From the Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-4560
Received for publication, September 11, 2002, and in revised form, January 22, 2003
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ABSTRACT |
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Ca2+ is essential for in
vitro activity of Erwinia chrysanthemi pectate lyase
C (PelC). Crystallographic analyses of 11 PelC-Ca2+
complexes, formed at pH 4.5, 9.5, and 11.2 under varying
Ca2+ concentrations, have been solved and refined at
a resolution of 2.2 Å. The Ca2+ site represents a new
motif for Ca2+, consisting primarily of Erwinia sp. are pathogenic bacteria that are causally
involved in soft rot diseases in a wide variety of plant crops (1, 2).
The bacteria enter the plant through wounds produced by either insects
or harvesting and subsequently multiply in the intercellular spaces,
secreting large amounts of pectolytic enzymes. These enzymes degrade
the middle lamella portion of the plant cell wall, causing tissue
damage and cell rupture. Erwinia bacterial strains, which
are deficient in one or more pectate lyase genes, have decreased
virulence (3-5). Mutations affecting the extracellular secretion of
the pectic enzymes also reduce virulence (6). The introduction of
pectate lyase genes into Escherichia coli enables E. coli to macerate plant tissue and display soft rot-like symptoms
(7). Highly purified pectate lyase preparations macerate plant tissue,
thus confirming a causal relationship between the enzymes and soft rot
diseases (8).
Pectate lyases constitute a family of isozymes that share 29-91%
sequence similarity (9). All isozymes cleave Crystal Preparation--
PelC was purified and crystallized from
ammonium sulfate according to published protocols (21). Unless noted,
all reagents were purchased from Sigma. The PelC-Ca2+
complexes were prepared by a gradual reduction in ammonium sulfate and
a concurrent increase in polyethylene glycol 8000 surrounding the
native crystals. Subsequently, Ca2+ was added gradually.
The crystals were sensitive to the order and rate of the changes made
to the mother liquor, as illustrated in Fig.
1. PelC crystals were prepared at three
pH values: 4.5, 9.5, and 11.2. At pH 4.5 and 11.2, the reactions were
buffered by 100 mM Data Collection and Processing--
X-ray diffraction data were
collected at 20 °C using a dual multiwire area detector system (San
Diego Multiwire Systems, San Diego, CA). The data were processed
by the San Diego Multiwire software package (22) and placed on an
absolute scale by the Wilson method (23). The x-ray data statistics are
summarized in Table I.
Model Refinement--
Initial phases were derived from the
native PelC structure determined at pH 7.5 in the absence of
Ca2+ (24). The reflection data were divided randomly into
two sets, a working set composed of 90% of the data and a test set
composed of the remaining data used for cross-validation of the
refinement cycles (25). The parameter and topology files of Engh and
Huber were used (26). The weight of the crystallographic term in the molecular dynamics was calculated from the empirical check procedure of
X-PLOR (27) and kept constant at 50% throughout the refinement process.
The Ca2+ ion for each data set was confirmed by difference
Fourier methods. Each model was refined by using simulated annealing methods as implemented by X-PLOR (26). Alterations within a 10-Å region around the Ca2+ were identified by simulated
annealed OMIT electron density maps and refit manually using O (28) and
OOPS (29). Following Powell minimization and temperature factor
refinement, water molecules were assigned to peaks > 4
To estimate the error in the Ca2+ occupancy, each of the 11 final models was refined by energy minimization using 15 different values of Ca2+ occupancy ranging from 0.1 to 1.5. The total
energy for each model was plotted against the occupancy of the
Ca2+ ion, and a nonlinear regression analysis was carried
out using SigmaPlot 5.0. Each plot was fitted using a four-parameter
gaussian curve, and all had R2 values exceeding
0.99. The final Ca2+ occupancy was assumed to be the value
corresponding to the energy minimum of each plot, and the estimated
error for Ca2+ occupancy was obtained from the regression
analysis. The final refinement statistics for each model are summarized
in Table I.
Model Analysis--
Crystallographic models were checked with
PROCHECK (31) for geometric and crystallographic statistics. The
superposition of Estimation of pKa Values--
The
pKa values of individual amino acids were
estimated using the computer program MEAD (34) and the atomic
coordinates of the PelC structures at pH 9.5 in the absence and
presence of 30 mM Ca2+. All water molecules
were included in the calculations. The atoms were assigned partial
charges and atomic radii using the standard CHARMM parameters (35).
