From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thoracic Diseases Research Unit, Mayo Clinic and Foundation, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
Received for publication, October 11, 2002, and in revised form, November 27, 2002
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ABSTRACT |
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We have previously demonstrated that
glycosphingolipids are internalized from the plasma membrane of
human skin fibroblasts by a clathrin-independent,
caveolar-related mechanism and are subsequently transported to the
Golgi apparatus by a process that is dependent on microtubules,
phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, Rab7, and Rab9. Here we
characterized the early steps of intracellular transport of a
fluorescent glycosphingolipid analog, BODIPY-lactosylceramide (LacCer),
and compared this to fluorescent transferrin (Tfn), a well established
marker for the clathrin pathway. Although these two markers were
initially internalized into separate vesicles by distinct mechanisms,
they became co-localized in early endosomes within 5 min. These results
demonstrate that glycosphingolipid-containing vesicles derived from
caveolar-related endocytosis fuse with the classical endosomal system.
However, in contrast to Tfn, internalization and trafficking of LacCer
was independent of Rab5a, a key regulator of transport to early
endosomes. By taking advantage of the monomer/excimer properties of the
fluorescent lipid analog, we were also able to visualize LacCer
segregation into distinct microdomains of high (red emission) and low
(green emission) concentrations in the early endosomes of living cells.
Interestingly, the high concentration "red" microdomains
co-localized with fluorescent Tfn upon exit from early endosomes and
passed through Rab11-positive "recycling endosomes" prior to being
transported back to the plasma membrane. These results together with
our previous studies suggest that glycosphingolipids internalized by
caveolar endocytosis are rapidly delivered to early endosomes where
they are fractionated into two major pools, one that is transported via
late endosomes to the Golgi apparatus and the other that is returned to
the plasma membrane via the recycling compartment.
We previously showed that fluorescent
GSL1 analogs,
lactosylceramide (LacCer) and globoside, are selectively
internalized by a dynamin-dependent, clathrin-independent
mechanism in human skin fibroblasts (HSFs) and suggested that this
mechanism is "caveolar-related" based on multiple criteria (1). A
significant portion of the LacCer analog is subsequently transported to
the Golgi apparatus in a process that is dependent on microtubules,
phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase(s), Rab7, and Rab9 (2). The involvement
of Rab7 and Rab9 suggested that vesicles carrying internalized GSLs
might join with the well characterized endocytic pathway established for markers internalized though coated pits. However, there is conflicting data on whether there is a "merging" of
clathrin-independent and -dependent pathways and, if so,
which clathrin-independent mechanisms are involved. For example,
cholera toxin bound to GM1 ganglioside at the plasma
membrane (PM) and internalized through caveolae has recently been
reported to be transported by Rab5-independent mechanisms to the Golgi
apparatus in vesicles devoid of markers of the clathrin pathway in
COS-7 cells (3, 4). However, previous studies (5, 6) have demonstrated
that cholera toxin rapidly reaches early endosomes accessible to
markers internalized by clathrin endocytosis in multiple cell types.
Thus, it is still uncertain whether GSLs internalized from the PM
converge with the classical endocytic pathway or are transported to the
Golgi apparatus in vesicles, which are distinct from the clathrin
pathway. In this study, we examined this possibility in detail using
live cell and multi-color imaging and provide evidence that
BODIPY-LacCer is rapidly transported to early endosomes where it merges
with markers for the clathrin pathway.
A fascinating feature of the early endosome compartment was revealed in
a study by Zerial and colleagues (7). They examined the distribution of
GFP-tagged Rab4, Rab5, and Rab11 along with fluorescent transferrin
(Tfn) in living cells and demonstrated that these Rab proteins are
localized in morphologically distinct domains, which can reside on the
same endosome. Although it has been speculated that some lipids are
also present in discrete membrane microdomains in various endosomal
compartments (8-10), there is currently no direct evidence for this
possibility. Thus, in this study, we also examined the lateral
distribution of the LacCer analog in the early endosome membrane. By
taking advantage of the concentration-dependent fluorescence
emission characteristics of the GSL analogs, we were able to
distinguish discrete, contiguous membrane microdomains that contained
high or low concentrations of the lipid analog within individual early
endosomes. Interestingly, these microdomains behaved differently with
respect to their subsequent intracellular trafficking. Namely, the
enriched domains were subsequently recycled to the PM with Tfn, whereas
the remaining lipid was transported further along the endocytic pathway
to the Golgi apparatus. These results suggest that GSL microdomains
within early endosomes may be an important factor in regulating PM
lipid composition by controlling the initial sorting of endocytosed GSLs.
