
Scanjet 4C scanner, calibrated with a Kodak gray scale. Scanned film
images were quantified using NIH Image 1.60 software. Images obtained
using KODAK image station 440CF were quantified by KODAK ID image
analysis software. Biotinylation levels were calculated according to
Equation 1.
Statistical analysis--
Standard errors were calculated with
Kaleidagraph 3.5 software (Synergy Software).
Construction of Introduced Cysteine Mutants at the C Terminus of
AE1--
Eighty consecutive introduced cysteine mutants were
constructed between Phe806 and Cys885 in the
C-terminal region of AE1, where 12 mutants were reported previously
(25). Each cysteine mutant was cloned into AE1C Labeling of Introduced Cysteines with Biotin Maleimide--
Biotin
maleimide, a membrane permeant chemical reagent, reacts with the
sulfhydryl groups of cysteine residues to introduce a biotin group into
the labeled protein through a thioether bond. Biotin can be detected by
streptavidin conjugated horseradish peroxidase on blots. Since
biotinylation occurs only in the aqueous environment, cysteine residues
in the aqueous medium can react with biotin maleimide, whereas cysteine
residues in the TMs cannot (24). We labeled intact HEK cells that
expressed a single cysteine mutant AE1 protein with biotin maleimide.
Fig. 1 presents representative data from
the biotin maleimide labeling experiments. AE1C
The majority of AE1 expressed in transfected HEK cells is retained in
intracellular membranes (24). This intracellular protein may be
misfolded, although intracellular-retained AE1 has previously been
shown to be functionally active (35). Thus, it is important to
determine if any intracellular AE1 is labeled by biotin maleimide, as
this protein may not have native structure. The R808C mutation has
previously been shown to cause retention of AE1 in intracellular membranes (36). To determine whether intracellular AE1 is accessible to
labeling by biotin maleimide we constructed the R808C/C479S double
mutant in a wild type AE1 background. C479S was used as the cloning
background for R808C because of availability of restriction sites.
C479S AE1 (with four endogenous cysteine residues) and R808C/C479S AE1
were treated with biotin maleimide, in the same way as each of the
introduced cysteine mutants (Fig. 1, A and B).
AE1C
The ability to label each introduced cysteine mutant in the
Phe806-Cys885 region with biotin maleimide is
quantified in Fig. 2. The biotin signal
of each introduced cysteine mutant was quantified by densitometry of
the biotinylation blot and the corresponding anti-AE1 immunoblot. Data
were then normalized to the Y555C mutant, which was used as an internal
standard in each experiment. Three regions
(Phe815-Leu827,
Ser852-Ala855, and
Val876-Cys885) stood out as labeled in a
background of otherwise unlabeled or weakly labeled mutants. The strong
labeling of these three regions is consistent with aqueous-accessible
localization (Fig. 2, bottom). Each of these regions had a
consistent pattern of labeling, with a labeling maximum and a decrease
moving away from that maximum. On the margins of the strongly labeled
regions were the weakly labeled stretches,
Phe806-Lys814,
Val828-Leu835, and
Val872-Pro875. Notably
Phe836-Lys851 and
Ser859-Arg871 did not label with biotin
maleimide to an extent greater than AE1C Accessibility of Biotinylated Cysteine Residues to qBBr--
The
intracellular or extracellular location of introduced cysteine residues
was determined by differential labeling with the membrane impermeant
compound, qBBr. The bimane compound, qBBr, has a positively charged
quaternary amine group, which will not penetrate erythrocytes and
cultured V79 cells with up to 1 h of incubation under
physiological conditions and was not toxic (37, 38).
Accessibility to membrane impermeant qBBr was measured by the ability
to block cysteine labeling by biotin maleimide. Data could not
accurately be collected for mutants that labeled weakly with biotin
maleimide. Therefore, only mutants that had >30% biotin maleimide
labeling relative to Y555C were assayed. Fig.
3 shows the degree of biotinylation of
representative mutants and the effect of qBBr on biotinylation. The
lower blot shows that similar amounts of AE1 were expressed in each
sample. The extracellular control mutant, Y555C, shows strong
competition of biotinylation by qBBr. In contrast, the intracellular
control, Cys201, shows little effect of qBBr on biotin
maleimide labeling.