Interior dielectric constants of 4, 20, 30, 35, or 40 were used in the calculations.
Apparent Dissociation Constant--
The Ca2+
occupancy for each x-ray diffraction data set at a given pH was plotted
using SigmaPlot 5.0. The data were fit to a single rectangular,
two-parameter hyperbolic curve using regression analysis. The apparent
dissociation constant (Kd) of Ca2+ from
PelC at each pH was extrapolated subsequently from the 50% occupancy value.
Intrinsic Tryptophan Fluorescence Assay--
The apparent
Kd of Ca2+ from PelC at pH 9.5 also was
determined by changes in the intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence. The
fluorescent changes were monitored on a SPEX 112 fluorometer with a
150-watt Xenon Arc as the source at an excitation wavelength of 284 nm
and over an emission wavelength range of 300-400 nm at a 2-nm
interval. Water-Raman spectra were collected before each measurement
for experimental consistency. The integral of each emission spectrum
was used to express the fluorescence intensity of PelC at each
Ca2+ concentration after correcting for dilution resulting
from the titrant added. For the titration of PelC, an appropriate
concentration of Ca2+ was added to a 2-ml fluorescence
cuvette containing 0.088 mM PelC in 5 mM
bis-tris propane, pH 9.5, to give a final concentration of
Ca2+ in the solution ranging from 10 Pectolytic Activity Assay--
The optimal Ca2+
concentration was determined at each pH using the standard
spectroscopic method for determining pectate lyase activity (8). At pH
4.5 and 11.2, the reactions were buffered with 100 mM
Structural Models--
11 structural models of PelC have been
constructed and refined using the x-ray diffraction data. Two PelC
models have been refined in the absence of Ca2+ at pH 4.5 and 9.5. The root mean square deviation between the Details of the Ca2+ Site--
The description
of the Ca2+ site is based on atomic details obtained from
the PelC-Ca2+ structure with the highest Ca2+
occupancy; this is the model at pH 9.5 and 30 mM
Ca2+. The details of the Ca2+ site are compared
with the same region in the absence of Ca2+ (Fig.
2). The Ca2+ site is located
at the same position as the Lu3+ derivative of PelC (13)
and is similar to the Ca2+ site observed in B. subtilis pectate lyase (15). Seven oxygen atoms form, the standard
bipentagonal arrangement around the Ca2+ ion with an
average Ca2+-oxygen bond distance of 2.46 Å. The
individual Ca2+-oxygen bond distances are listed in Table
II. Two of the coordinated oxygen atoms
derive from water molecules, Wat-1 and Wat-2. Five oxygen atoms
originate from amino acid side chains. Each oxygen of the carboxylic
group of Asp-131 is coordinated to the Ca2+ ion, whereas
only one carboxylic oxygen of Asp-129, Glu-166, and Asp-170 is
coordinated. Asp-131 is invariant throughout the pectate lyase
superfamily (9, 37). Asp-129, Glu-166, and Asp-170 are conserved only
in the pectate lyase and plant pollen subfamilies.
Ca2+-induced Structural Changes--
The presence of a
highly occupied Ca2+ ion does not cause any major
structural change in the native PelC structure. The root mean square
deviation of the
Changes in the water structure also are observed. In the absence of
Ca2+, there are four water molecules in the region, Wat-1,
Wat-2, Wat-3, and Wat-4. The position and occupancy of Wat-1 and Wat-4 are independent of the presence or absence of Ca2+. Wat-1
coordinates to Ca2+ when the ion is present but does not
alter its position when the cation is absent. Similarly, Wat-4 forms a
hydrogen bond with the guanidinium nitrogen of Arg-218 irrespective of
the Ca2+ occupancy. Wat-2 forms hydrogen bonds with Glu-166
and Asp-170 in the absence of Ca2+ and essentially occupies
the Ca2+ binding site. In the presence of Ca2+,
Wat-2 moves to a position that allows it to coordinate with the
Ca2+ ion. Most significantly, Wat-2 forms a
hydrogen-bonding network to Wat-4 via a new water molecule, Wat-5, only
in the presence of Ca2+. This hydrogen-bonding network
effectively links the Ca2+ ion with the catalytic amino
acid Arg-218. A comparable hydrogen-bonding network, linking Arg-218 to
any other atom, does not exist in the absence of Ca2+.