Cell Culture--
Normal HSFs (GM-5659D) were obtained from
the Coriell Institute for Medical Research (Camden, NJ) and cultured in
Eagle's MEM with 10% fetal calf serum as described previously
(38).
Lipids and Miscellaneous Reagents--
Fluorescent Alexa Fluor 594 albumin, EGF, and Tfn were from Molecular Probes (Eugene, OR).
BODIPY-LacCer was synthesized as described previously (38). WT and DN
Eps15 GFP constructs were from Drs. A. Benmerah and A. Dautry-Varsat
(Institut Pasteur, Paris, France) and were used as described previously
(1). Early endosome antigen 1 (EEA1) antibody was from
Transduction Laboratories (BD Biosciences). Secondary antibodies were
from Jackson Laboratories (West Grove, PA). Unless otherwise indicated,
all other reagents were from Sigma.
Preparation and Expression of Rab Constructs--
DsRed-Rab5a-WT
and Rab5a-DN(N133I) constructs were generated by PCR amplification
using pcDNA3-Myc-Rab5aWT and pcDNA3-Myc-Rab5aN133I as a
template (obtained from Dr. C. Bucci, University of Napoli). BglII and XhoI sites were introduced in the
forward and reverse primers, respectively, to allow subcloning of
PCR products into the pDsRed2-C1 vector (Clontech,
Palo Alto, CA) in-frame with the DsRed moiety. Transfections using
FuGENE 6 (Roche Applied Science, Inc., Indianapolis, IN) and Rab GTP
overlay assays were performed as described previously (2).
To characterize the Rab5a constructs, HeLa cells, grown on glass
coverslips, were transfected with DsRed-Rab5a-WT or -DN for 48 h.
Cells were then incubated for 1 h at 37 °C in serum-free medium
containing 10 µg/ml Alexa Fluor 488 Tfn (Molecular Probes), washed,
acid-stripped (30 s at 10 °C with HMEM (10 mM
Hepes-buffered minimum Eagle's medium), pH 3.5) to remove
surface-bound Tfn, fixed with 4% formaldehyde, and observed by
fluorescence microscopy. The DsRed-Rab11-WT construct was previously
characterized in our laboratory and used as described previously
(2).
Incubation of HSFs with Fluorescent Probes--
BODIPY-LacCer was
complexed to defatted bovine serum albumin (BSA) as described
previously (38). Cells were typically incubated for 30 min at 10 °C
with 2.5 µM BODIPY-LacCer/BSA, washed twice with HMEM,
and further incubated for various times at 37 °C (see figure
legends). Fluorescent LacCer present at the PM was then removed by
back-exchange using 5% defatted-BSA in HMEM without glucose (6 × 10 min at 10 °C) (38).
For BODIPY-LacCer and Tfn co-localization, the cells were serum-starved
for 30 min at 37 °C and then incubated with 25 µg/ml Alexa Fluor
594- or 647-labeled Tfn plus 1.25 µM BODIPY-LacCer/BSA for 30 min at 10 °C, and the rest of the experiment was performed as
described above. Fluorescent protein remaining on the PM was removed by
acid stripping as above. In some experiments, HSFs were pretreated with
nystatin or transfected with WT or DN Eps15 as described previously (1)
prior to incubation with fluorescent LacCer or Tfn.