Fig. 4 quantifies the qBBr accessibility
results. Data represent the relative biotinylation in the absence
relative to presence of qBBr. Thus, an intracellular site should be
unaffected by qBBr and have a ratio close to unity. An introduced
cysteine residue labeled by qBBr would have access to the extracellular
medium and a ratio >1.0. Introduced cysteine mutants P815C-K829C
(excluding V828C) and P854C-A855C showed strong competition by qBBr
labeling and therefore lie outside the permeability barrier that
restricts qBBr movement across AE1. Significantly, among L873C-C885C
mutants that labeled with biotin maleimide, none were affected by qBBr prelabeling, consistent with an intracellular localization of these
sites.
Accessibility of Biotinylated Cysteine Residues to LYIA--
To
confirm the topology data obtained with qBBr, we determined the ability
to label introduced cysteine mutants with the sulfhydryl compound,
LYIA. LYIA, which is anionic and larger (Mr = 620) than qBBr (Mr = 409), has been previously
used as a membrane-impermeant probe of AE1 topology (24, 25). Cysteine
residues in the N-terminal cytoplasmic domain (C201) and cytoplasmic
C-terminal tail had little labeling with LYIA, since they had only
1.1-1.2-fold more biotinylation in the absence than presence of LYIA
(Fig. 5). In contrast, extracellular
control mutants Y555C and S657C were strongly accessible to LYIA.
Experiments with qBBr suggested that the
Pro815-Lys829 region was accessible to the
extracellular medium (Figs. 3 and 4). To confirm this result, we
examined the accessibility of introduced mutants at 817, 819, 821, 823, and 825 to labeling with LYIA. Each of these mutants was strongly
labeled by LYIA (Fig. 5). Thus, we conclude that the
Pro815-Lys829 region is in an environment that
is sufficiently accessible to the extracellular medium to allow access
to both cationic qBBr and anionic LYIA.
Anion Exchange Activity of AE1 Mutants--
Mutation of
structurally important residues could impair transport activity of AE1.
To determine if the mutant proteins retained native structure,
transport activity of each introduced cysteine mutant was measured by
monitoring intracellular pH changes associated with
Cl
Fig. 7 shows the locations of
functionally inhibited mutants on topology and helical wheel models of
the last two TMs. Helical wheel analysis shows that each of the last
two TMs has one helical face that was highly sensitive to mutation.
The recent determination of a high resolution structure for a ClC
Cl for
HCO
INTRODUCTION
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
for
HCO
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
) was used as the template for site-directed
mutagenesis (29). All AE1 constructs were cloned into the pRBG4
mammalian expression vector (30). Silent BstEII and
MluI sites were first introduced into AE1C
cDNA at codons 804 and 824, respectively, to facilitate cloning and
screening of mutant DNAs. Mutagenesis was performed using a PCR-based
megaprimer mutagenesis strategy (24). The mutagenic primers were
designed using the Primers program (Whitehead Institute for Medical
Research). PCR was performed using an ERICOMP thermal cycler and
Pwo DNA polymerase. Cysteine codons were individually introduced in AE1C
cDNA at each position
corresponding to amino acid Phe806-Cys885 at
BstEII and EcoNI sites. Each mutant cDNA
contains only a single cysteine codon. All mutants were verified by DNA sequencing.
Each mutant was normalized to the biotinylation level of mutant
Y555C, which was treated in parallel and electrophoresed on the same
acrylamide gel. Normalized data were calculated according to Equation 2,
(Eq. 1)
where qBBr and LYIA accessibility were calculated according to
Equation 3 (for LYIA, LYIA replaced qBBr).
(Eq. 2)
(Eq. 3)
RESULTS
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
, an AE1
mutant with all five endogenous cysteine codons mutated to serine (29).
Each mutant protein contains only a single cysteine residue. Some
mutants outside the C-terminal region were used as controls for the
labeling protocol. Y555C was used as the extracellular surface control,
since it is adjacent to the two chymotryptic cleavage sites in intact
erythrocytes (33); K892C was used as intracellular surface control
because it is located in the C-terminal tail of the protein, which
previously mapped to the cytoplasm (20, 34). Cys201, an
endogenous cysteine residue located in the N-terminal cytoplasmic domain of AE1, was also cloned into AE1C
as an
intracellular surface control.
was very
slightly biotin-labeled, consistent with the absence of cysteine
residues in the construct and the limited reactivity of biotin
maleimide toward primary amines. Extra and intracellular control
mutants Y555C and K892C, were both strongly biotinylated. All
mutant proteins were expressed to a similar level as shown in Fig. 1.
The reaction of each individual cysteine mutants with biotin maleimide
varied greatly, due to varying degrees of exposure to the aqueous
medium.
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Fig. 1.