Wat-3 also shifts position depending upon the Ca2+
occupancy. Wat-3 is displaced by the carboxylic oxygen of Asp-129 when
the residue rotates into the coordination sphere of the
Ca2+ ion. Finally, two new water molecules, Wat-6 and
Wat-7, appear, forming hydrogen bonds with water molecules in the
region. Overall, there is a net gain of two water molecules within an
8-Å sphere around the Ca2+.
Effect of Ca2+ on the pKa of
Arg-218--
In the pectate lyase superfamily, an invariant arginine
analogous to Arg-218 in PelC is believed to initiate the abstraction of
the proton in the initial stages of the PelC Affinity for Ca2+--
The Ca2+
occupancy in each of the PelC-Ca2+ complexes shown in Table
III has been plotted as a function of Ca2+ concentration at
each pH value. The occupancy data have been fit to a single
rectangular, two-parameter hyperbolic curve using regression analysis.
The Ca2+ concentration, which corresponds to the 50%
occupancy level of the fitted curve, is an estimate of the
Ca2+ affinity for the protein. The apparent
Kd of the PelC-Ca2+ complex is estimated
to be 0.132 (±0.004) mM at pH 9.5, 1.09 (±0.29)
mM at pH 11.2, and 5.84 (±0.41) mM at pH 4.5 (Fig. 3). The apparent
Kd at pH 9.5 has been verified by intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence techniques. The addition of Ca2+ to
native PelC induces a small but measurable change in the intensity of
the emitted fluorescence but does not shift the wavelength of the
emitted light. The apparent Kd from the fluorescence data is estimated from the titration curve (Fig.
4). At pH 9.5, the Kd
of 0.133 (±0.045) mM estimated from fluorescence methods
is in close agreement with a Kd of 0.132 (±0.004) mM measured from the x-ray diffraction analyses of the
Ca2+ occupancy. At all pH values, the PelC affinity for
Ca2+ is relatively weak.
Optimal Ca2+ Concentration for Enzymatic
Activity--
The pH profiles of all pectate lyases are determined
routinely at Ca2+ concentrations between 0.1 and 0.4 mM. Because the PelC affinity for Ca2+ at pH
4.5 is weak, a higher concentration of Ca2+ may be needed
to activate PelC at the lower pH range. The enzymatic activity of PelC
at pH 4.5 has been determined in the presence of various
Ca2+ concentrations ranging from 2.5 to 40 mM.
The data demonstrate that the enzymatic activity at pH 4.5 is greatest
at 30 mM Ca2+ (Fig.
5). Saturation of the Ca2+
binding site increases the enzymatic activity by 10-fold.
Nevertheless, at pH 4.5, PelC still has very low activity, less
than 1% of the maximal activity measured at pH 9.5.
The primary Ca2+ site of PelC shares the same location
and coordination as the primary Ca2+ site for the heavy
atom derivative Lu3+, which is used to phase the initial
structure. The Ca2+ coordination involves three amino acids
and two water molecules arranged in the typical bipentagonal
coordination. The primary Ca2+ ion has been observed in two
other pectate lyase structures, that of B. subtilis pectate
lyase (15) and Bacillus sp. strain KSM-P15 pectate lyase
(16). Although the location and coordination numbers are the same,
there are small differences between the Ca2+ binding sites.
Asp-129 in PelC corresponds to Gln-182 in B. subtilis pectate lyase. As an uncharged residue, Gln-182 is unable to coordinate to the Ca2+ ion. Instead, a water molecule fills the
comparable position in B. subtilis pectate lyase. Thus the
Ca2+ ion in B. subtilis pectate lyase
coordinates to one less oxygen atom from an amino acid but one more
oxygen atom from a water molecule, leaving the net coordination number
unchanged. The average Ca2+-oxygen distance is 2.46 Å in PelC and 2.42 Å in B. subtilis pectate lyase. The
details of the Ca2+ binding site in Bacillus sp.
strain KSM-P15 pectate lyase are not yet available for a detailed comparison.