To selectively load early endosomes, HSFs were incubated with
fluorescent markers (LacCer, EGF, or Tfn) for 1 h at 16 °C
followed by back-exchange and/or acid stripping. For EEA1
co-localization with Tfn, Alexa Fluor 488 Tfn was bound and
internalized as described above. The cells were then fixed with 3.2%
paraformaldehyde in Dulbecco's modified PBS for 30 min at room
temperature, quenched with 25 mM glycine in PBS for
15 min at room temperature, permeabilized with 0.05% Triton X-100 in
PBS for 2 min at room temperature, and further incubated in blocking
buffer (10% horse serum in PBS) for 30 min at room temperature. The
specimens were then incubated for 1 h at 37 °C with mouse
anti-EEA1, washed three times in PBS, incubated with secondary antibody
conjugated to Texas Red for 1 h at room temperature, washed 5 times in PBS, and mounted in Prolong (Molecular Probes).
To study the effect of AlF4 on LacCer and Tfn
internalization, AlF4 was freshly prepared as described
previously (22) using 50 µM AlCl3 and 30 mM NaF. HSFs were incubated for 30 min at 10 °C with
BODIPY-LacCer or fluorescent Tfn to label the PM, washed, and further
incubated for 30 min at 16 °C. The samples were then chased for 30 min at 37 °C in the presence or absence of AlF4 and an
excess (100 µg/ml) of non-fluorescent Tfn prior to acid stripping and
observations under the microscope.
LacCer recycling was measured essentially as described previously (23)
using a fluorescent sphingomyelin analog. HSFs were precooled to
16 °C and then loaded with 2.5 µM BODIPY-LacCer for 1 h at 16 °C to label the early endosomes. Cells were then
back-exchanged to remove any LacCer remaining at the PM. Samples were
then further incubated ("chased") for 0-60 min at 37 °C in
HMEM ± 5% defatted-BSA as a lipid acceptor present to allow the
removal of any lipid transported to the PM. The medium was exchanged in
all of the dishes at each time point to minimize any re-internalization
of lipid transported to the PM in the +BSA samples. Cells were then imaged, and the fluorescence remaining in the cell was quantified.
Microscopy and Co-localization Studies--
BODIPY-labeled samples
were excited at 450-490 nm and viewed at "green"
(
Conventional fluorescence microscopy was carried out using an Olympus
IX70 fluorescence microscope and the "Metamorph" image-processing program (Universal Imaging Corp., Downingtown, PA). Confocal microscopy was carried out using a Zeiss model 510 microscope equipped with a
×100 (1.4 numerical aperture) objective. Focal Check (Molecular Probes) fluorescent microspheres were used to align the optics such
that there was no apparent image shift using different filter combinations.
For quantitative studies, all photomicrographs in a given experiment
were exposed and processed identically for a given fluorophore. For
double-labeled experiments, control samples were labeled identically with the individual fluorophores and exposed identically to the dual-labeled samples at each wavelength to verify that there was no
cross-over among emission channels. Co-localization values were
calculated using confocal "z-sections" and the KS400 program (Zeiss).
Tfn and LacCer Are Internalized in Separate Vesicles and Then
Rapidly Co-localize in Early Endosomes--
We used fluorescent Tfn as
a marker for the clathrin pathway and compared its initial uptake and
transport to that of BODIPY-LacCer, which is internalized by a
clathrin-independent, caveolar-related mechanism in HSFs (1). In
preliminary experiments to verify that Tfn and LacCer were indeed
endocytosed by distinct mechanisms, HSFs were pretreated with nystatin
(1) or were transfected with DN Eps15 (11), and internalization of the
two markers after 5 min at 37 °C was quantified. Nystatin
pretreatment had little effect on Tfn internalization (15 ± 7%
inhibition) in contrast to its effect on LacCer uptake (81.0 ± 4.3% inhibition), whereas DN Eps15 blocked Tfn internalization
(85 ± 5% inhibition) but had little effect on LacCer uptake
(17 ± 4% inhibition). We then performed a time course of uptake
at 37 °C using Tfn and LacCer along with dual color imaging to
determine if and when these two pathways converged (Fig.