Representative data of labeling human AE1
introduced cysteine mutants with biotin maleimide. HEK cells were
transiently transfected with human AE1 cDNAs, as indicated in the
figure. Cells were harvested and incubated with 0.2 mM
biotin maleimide for 10 min, at room temperature. After solubilization,
samples were immunoprecipitated with anti-AE1 antibody, subjected to
electrophoresis on 8% acrylamide gels and transferred to
polyvinylidene difluoride membrane. Incorporated biotin was detected by
horseradish peroxidase-streptavidin and ECL, as indicated. Blots were
stripped and probed with monoclonal anti-AE1 antibody to detect the
amount of AE1 in each sample, as indicated. A and
B, individual cysteine codons were introduced into
AE1C background at amino acid positions indicated at the
top of each panel. C, biotin maleimide labeling
of intracellular AE1 was assessed. Mutant Arg808 was cloned
into the AE1C
background. C479S and R808C/C479S were both
constructed in a wild type AE1 background and therefore have four
endogenous cysteine residues.
and R808C were not significantly labeled (Fig.
1C), consistent with the absence of cysteine residues in
AE1C
. While the four endogenous Cys residues in C479S
were strongly labeled by biotin maleimide, R808C/C479S incorporated
<10% as much biotin. Therefore, the R808C mutation causes
intracellular retention of AE1, which causes greatly reduced labeling
of the protein's cysteine residues. We conclude that in the analysis of the Arg806-Cys885-introduced cysteine
mutants (Fig. 1, A and B), intracellular-retained AE1 contributed <10% of the biotinylation signal.
, consistent with
two aqueous-inaccessible TMs, as identified previously in TM8 of AE1
(24). Two mutants (P875C and R879C) were not biotinylated, yet were
found in regions that were otherwise strongly labeled. Interestingly,
Phe806-Lys814 and
Val828-Leu835 had labeling patterns with a
suggestion of 3- and 2-fold periodicity, respectively.
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Fig. 2.
Summary of labeling of introduced cysteine
mutants by biotin maleimide. Each introduced cysteine mutant was
treated with biotin maleimide, as described. The level of biotin
incorporation was quantified by densitometry and this signal was
normalized to the amount of AE1 present in the sample. In each
experiment the level of biotinylation was compared with that of the
Y555C mutant, whose labeling was set to 100%. Data represent mean of
3-6 determinations ± S.E. Beneath the figure is a bar
representation of the structural interpretation of the biotinylation
data. A.A. stands for aqueous-accessible.
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Fig. 3.
Representative data of accessibility of
introduced cysteine residues to qBBr. HEK cells, transfected with
human AE1 introduced cysteine mutants, were incubated for 10 min at
room temperature with (+) or without ( ) 1 mM qBBr. Cells
were then washed with PBS and treated with 0.2 mM biotin
maleimide for 20 min at room temperature. The amount of biotin
incorporated into each introduced cysteine mutant was detected with
horseradish peroxidase-streptavidin and ECL reagent. Blots were
stripped and probed with anti-AE1 antibody, as indicated.
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Fig. 4.
Summary of accessibility of introduced
cysteine mutants to qBBr. Human AE1 introduced cysteine mutants
were pre-incubated with or without qBBr, then treated with biotin
maleimide, as described. Biotin incorporation was quantified by
densitometry and was normalized to the relative expression level of
AE1. For each mutant, the normalized level of incorporation of biotin
without qBBr prelabeling was divided by biotinylation after prelabeling
with qBBr. This ratio represents the relative accessibility of each
introduced cysteine site to qBBr. Data represent the mean of 3-4
determinations ± S.E. Each asterisk represents a
mutant that was not analyzed because the level of biotinylation was too
low to allow analysis. Beneath the figure is a bar
representation of the structural interpretation of the qBBr
accessibility data. E.A. stands for
extracellular-accessible.
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Fig. 5.
Accessibility of introduced cysteine mutants
to LYIA. HEK cells, transfected with human AE1 introduced cysteine
mutants, were incubated for 20 min at room temperature with (+) or
without ( ) 1 mM LYIA. Cells were then washed with PBS and
treated with 0.2 mM biotin maleimide for 20 min at room
temperature. The amount of biotin incorporated into each introduced
cysteine mutant was detected with horseradish peroxidase-streptavidin
and ECL reagent. Blots were stripped and probed with anti-AE1 antibody,
as indicated. The ratio of biotinylation with or without prior LYIA
treatment, normalized to expression level of AE1, is quantified beneath
the blots (accessibility).