For many years, Ca2+ was believed to interact only with the
substrate in order to induce a substrate conformation that could be
recognized by the pectate lyases (12). Therefore, it is not surprising
to find that PelC-Ca2+ has an apparent
Kd in the tenth millimolar range even at the optimal
pH for enzymatic activity. Nevertheless, the weak association between
PelC and Ca2+ is not so weak as to be insignificant,
particularly in the context of the plant cell wall, where
Ca2+ is believed to be abundant (11). The actual
concentration of Ca2+ in the plant cell is difficult to
determine because Ca2+ is distributed differentially in
various areas of the plant tissue and is dependent upon plant type and
stage of growth (38). One estimate for soybean hypocotyl cell walls
places the Ca2+ concentration between 10 and 50 mM (39). The x-ray diffraction method is somewhat
unconventional for measuring Ca2+ affinity, but it has been
used previously in the quantitation of Ca2+ binding to
internalin B (40). Moreover, the Kd at pH 9.5 determined by the x-ray diffraction method has been corroborated with
intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence measurements. The present research
does not address whether the affinity of Ca2+ for PelC
increases in the presence of the substrate. Such a question is
difficult to answer because additional Ca2+ ions are bound
at the PelC-oligosaccharide interface (17).
Although the x-ray diffraction method has many drawbacks over
conventional methods for determining Ca2+ affinity for a
protein, the approach offers one significant advantage in that the
actual Ca2+ ion for which Kd is being
measured can be visualized. The diffraction studies of the PelC
R218-(Ca2+)4-pentaGalpA complex as
well as preliminary fluorescence data indicating a negative Hill
coefficient raised the possibility that native PelC might have more
than one Ca2+ site, each with differing affinities, at
exogenous Ca2+ concentrations of 10 mM or less.
No positive electron density, consistent with partially occupied
Ca2+ ions, is present at any other site at which the
exogenous Ca2+ concentration is 30 mM or less.
This observation is consistent with the
R218-(Ca2+)4-pentaGalpA complex
structure in which the other Ca2+ ions coordinate to only
one or two amino acids, suggesting that the affinity of these
Ca2+ ions for the protein may be very weak (17).
The Ca2+ affinity for PelC is highest at pH 9.5, the
optimal pH for in vitro enzymatic activity. The
Ca2+ affinity decreases 10-fold at pH 11.2, possibly as a
consequence of the affinity of Ca2+ for water. At pH 11.2, there is a large population of hydroxyl ions that will compete
effectively with the amino acids for direct coordination to
Ca2+. The nearly 100-fold reduction in Ca2+
affinity for PelC at pH 4.5 can be explained by the increased protonation of the aspartic and glutamic acid groups that otherwise would coordinate with the Ca2+ ion. The detection of any
Ca2+ affinity at pH 4.5 is somewhat surprising, given that
in vitro pectate lyase activity had not been detected
previously under standard assay conditions. However, the standard
assays routinely employ Ca2+ concentrations that are too
low at pH 4.5 to saturate the Ca2+ site as deduced by the
x-ray diffraction analyses. This observation raises the question as to
what extent pectate lyase activity at pH 4.5 is dependent upon the
Ca2+ concentration. To answer this question, we have
determined pectate lyase activity in the presence of higher
Ca2+ concentrations and found that saturation of the
Ca2+ binding site increases the enzymatic activity by
10-fold. Nevertheless, the activity of PelC at pH 4.5 still is very
low, as it is less than 1% of the maximal activity measured at pH 9.5. Therefore, the low pectate lyase activity at pH 4.5 must be dependent
upon additional factors.
The Ca2+ binding motif found in PelC differs from the high
affinity Ca2+ sites found in EF-hand
Ca2+-binding proteins (41-45). The typical EF-hand
Ca2+ binding site consists of a continuous or discontinuous
helix-loop-helix motif on which the coordinating amino acids are
located. In the continuous type (Fig.