1A). Under the conditions of
these experiments, there was no cross-over between BODIPY-LacCer
(green) and Tfn (red) emission (see Fig. 1
legend). After 1 min of internalization at 37 °C, there was little
co-localization of the two markers as evidenced by the presence of
distinct green (LacCer) and red (Tfn) endosomes throughout the
cytoplasm. However, with increasing time at 37 °C,
co-localization of LacCer and Tfn increased and then decreased. This
was apparent from the micrograph at 5 min showing an increase in the
number of yellow/orange endosomes (result from overlap of green and red
fluorescence) and the micrograph at 15 min showing the presence of
separate green and red endosomes (Fig. 1A). A similar time
course experiment was carried out using Alexa Fluor 488-labeled Tfn,
except at each time point, the cells were fixed, permeabilized, and
immunolabeled with an antibody to the early endosome marker, EEA1 (Fig.
1B). Little co-localization between Tfn and EEA1 was seen at
1 or 15 min, but the overlap was substantial at 5 min (Fig.
1B). Quantitatively, there was a peak in co-localization of
Tfn and LacCer (~55%) and Tfn and EEA1 (~70%) at 5 min with less
overlap at shorter or longer times of internalization (Fig.
1C). Thus, LacCer and Tfn initially internalized by distinct
mechanisms into separate vesicles (Fig. 1A, 1 min) rapidly merged in early endosomes.
LacCer Internalization Is Independent of Rab5--
Rab5 is a small
GTPase involved in the homotypic fusion of clathrin-derived endocytic
vesicles to form classical sorting endosomes (12), and overexpression
of DN (N133I or S34N) Rab5 has been shown by several groups to reduce
Tfn internalization and inhibit endosome fusion (13, 14). To study the
possible role of Rab5 on LacCer internalization and transport, we first
prepared DsRed fluorescent fusion proteins of WT or DN(N133I) Rab5a and
confirmed that the WT but not DN Rab5a fusion protein was able to bind
[ Caveolar-related Endocytosis of LacCer Also Occurs at
16 °C--
When HSFs were incubated with fluorescent Tfn for 1 h at 16 °C, fixed, and immunolabeled, ~75% of the internalized
Tfn was found in EEA1-positive early endosomes (data not shown),
indicating that transport out of this compartment was largely inhibited
at this temperature. We also found that BODIPY-LacCer accumulated in
early endosomes during a 1-h incubation at 16 °C as shown by its
overlap (~50%) (data not shown) with fluorescent Tfn in a double-labeled experiment. This finding suggested that at 16 °C similar to 37 °C, there was a merging of a marker for the
clathrin-dependent pathway (Tfn) with LacCer that is
internalized by a clathrin-independent mechanism. However, one report
(3) suggests that non-clathrin uptake is inhibited below 20 °C. Thus
it is possible that merging of Tfn and LacCer at 16 °C actually
represented internalization of both markers by the clathrin pathway
because of "pathway switching" of the LacCer. To test this
possibility, HSFs were incubated with fluorescent albumin (a caveolar
marker (15)), BODIPY-LacCer, or Tfn for 15 min at 16 °C in the
presence or absence of inhibitors of clathrin-independent (genistein)
or clathrin-dependent (chlorpromazine) endocytosis (1).
LacCer and albumin but not Tfn internalization was significantly
inhibited by genistein (Fig.
3A) and nystatin (data not
shown). In contrast, Tfn but not LacCer or albumin internalization was
blocked by chlorpromazine (Fig. 3A) or in cells expressing DN Eps15 (data not shown). We then examined the co-localization of
fluorescent albumin with LacCer versus Tfn after 15 min or 1 h of internalization at 16 °C. At 15 min, albumin
co-localized extensively with LacCer but not with Tfn, whereas after
1 h, albumin was also highly co-localized with Tfn (Fig. 3,
B and C). These results indicate that LacCer and
albumin were internalized by a clathrin-independent caveolar process at
16 °C, apparently identical to that observed at 37 °C, and that
the merging of the two pathways also occurred during prolonged
incubations at 16 °C.