/HCO
transport
activity (Fig. 6, A and C). Transport data were
corrected for this background activity (Table
I). Some mutants had little or no
functional activity, as illustrated by R808C (Fig. 6B). Among the 80 introduced cysteine mutants analyzed, 15 were functionally inactive, defined as <20% activity of AE1C
(R808C, Y824C, M833C, H834C, F836C, T837C, Q840C, K851C, L859C, P860C, R870C, P875C, F878C, E882C, and L883C) (Table I).
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Fig. 6.
Assay of AE1 anion exchange activity.
HEK cells transfected with cDNA encoding AE1C
(A), introduced cysteine mutant R808C (B) and
pRBG4 vector alone (C) were grown on glass coverslips, then
loaded with pH-sensitive dye BCECF-AM. Coverslips were suspended in a
fluorescence cuvette and perfused alternatively with
chloride-containing Ringer's buffer (open bar) and
chloride-free Ringer's buffer (solid bar).
Summary of anion exchange activity of introduced cysteine mutants
. Biotinylation levels are expressed as % relative to Y555C.
, background biotinylation level; +, 10-20%; ++,
20-30%; +++, 30-50%; ++++, >50%.
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Fig. 7.
Relative anion exchange activity of
introduced cysteine mutants and protein structure. Residues are
shaded to indicate effect of mutation on transport activity:
unfilled, not determined; light gray, activity
>60% of AE1C ; dark gray, 20-60% activity
relative to AE1C
; black, inactive mutants with
<20% activity of AE1C
. A, topology model of
AE1 based on the data presented in this report. B and
C, helical wheel models with 3.6 residues/turn.
B, helix from 836-851; C, 856-871. The first
residue in each sequence is at the top of the wheel and
sequence proceeds clockwise. Numbers indicate residue positions of
functionally inactive mutants. Asterisks indicate residues
that were accessible to labeling by qBBr.
DISCUSSION
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ABSTRACT
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
channel revealed a complex protein with transmembrane
segments of varied length and tilt angle (39). If the ClC channel is a
guide, we can expect the AE1 anion transporter to have a complex topology, requiring substantial biochemical characterization. In the
present study, we examined the topology of the functionally important
C-terminal region of AE1 (Phe806-Cys885),
using the established method of introduced cysteine-scanning mutagenesis and sulfhydryl-specific chemistry (24). Labeling of an
introduced cysteine mutant with biotin maleimide indicates that the
residue is accessible to the aqueous environment. Sites that cannot be
labeled may be in the plane of lipid bilayer or folded into an
inaccessible conformation. Data on the accessibility of eighty cysteine
mutants to the membrane-permeant compound, biotin maleimide paint a
clear picture of two large aqueous-accessible regions separated by two
transmembrane segments and an intervening small extracellular loop.
Labeling with the membrane-impermeant compounds, qBBr and LYIA, leads
to the conclusion that Pro815-Arg827 is
readily accessible to the extracellular medium, and the C-terminal tail
region is cytosolic. The observation that
Pro815-Arg827 is extracellular-accessible
presents interesting implications for the folding of AE1. The data
reported here were combined with findings obtained from proteolytic
mapping (18), glycosylation-scanning mutagenesis (21, 22) and other
introduced cysteine accessibility studies (24, 25) to develop a
topology model of the C-terminal portion of human AE1 membrane domain
(Fig. 8).
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Fig. 8.
Proposed topology model for the membrane
domain of human AE1. The branched structure at Asn642
represents N-linked glycosylation. The model summarizes
previous investigations (20-22, 24) and work from the present report.
Arrows represent proteolytic sites found following treatment
with NaOH (13). Residues were shaded to indicate the degree of labeling
with biotin maleimide: unfilled, not determined; light
gray, no significant labeling; dark gray, <30%
labeling of Y555C; black, above 30% labeling of Y555C.
Asterisk marks mutants that were accessible to qBBr,
indicating that the residue was accessible to the extracellular medium.
The amino (Nt) and carboxyl (Ct) termini are
marked. Pro815-Leu835 has unusual structure.
We could not rule out the possibility that this region is
intracellular, but that Pro815-Arg827 is able
to reorient to access the extracellular medium.