6A), the helix-loop-helix
motif is composed of a contiguous sequence of 12 amino acids. In the
discontinuous type (Fig. 6B), the helix-loop-helix is
composed of two noncontiguous sequences of amino acids. In contrast to
the typical EF-hand Ca2+ binding motif, the
Ca2+ binding pocket on PelC is composed entirely of
-turns and
-strands. The principal differences between PelC and the
PelC-Ca2+ structures at all pH values are the side-chain
conformations of Asp-129 and Glu-166 as well as the occupancies of four
water molecules. According to calculations of
pKa values, the presence of Ca2+
and associated structural changes lower the pKa
of Arg-218, the amino acid responsible for proton abstraction during
catalysis. The Ca2+ affinity for PelC is weak, as the
Kd was estimated to be 0.132 (±0.004)
mM at pH 9.5, 1.09 (±0.29) mM at pH 11.2, and 5.84 (±0.41) mM at pH 4.5 from x-ray diffraction studies
and 0.133 (±0.045) mM at pH 9.5 from intrinsic tryptophan
fluorescence measurements. Given the pH dependence of Ca2+
affinity, PelC activity at pH 4.5 has been reexamined. At saturating Ca2+ concentrations, PelC activity increases 10-fold at pH
4.5 but is less than 1% of maximal activity at pH 9.5. Taken together, the studies suggest that the primary Ca2+ ion in PelC has
multiple functions.
INTRODUCTION
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-1,4-linked galacturonic acid units of the pectate component of the plant cell wall
by a
-elimination mechanism. In vitro catalyzed reactions have a bell-shaped pH profile, which extends from 6 to 10 with a pH
optimum near 9.0 for most isozymes (10). Pectate lyases require
Ca2+ for in vitro activity and presumably
utilize the abundant Ca2+ in the plant cell wall for
in vivo activity (11). Although Ca2+ once was
assumed to bind only the substrate (12), now it is known that
Ca2+ binds directly to the protein. Several
three-dimensional structures of pectate lyases have been determined in
the presence and absence of Ca2+ (13-16). All such
structures reveal a novel parallel
-helical topology that probably
is shared by all family members. The structures of Bacillus
subtilis pectate lyase (15) and Bacillus sp. strain KSM-P15 pectate lyase (16) reveal details of a Ca2+ binding
site at the same relative location in each structure. Another
structure, that of a complex between an inactive
PelC1 mutant and a
pentagalacturonate substrate, has revealed three additional
Ca2+ sites linking the substrate to the protein (17).
Although the PelC
R218K-(Ca2+)4-pentaGalpA structure
provides many insights into the pectate lyase cleavage mechanism, the
structure complicates questions regarding the function of the
Ca2+ ions. Are all Ca2+ ions essential for
in vitro catalytic activity? Are the Ca2+ ions
only required for substrate binding, or do any have an active catalytic
role? If so, which Ca2+ ion has an active catalytic role,
and how might the ion participate in catalysis? Is the primary
Ca2+ ion involved in the polygalacturonic acid
hydrolase activity that is observed in some pectate lyases (18,
19)? In view of the observations that the pH of the plant cell wall
increases as the pectate component is degraded (20), how does pH affect the affinity of the Ca2+ ions for PelC? To address these
questions, various studies with Ca2+ have been initiated.
The results presented herein explore the binding of the primary
Ca2+ ion to PelC over a broad pH range.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-aminobutyric acid. At pH 9.5, 100 mM amino-2-methyl-1,3-propanediol buffer was used. At
each pH, crystals were prepared in the absence of Ca2+ or
at Ca2+ concentrations of 1, 5, 10, 20, or 30 mM.
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Fig. 1.
Plot of the slow exchange of the solution
bathing PelC crystals. The concentrations of ammonium sulfate
( ) and polyethylene glycol 8000 (
) in the 1-ml drop containing a
PelC crystal are plotted as a function of time.
using
MAPMAN (30) and verified visually or by using reasonable distance and
geometry criteria. In the final stages, alternate cycles of occupancy
and temperature factor refinement of Ca2+ and selected
atoms were carried out in X-PLOR until convergence was reached.
-carbons for each model was calculated and refined
using least squares methods implemented by LSQMAN (32). All model
figures were prepared using SETOR (33).
9 to
10
1 M. On addition of the titrant, the sample
was incubated for 2 min to ensure that equilibrium had been attained
before an emission spectrum was collected. 14 fluorescence measurements
were carried out at room temperature. The apparent
Kd value was defined as the Ca2+
concentration that elicited one-half of the maximum change in fluorescence, which was determined by curve fitting with nonlinear regression to a sigmoidal dose-response curve using Prism 3.0 (GraphPad
Software, San Diego, CA).