Live Cell Imaging of Protein Sorting and Lipid Microdomains in
Early Endosomes at 16 °C--
To further study the endocytic
structures formed at 16 °C, HSFs were incubated with Texas
Red-labeled EGF and Alexa Fluor 488 Tfn for 1 h at this
temperature. Tfn was seen in both spherical and tubular endocytic
structures, whereas the EGF was generally seen only in spherical
structures (Fig. 4A,
bottom panels). When these cells were warmed to 37 °C for
2.5 min, most of the fluorescent Tfn and EGF sorted into separate
endosomes (data not shown). When Alexa Fluor 488 EGF (green emission)
and Alexa Fluor 594 Tfn (red emission) were used in an identical
experiment at 16 °C, a similar result was observed with the
exception that the "arms" of the endosomes were predominantly red,
whereas the center of the structures was predominantly green (data not
shown). The experiments described here demonstrate that subdomains of
the sorting endosome could clearly be visualized in HSFs at 16 °C.
Such segregation of proteins into distinct endosomal microdomains is in
agreement with observations by others at the light and electron
microscope levels (7, 16, 17).
To distinguish membrane microdomains enriched in LacCer from other
regions of the same membrane containing lower concentrations of the
lipid, we utilized the spectral properties of the BODIPY-fluorophore. BODIPY-SL analogs exhibit monomer/excimer fluorescence emitting at
green (low mol %) or red (high mol %) wavelengths depending on their
concentration in membranes (18). When cells were incubated with 2.5 µM BODIPY-LacCer for 1 h at 16 °C followed by
back-exchange with defatted-BSA to remove cell surface fluorescent
lipid, many endocytic structures were observed in which both green and
red fluorescence were present in the same membrane but appeared to be
segregated into discrete regions of the membrane (Fig. 4B), suggestive of microdomain formation. Red/green microdomains were also
visible in cells that were incubated briefly (1-5 min) with BODIPY-LacCer at 37 °C; however, because of the rapid and dynamic nature of the transport process at 37 °C, we were unable to identify the compartments in which they were located (data not shown). It is
important to note that when lower concentrations of BODIPY-LacCer were
used as in Fig. 1 (e.g. 1.25 µM), only green
fluorescence was observed, reflecting the
concentration-dependent spectral properties of this
fluorophore (18, 19).
Triple Color Imaging Reveals That LacCer Lipid Microdomains Travel
with Tfn from Early Endosomal Structures to Be Recycled--
We next
carried out a triple color-imaging experiment to study the distribution
of the LacCer microdomains (green and red fluorescence) with respect to
internalized Tfn (far-red fluorescence). HSFs were incubated for 1 h at 16 °C with BODIPY-LacCer and Alexa Fluor 647 Tfn. Samples were
then washed, back-exchanged, and acid-stripped prior to image
acquisition. Images were rendered in pseudocolor using green and red
for LacCer fluorescence and blue for Tfn. Fig.
5A shows the distribution of
LacCer (green and red) and Tfn (blue)
after the 16 °C incubation. Tfn fluorescence overlapped more closely
with the red emission of LacCer, resulting in a pink overlay of the
dual-labeled structures. Upon warming the cells for 5 min at 37 °C
(Fig. 5B), (i) the green and red components of LacCer
fluorescence were observed to separate and (ii) the red component of
LacCer fluorescence co-localized even more extensively with Tfn (in
blue). Quantitative analysis of these experiments demonstrated an
increase in co-localization between the concentrated red component of
LacCer and Tfn upon leaving the early endosome (Fig.
5C).
LacCer Is Recycled Back to the Plasma Membrane via a
Rab11-containing Compartment--
The results in Fig. 5 suggested that
upon release of the 16 °C block, the concentrated component of
LacCer moved to the recycling endosome and recycled back to the PM
along with Tfn. To show the involvement of recycling endosomes, we
transfected HSFs with a construct expressing DsRed-Rab11-WT (2) and
then incubated these samples with BODIPY-LacCer for 1 h at
16 °C (Fig. 6A).