The second half of the AE1 membrane domain has been the subject of many topology studies. Topology of the TM8 region was established using a substituted cysteine accessibility approach similar to this study (24). The large re-entrant loop (T-loop) between TM9 and TM10 (Fig. 8) was proposed on the basis of glycosylation-scanning mutagenesis results (21, 22). The inaccessibility of G790C and S801C to labeling by biotin maleimide led to the proposal that these sites form part of a TM (25). However, we have subsequently found that introduced cysteine mutants may not label with biotin maleimide because they are folded into an inaccessible conformation, so that the identification of a TM can be made only with a sequence of biotin maleimide-inaccessible sites. Glycosylation-scanning mutagenesis showed that Phe785 could not be glycosylated but was unable to establish for certain the number of transmembrane segments between TM10 and TM12 (21). The paucity of topology data between TM10 and F806 make it difficult to draw conclusions on the topology here.
In the present study we found that
Phe806-Lys814 has a 3-fold periodicity of
accessibility to biotin maleimide (Figs. 2 and 8), which is suggestive
of a helical region. The NMR structure of a synthetic peptide
corresponding to Gly796-Ile841 revealed
Ile803-Leu810 in -helical conformation
(40). The R808C mutation, found in this region, causes hereditary
erythroid spherocytosis because of a failure to process AE1 to the cell
surface (36). Consistent with that finding, R808C AE1 was not
functional and was not biotinylated in the present study.
The next distinct region, Pro815-Lys829, was strongly labeled by biotin maleimide, qBBr and LYIA, indicating that the region was readily accessible to the extracellular medium. Consistent with our biotinylation data, other studies have localized Phe813-Tyr824 (41), Asp821-His834 (5), Leu812-Arg827 (42), and either Lys814 or Lys817 (43) as accessible to aqueous medium. However, the accessibility of the Pro815-Lys829 region to extracellular medium is controversial. Glycosylation-scanning mutagenesis studies showed that position 820 could be partially glycosylated when translated in vitro but not glycosylated when expressed in vivo (22). These findings suggest that under some circumstances the region can be induced to face outside the cell, but normally the region is cryptic. The BRIC 132 antibody, with epitope Phe813-Tyr824 (41), can bind erythrocytes only following detergent treatment, suggesting that the epitope is not readily accessible at the extracellular surface. In contrast, binding of malaria parasite infected erythrocytes to the endothelium is dependent on the region Asp821-His834 (5), suggesting that parasitic invasion can induce exposure to the extracellular surface. Similarly, the Leu812-Arg827 region has been identified as an extracellular antigen, produced when erythrocytes age (42). Taken together, the malaria infection and cell senescence antigen data suggest that Asp821-Val828 is normally cryptic, but can be extracellular-accessible under some circumstances. Our data are not sufficient to resolve the structure of the Pro815-Lys829 region, except that it can access extracellular solution.
Fig. 8 depicts Thr830-Leu835 as an extended
structure in the plane of the lipid bilayer. The 2-fold periodicity of
labeling by biotin maleimide (Figs. 2 and 8) and effect of mutation on
transport activity (Fig. 7) are consistent with a conformation.
However, as discussed above we have previously observed that
transmembrane regions are not accessible to labeling by biotin
maleimide. Therefore, we are left with the two following remarkable
possibilities regarding AE1 structure. 1)
Pro815-Lys829 resides on the extracellular
portion of the membrane, allowing it to access membrane-impermeant
reagents. Val828-Leu835 therefore forms an
extended structure (as depicted in Fig. 8) that is remarkable for its
ability to be labeled by the aqueous reagent, biotin maleimide. 2)
Pro815-Lys829 and
Val828-Leu835 are intracellular, yet
Pro815-Lys829 is sufficiently mobile to be
able to move to the outer part of the membrane to access extracellular
reagents. Although our data are unable to differentiate these
possibilities, it points to Pro815-Leu835 as a
region with high flexibility and unusual structure. Two-dimensional crystallography of the membrane domain of AE1 revealed a mobile subunit
in the protein complex (44), which may be the last two TMs (45).
Pro815-Leu835 may therefore form a flexible
connection between the mobile last two TMs and the rest of the protein.
Two regions, Phe836-Lys851 and
Ser856-Arg871, were not labeled with biotin
maleimide, consistent with two aqueous-inaccessible TMs. The 16 amino
acid length of the regions would allow them to extend 24 Å in
-helical conformation, which is shorter than the 30 Å thickness of
the mammalian bilayer (46). A helical conformation for the
Phe836-Lys851 and
Ser856-Arg872 regions is also supported by the
marked clustering of functionally important residues on one face of
helical wheel plots (Fig. 7, B and C). In both
helices the functionally important residues localize to a helical face
that is much more polar than the opposing hydrophobic face. This
suggests that the sensitive helical surfaces may form a part of the
anion translocation pore, while the opposing face interacts with the
rest of the protein. Interestingly, Lys851, which reacts
covalently with DIDS to inhibit transport (13) and is implicated in
anion translocation (15), is in the center of the sensitive face of the
Phe836-Lys851 helix (Fig. 7B).