-aminobutyric acid. At pH 9.5, 100 mM
amino-2-methyl-1,3-propanediol buffer was used. The selected buffer,
varying concentrations of CaCl2, and 100 µl of a 1%
(w/v) sodium polypectate stock were premixed in a total volume of 990 µl. The tested Ca2+ concentrations ranged from 0.05 to 2 mM. To initiate the reaction, 10 µl of a PelC stock (26 nM) were added and mixed. Enzymatic activity was measured
by recording the absorbance increase at 232 nm every 10 s at
22 °C. One unit of pectate lyase activity is defined as the
production of 1 mmol of unsaturated product/min. The formation of 1 mmol of unsaturated uronide/min was taken to correspond to 1.73 units/min (36).
RESULTS
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-carbons of the
two models is 0.13 Å, indicating insignificant changes in the PelC
structure over a broad pH range. Additional structures of PelC have
been refined in the presence of 5, 20, and 30 mM
Ca2+ at pH 4.5, in the presence of 0.3, 5, and 30 mM Ca2+ at pH 9.5, and in the presence of 1, 5, and 30 mM Ca2+ at pH 11.2. In these models, the
Ca2+ occupancy ranges from 38 to 92% with the highest
occupancy found at the 30 mM Ca2+
concentration, pH 9.5. There are only two significant structural changes coinciding with the presence or absence of Ca2+.
Major alterations are observed in the conformation of Asp-129 and in
the occupancy of four water molecules near the Ca2+ binding
site. Consequently, in those models with a partial Ca2+
occupancy, the occupancy of each Asp-129 conformation and the occupancies of the water molecules also have been refined. Essentially, each refined model is a composite of two partial models, one
representing the PelC structure in the absence of Ca2+ and
the other representing the structure in the presence of
Ca2+. The refinement statistics for all models are
summarized in Table I.
Crystallographic data and refinement statistics
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Fig. 2.
Comparison of the structural changes in PelC
with and without Ca2+. The backbone is
represented by a green ribbon, the Ca2+ ion by a
large yellow sphere, water molecules by small
spheres, and amino acid side chains by rods. For the
PelC-Ca2+ complex, the carbon atoms are light
green, the oxygen atoms are red, and the nitrogen atoms
are blue. For the Ca2+-free PelC structure, the
amino acids and the water molecules are shown in cyan.
Asp-129 and Glu-166 are the only amino acids that undergo a
conformational change upon Ca2+ binding. W-1,
Wat-1; W-2, Wat-2; W-3, Wat-3; W-4,
Wat-4; W-5, Wat-5.
Ca2+-oxygen distances for PelC at pH 9.5 with 30 mM
Ca2+
-carbons in the PelC structures at pH 9.5, in both
the presence and the absence of Ca2+, is 0.17 Å. The
observed differences include two side-chain movements in the area of
the Ca2+ binding site (Fig. 2). Upon Ca2+
binding, the side chain of Asp-129 makes an 89° torsional rotation around the
-1 bond. This rotation moves the carboxylic oxygen of
Asp-129 closer to the Ca2+ ion, resulting in a positional
displacement of over 2 Å. The refined occupancies of Ca2+
and the two conformations of Asp-129 are summarized in Table III. Glu-166 makes a rotational change of
58° along the
-3 torsional bond, but the movement is sufficiently
small as to preclude the refinement of an alternate conformation.
Nevertheless, the movement of Glu-166 is critical for the establishment
of an extensive network of hydrogen bonds and electrostatic
interactions in the active site region. In the presence of
Ca2+, Glu-166 is locked into a singular position by the
coordination of one carboxylic oxygen to Ca2+ and the other
oxygen, with a strong electrostatic interaction with Lys-190 at a
distance of 2.7 Å. In the absence of Ca2+, Glu-166 does
not form strong interactions with neighboring atoms.
Occupancy values of Asp-129 and Ca2+
-elimination reaction. The
pKa of Arg-218 in the PelC structures at pH 9.5, in the presence (30 mM) and absence of Ca2+,
has been estimated by macroscopic electrostatic calculations using
different values of the dielectric constant. Using a dielectric constant of 20, the pKa of Arg-218 is estimated
to be 13.0 in the absence of Ca2+ and 11.60 in the presence
of Ca2+. Although the value of the dielectric constant
influences the absolute pKa value, the relative
shifts in the pKa are qualitatively similar. At
all dielectric constant values, the presence of Ca2+ lowers
the pKa of Arg-218, suggesting that the primary
Ca2+ ion plays a role in priming the catalytic arginine for
the proton abstraction step.