Perinuclear DsRed-Rab11-positive structures were observed in HSFs as
reported previously using a GFP-Rab11 construct in HEK 293 cells (20). Samples were then washed and further incubated for various times at
37 °C. There was little co-localization (~10%) between LacCer (green) and Rab11 (red) immediately after the
16 °C incubation; however, this increased to >80% after 5 min and
then decreased markedly with longer incubations (e.g. 15 min) at this temperature (Fig. 6A). In separate experiments,
we also treated HSFs with AlF4, an agent that results in
retention of Tfn in recycling endosomes in Madin-Darby canine kidney
cells and Chinese hamster ovary cells (21, 22). HSFs were pulse-labeled
with LacCer or Tfn in the presence or absence of AlF4. As
shown in Fig. 6B, AlF4 treatment induced
pronounced intracellular accumulation of both LacCer and Tfn, and in
both cases, some of the internalized fluorescence was concentrated in
one region of the cytoplasm reminiscent of recycling endosomes.
Together, the results in Fig. 6 suggest that a portion of the LacCer
pool moved through the recycling endosomes en route to the PM.
To quantify recycling of BODIPY-LacCer to the PM, HSFs were incubated
with the lipid analog for 1 h at 16 °C (to label early endosomes) and subsequently back-exchanged to remove any fluorescent lipid at the PM. The samples were then incubated for 5-60 min at
37 °C in the absence or presence of defatted-BSA in the medium. Return of LacCer to the PM was readily demonstrated by microscopy of
samples warmed ± BSA (Fig.
7A), and recycling could be
quantified as described previously (23) by measuring the loss of cell
fluorescence when BSA was present in the medium (Fig. 7B).
This experiment suggested approximately half of the LacCer analog that
was endocytosed at 16 °C was recycled back to the PM in ~20 min.
Finally, it should be noted that in addition to recycling, LacCer is
also transported to the Golgi apparatus as reported previously (1, 2,
9, 24, 25). Golgi targeting of LacCer can be seen in Fig. 6B following a 60-min chase in the presence of BSA.
In this paper, we show that although Tfn and BODIPY-LacCer are
internalized by distinct mechanisms, they rapidly became co-localized in EEA1-positive early endosomes. In addition, we directly visualized LacCer-enriched microdomains in the early endosomes of living cells by
taking advantage of the unique spectral properties of the fluorescent
lipid, and we showed that the high concentration LacCer microdomains
recycled with Tfn, whereas the remaining lipid was transported further
along the endocytic pathway to the Golgi apparatus. These results
suggest that the formation of GSL microdomains within early endosomes
may be an important factor in regulating the sorting of lipids for
further transport along the endocytic pathway versus
recycling to the PM and thus may play an important role in regulating
PM lipid composition. In the following sections, we highlight
the major findings of this study using the model in Fig.
8 to emphasize some of the main points.
INTRODUCTION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
em = 520-560 nm) or "red" (
em > 590 nm) wavelengths (18). Excitation and emission filters for Alexa
Fluor-labeled proteins were as follows: AF-488,
ex = 470/40 nm and
em = 540/40 nm; AF-594,
ex = 540/25 nm and
em = 620/60 nm; AF-647,
ex = 620/60 nm and
em = 700/75 nm. Other
fluorophores were viewed at standard excitation and emission wavelengths.
RESULTS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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Fig. 1.
Endocytosed LacCer is rapidly delivered to
early endosomes. A, HSFs were co-incubated with
1.25 µM BODIPY-LacCer (green) and 5 µg/ml
Alexa Fluor 594 Tfn (red) for 1, 5, or 15 min at 37 °C
and observed by confocal microscopy. Maximal co-localization
(yellow) was seen at 5 min. In control experiments, no
cross-over of LacCer and Tfn fluorescence was detected using these
concentrations. B, in a parallel experiment, cells were
incubated with Alexa Fluor 488 Tfn (green) alone for 1, 5, or 15 min at 37 °C and then fixed and immunostained for EEA1
(red). Note the extensive co-localization
(yellow) of Tfn and EEA1 at 5 min. Insets in
A and B show an enlargement of the outlined
regions. C, quantitation of Tfn co-localization with
endocytosed LacCer and the endosomal marker, EEA1. Samples were labeled
as in A and B, and co-localization was calculated
using multiple z-sections of at least 10 cells for each time point in
three independent experiments. Bars, 10 µm.
-32P]GTP (Fig.
2A). As expected, Tfn uptake
was greatly reduced in HeLa cells expressing DsRed-Rab5a-DN, whereas
adjacent untransfected cells showed a normal level of uptake (Fig.