Transport assays revealed a cluster of important amino acids at the N-terminal end of the second last TM (Met833, His834, Phe836, Thr837, Gln840) (Fig. 7 and Table I). Human mutations H834P and T837M both cause erythrocyte spherocytosis because of a failure of AE1 to be processed to the cell surface (36). In the present study, mutation to cysteine at each of these sites resulted in inactive protein, which was not labeled by biotin maleimide. The intolerance of positions 833, 834, 836, 837, and 840 to mutation suggests a critical role of this region in protein folding. AE1 variant P868L increased AE1 transport activity (16), but here P868C decreased AE1 activity by 50%, indicating that it is more than loss of proline that causes the increased transport rate of P868L AE1.
A short biotin maleimide-labeled region, Ser852-Ala855, lies between the two TMs. This region was also sensitive to membrane impermeant, qBBr, consistent with an extracellular location. Our results therefore indicate that Ser852-Ala855 forms a short aqueous-accessible loop, connecting the last two TMs. Glycosylation-scanning mutagenesis had previously identified Pro854 as an extracellular location (22). An extracellular location for this residue is also supported by naturally occurring mutation, P854L, which induces the Diegoa blood group antigen (6). Our data show for the first time that P854 resides in a very small extracellular loop.
The extreme C-terminal region (Val872-Cys885) was strongly labeled by biotin maleimide, but was not accessible to the membrane impermeant reagent qBBr, indicating an exposed intracellular location of the tail. This is consistent with results from epitope mapping (20) and carboxypeptidase Y digestion (34). The observed increase of biotinylation from V872C to C885 provides a high resolution determination of the last TM of AE1, which ends at Arg871. The cytoplasmic C-terminal region (Val872-Cys885) becomes progressively more accessible to the aqueous medium, moving away from the membrane.
The presence of four functionally inactive mutants in the cytoplasmic C-terminal tail is somewhat surprising. All of these mutations are close to the identified binding motif for carbonic anhydrase II on the C-terminal tail (886LDADD890) (19). Since binding of CAII is essential for full AE1 activity, mutation at adjacent sites could reduce transport activity. Alternatively, the C-terminal tail of AE1 has been implicated in protein trafficking (47), so that these sites may be required for processing AE1 to the cell surface.
In summary, we individually assessed topology of each residue in the
C-terminal region of the membrane domain of human AE1. We defined the
last two short transmembrane segments and identified the small loop
that connects them and which forms the Diegoa blood group
antigen. The last two TMs each contain one helical face that is
sensitive to introduced cysteine mutations, possibly because these
faces form part of the transmembrane pore lining. Finally, we have
presented evidence that Pro815-Arg827 is
accessible to the extracellular medium. This finding combined with the
biotin maleimide accessibility of
Val828-Leu835 leads to the conclusion that the
Pro815-Leu835 region of AE1 has unconventional
structure that may be linked to the catalytic mechanism.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT |
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We thank Dr. Mike Jennings for generously providing monoclonal antibody IVF12.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This research was supported by an operating grant from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Funded by a studentship from Canadian Blood Services.
§ Supported by a summer studentship from Alberta Heritage Foundation for Medical Research (AHFMR).
¶ Senior Scholar of the AHFMR. To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of Physiology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada. Tel.: 780-492-7203; Fax: 780-492-8915; E-mail: joe.casey@ualberta.ca.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, November 21, 2002, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M207797200
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ABBREVIATIONS |
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The abbreviations used are:
DIDS, 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid;
LYIA, lucifer
yellow iodoacetamide;
AE1C, cysteine-less AE1;
BCECF-AM, 2',7'-bis(2-carboxyethyl)-(5 and 6)-carboxyfluorescein,
acetoxymethyl ester;
biotin maleimide, 3-(N-maleimidylpropionyl)biocytin;
HEK, human embryonic
kidney;
qBBr, bromotrimethylammoniumbimane bromide;
TLCK, N-p-tosyl-L-lysine chlorometyl
ketone;
TM, transmembrane segment;
TPCK, N-tosyl-L-phenylalanine chloromethyl ketone;
DMEM, Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium;
PBS, phosphate-buffered
saline.
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