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Fig. 3.
Titration of the occupancy of the primary
Ca2+ site in PelC. The refined Ca2+
occupancies in the PelC-Ca2+ complexes are plotted as a
function of the Ca2+ concentration diffused into crystals
at pH 9.5 ( ), 11.2 (
), and 4.5 (
). The occupancy data were fit
to a single hyperbolic curve using regression analysis. The apparent
Kd is estimated to be 0.132 mM at pH
9.5, 1.09 mM at pH 11.2, and 5.84 mM at pH
4.5.
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Fig. 4.
The effect of Ca2+ titration upon
the intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence of PelC. A, the
emission spectra of the intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence of PelC is
shown as a function of wavelength. A small but reproducible change in
the intensity but not the wavelength of the emission spectrum of PelC
is observed when Ca2+ is added. When Ca2+ is
chelated by the addition of EGTA, the spectral changes return to base
line. For clarity, the spectra for Ca2+ concentrations
between 0 and 5 mM are not shown. , PelC in the absence
of Ca2+; - - -, PelC in the presence of 5 mM Ca2+ and 5 mM EGTA;
-
,
PelC in the presence of 5 mM Ca2+.
B, the difference between the fluorescence of PelC in the
absence of Ca2+ (F0) and in the
presence of Ca2+ (F') is plotted as a function
of the Ca2+ concentration. The titration of PelC with
Ca2+ has been carried out in 5 mM bis-tris
propane at a pH of 9.5 as described under "Experimental
Procedures." The error bars have been calculated from 14 measurements.
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Fig. 5.
Effect of Ca2+ on PelC activity
at pH 4.5. The relative PelC lyase activity has been plotted as a
function of Ca2+ concentration. The in vitro
assay of polygalacturonic acid cleavage catalyzed by PelC has
been carried out in 100 mM -aminobutyric acid at a pH of
4.5 as described under "Experimental Procedures."
DISCUSSION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-strands and
-turns (Fig. 6C). The coordinating amino
acids are located on two adjacent rungs of the parallel
-helix.
Three of the four amino acids that coordinate the Ca2+ ion
are located on
-turns that connect two
-strands. Only one amino
acid, Asp-170, is located within a
-strand. Despite the differences
in the surrounding topology of the Ca2+ sites, the
coordination around the Ca2+ ion in PelC appears to be
identical in number and average bond distance to typical
helix-loop-helix proteins that have much higher Ca2+
affinities.
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Fig. 6.
Stereoviews of three types of
Ca2+ binding motifs. A, the
Ca2+ region of -lactalbumin exemplifies the continuous
helix-loop-helix Ca2+ binding motif, which is associated
with tight binding. B, the Ca2+ region of
phospholipase A2 typifies the discontinuous helix-loop-helix
Ca2+ binding motif. C, the
-turn/
-strand Ca2+ binding motif of PelC exhibits
weak binding affinity. In all figures, the polypeptide backbone of the
protein is represented as a green ribbon, the
Ca2+ ions as yellow spheres, the oxygen atoms as
red rods, and a disulfide bridge as a yellow
bar.
Why then does PelC bind Ca2+ weakly, whereas proteins with a helix-loop-helix motif bind Ca2+ with high affinity? In reviews of Ca2+-binding proteins (44-46), no one has been able to find a direct correlation between the metal ion binding site and its affinity for the protein. Pidcock and Moore (46) observed other features that may affect the strength of binding. Among these features are the nature of the electrostatic interactions, including extensive hydrogen bond networks, and large metal ion-induced protein conformational changes. As discussed previously, PelC has an extensive hydrogen bond network that is altered in the presence of Ca2+. The Ca2+-induced conformational changes are relatively minor in PelC and less likely to influence the affinity of Ca2+. We propose that the answer for PelC may lie in the orientation of the Ca2+ toward the lone pairs of electrons on the carboxylate oxygen. High affinity for a Ca2+ ion usually is found when Ca2+ is coordinated directly to both oxygen atoms or to the syn conformation of the lone electron pair on one of the carboxylate oxygens (47). In PelC, the carboxylate oxygen atoms of two amino acids, Glu-166 and Asp-170, coordinate to Ca2+ in the anti conformation of the lone electron pair. Asp-131 forms a direct interaction with the Ca2+, and only Asp-129 binds in the syn conformation. Thus one possible explanation for the weaker Ca2+ affinity in PelC may be the weak coordination to the anti conformation in two of the four coordinating amino acids.