2B). Expression of WT or DN Rab5a did not affect the initial
labeling of the PM with Tfn, and cells transfected with DsRed-Rab5a-WT
showed a normal level of Tfn uptake (data not shown). We then assessed
the effect of these proteins on LacCer and Tfn internalization in
transfected HSFs. HSFs transfected with the DsRed-Rab5a-WT showed
normal levels of Tfn and LacCer uptake, whereas transfection with the
DN Rab5a construct resulted in an approximate 80% reduction of Tfn
uptake with no obvious effect on LacCer internalization (Fig. 2,
C and D). These results suggest that LacCer
internalization was Rab5a-independent.
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Fig. 2.
LacCer internalization in human skin
fibroblasts is Rab5a-independent. HeLa cells (A and
B) or HSFs (C and D) were transiently
transfected with DsRed-Rab5a-WT or -DN constructs. A, total
cell lysates were loaded on SDS-PAGE gels and transferred to
nitrocellulose membranes, and recombinant Rab proteins were assayed by
GTP overlay (2). The same blot was stripped and immunoblotted
(WB) with an antibody against Rab5. Note that only the
DsRed-Rab5a-WT bound GTP. B, DsRed-Rab5a-DN was expressed
for 48 h, and then endocytosis of Alexa Fluor 488 Tfn was examined
as in Fig. 1. The same field is shown in red
(DsRed-Rab5a-DN) and green (Tfn). White outlines
indicate transfected cells. Note reduced Tfn uptake in transfected
cells. C, DsRed-Rab5a-DN was expressed for 48 h, and
then endocytosis (5 min at 37 °C) of BODIPY-LacCer or Tfn (data not
shown) was examined as in Fig. 1. D, quantitation of LacCer
and Tfn internalization in HSFs expressing DsRed-Rab5a-WT or -DN.
Bars, 10 µm.
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Fig. 3.
BODIPY-LacCer internalizes by a
caveolar-related process in human skin fibroblasts at 16 °C.
A, HSFs were pretreated with genistein or chlorpromazine and
then were incubated with fluorescent albumin, LacCer, or Tfn for 15 min
at 16 °C. Samples were then acid-stripped, back-exchanged, and
observed under the fluorescence microscope. Internalization relative to
untreated control samples was quantified by image analysis. Values are
means ± S.D. (n = 30 cells for each condition).
B, co-localization of fluorescent albumin with BODIPY-LacCer
versus Tfn during incubation at 16 °C. HSFs were
co-incubated with 50 µg/ml Alexa Fluor 594 albumin (red)
and either 1.25 µM BODIPY-LacCer (green) or 25 µg/ml Alexa Fluor 488 Tfn (green) for 15 min or 1 h
at 16 °C. Samples were then acid-stripped or back-exchanged and
observed under the fluorescence microscope. In control experiments, no
cross-over between green (LacCer or Tfn) and red
(albumin) fluorescence channels was detected at these concentrations.
Note the extensive co-localization of labeled albumin with LacCer (but
not Tfn) at 15 min and the extensive co-localization of albumin with
Tfn after 1 h at 16 °C. Bar, 10 µm. C,
quantitation of co-localization experiment in B. Values
represent the percent co-localization of LacCer or Tfn with albumin and
are the mean ± S.D. (n = 30 cells for each time
point).
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Fig. 4.
Visualization of protein
segregation and "lipid microdomains" in early endosomes.
A, HSFs were incubated for 1 h at 16 °C with
25 µg/ml fluorescent Tfn (green) and 5 µg/ml EGF
(red) to label the early endosomes. Outlined regions are
further magnified (bottom panels) and show that Tfn
(arrowheads) and EGF (arrows) are spatially
segregated in some endosomes. B, distribution of
BODIPY-LacCer in endosomes after incubating with 2.5 µM
lipid for 1 h at 16 °C. Images were acquired at both
red (high concentration) and green (lower
concentration) wavelengths and overlaid to assess the relative molar
density of LacCer in individual endosomes. The presence of
yellow (a mixture of red and green
fluorescence) represents areas of intermediate concentration.