In the presence of a substrate, PelC is known to bind to three
additional Ca2+ ions, each of which has fewer coordinating
ligands to the protein. None of these Ca2+ ions are
observed in the PelC structure in the absence of a substrate. The
presence of only one Ca2+, which coordinates more tightly
than the other sites through an invariant and several highly conserved
amino acids, suggests that this Ca2+ has a special role.
One role, suggested by the present study, is to reduce the
pKa of Arg-218 so that the amino acid is better suited chemically to act as a proton acceptor in the -elimination reaction mechanism. Another possibility, suggested by the PelC R218K-(Ca2+)4-pentaGalpA complex, is
that this Ca2+ is critical for aligning the substrate
properly in the active site. Other studies suggest that the occupancy
of the primary Ca2+ site determines whether PelC functions
as a hydrolase or a lyase (48). When the structure of the
PelC-Ca2+ complex is superimposed upon the
polygalacturonase structures (48), the PelC amino acids coordinated to
the primary Ca2+ ion are analogous to the catalytic
residues in polygalacturonases. The PelC amino acids are in the
proper orientation to carry out hydrolase activity but only in the
absence of the Ca2+ ion. Thus the weak affinity of PelC for
the primary Ca2+ ion, as determined herein, is critical for
understanding how Ca2+ can regulate the function of
PelC.
Although structure-function studies have focused primarily on microbial
pectate lyases, pel genes have been identified in a
wide range of plants with at least 25 isozymes found by gene annotation
in Arabidopsis
thaliana.2 Because the
plant cell wall pH is ~5.75, it has been difficult to understand how
any pectate lyase functions in such an environment. The present
study indicates that pectate lyases are active even at a low pH if the
exogenous Ca2+ concentration is sufficiently high. If the
Ca2+ concentration is low, other studies suggest that the
enzymes function as hydrolases. The occupancy of the primary
Ca2+ site appears to determine whether the pectate lyase
functions as a hydrolase or a lyase. Although additional studies are
needed to confirm this hypothesis, the weak affinity of the primary
Ca2+ ion for PelC observed herein is a necessary feature
for the Ca2+ ion to serve as a regulatory switch.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank James Nowick of the Chemistry Department at the University of California-Irvine for helpful discussions concerning the relative affinities of Ca2+ binding sites. We also thank Susan Heffron and Aaron Chandler for assistance in figure preparation.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported by United States Department of Agriculture Grant 02-03560.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
The atomic coordinates and the structure factors (code 1O88, 1O8D, 1O8E, 1O8F, 1O8G, 1O8H, 1O8I, 1O8J, 1O8K, 1O8L, and 1O8M) have been deposited in the Protein Data Bank, Research Collaboratory for Structural Bioinformatics, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ (http://www.rcsb.org/).
Present address: W. M. Keck Center for Molecular Structure,
California State University, Dept. of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Fullerton, CA 92834.
§ Present address: S. C. Johnson Research Facility, Mayo Clinic-Scottsdale, 13400 E. Shea Blvd., Scottsdale, AZ 85259.
¶ Present address: Dept. of Physiology and Molecular Medicine, Rm. 320, Block Health Science Bldg., Medical College of Ohio, 3035 Arlington Ave., Toledo, OH 43614.
Present address: 224 Sixth St., Providence, RI 02906.
** To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of Physiology and Biophysics, D-350 Medical Science Bldg. I, University of California, Irvine, CA 92612. Tel.: 949-824-6623; Fax: 949-824-8540; E-mail: jurnak@uci.edu.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, January 22, 2003, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M209306200
2 P. M. Coutinho and B. Henrissat, carbohydrate-active enzymes server at afmb.cnrs-mrs.fr/~cazy/CAZY/index.html.
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ABBREVIATIONS |
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The abbreviations used are: PelC, Erwinia chrysanthemi pectate lyase C; GalpA, galacturonic acid; bis-tris, 2-[bis(2-hydroxyethyl)amino]-2- (hydroxymethyl)propane-1,3-diol.
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