Inset shows higher magnification of endosomal structures
indicated with arrowheads, demonstrating segregation of
LacCer into microdomains. Bars, 2.5 µm.
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Fig. 5.
Sorting of LacCer and Tfn into endosomal
microdomains for recycling. Cells were incubated with
BODIPY-LacCer and Alexa Fluor 633 Tfn for 1 h at 16 °C, washed,
and warmed for 0 min (A) or 5 min (B) at
37 °C. Images were rendered in pseudocolor with green and
red corresponding to LacCer microdomains (see Fig. 4) and
blue corresponding to Tfn. Left panels,
green + red; middle panels,
green + blue; and right panels, red + blue. The lower panels show an enlargement of the
region outlined by the boxes in the upper
panels. C, quantitation of Tfn overlap with
green and red LacCer endosomal subdomains after
treatment of cells as in A or B. Note the
selective increase in co-localization between Tfn and red
LacCer microdomains after release from the 16 °C block.
Bars, 5 µm.
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Fig. 6.
A portion of internalized LacCer moves
through recycling endosomes upon release of the 16 °C block.
A, HSFs were transfected with a construct expressing
DsRed-Rab11-WT (2) and, 12-16 h later, were incubated for 1 h at
16 °C with 0.75 µM BODIPY-LacCer, back-exchanged, and
further incubated for 0, 5, or 15 min at 37 °C. Images were acquired
at green (LacCer) and red (Rab11-WT) wavelengths
and are presented as overlays. Note the increase in co-localization at
5 min. N, nucleus; Bar, 5 µm. B,
effect of AlF4 on LacCer and Tfn internalization. HSFs were
separately incubated for 30 min at 10 °C with BODIPY-LacCer (1.25 µM) or Alexa Fluor488 Tfn (25 µg/ml) to label the PM,
washed, and further incubated for 30 min at 16 °C. The samples were
then chased for 30 min at 37 °C in the presence or absence of
AlF4 (see "Materials and Methods"). Note the
accumulation of both LacCer and Tfn in "asterisk"-like structures,
presumably corresponding to recycling endosomes, in the presence of
AlF4. Bar, 10 µm.
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Fig. 7.
Recycling of endocytosed LacCer to the plasma
membrane. HSFs were incubated with 5 µM LacCer for
1 h at 16 °C and then back-exchanged at 10 °C to remove PM
fluorescence. Cells were then warmed for 0-60 min at 37 °C in the
presence or absence of 5% defatted-BSA to assess the delivery of
internalized LacCer back to the PM. A, fluorescence
micrographs taken after 0 min (left panel) or 60 min
(middle and right panels). Note the presence of
PM fluorescence (e.g. at arrow) when cells were
warmed in the absence (middle panel) but not the presence
(right panel) of BSA. Golgi labeling (G) was also
more readily visualized when the 37 °C chase was carried out in the
presence of BSA (right panel) to remove LacCer recycled to
the PM. N, nucleus; Bar, 10 µm.
Graph in B shows quantitative measurements of
cell-associated LacCer green fluorescence, which was measured by image
analysis. Results are means ± S.D. from three separate
experiments and are expressed as the percent of initial total
fluorescence.
DISCUSSION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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Fig. 8.
Model for BODIPY-LacCer internalization
merging with a marker for the coated pit pathway in early endosomes and
subsequent transport. LacCer is internalized from the PM of HSFs
by a clathrin-independent mechanism and transported to EEA1-positive
early endosomes (Step III). LacCer internalization and
subsequent transport was Rab5a-independent (Step I) in
contrast to Tfn, which is dependent on Rab5a (Step II).
BODIPY-LacCer segregates into microdomains at the early endosome
(Step IV) containing high (red) and lower
(green) concentrations of the lipid analog, which can be
visualized in living cells. The high concentration domains move with
Tfn to Rab11-positive recycling endosomes (Step V) and
recycle to the PM (Step VI). Based on previous studies (1,
2) and the data in Fig. 6, we speculate that the lower concentration
domains of LacCer are transported to the late endosomes and Golgi
apparatus (Step VII).
Initial Internalization of GSL Analogs (Fig. 8, Step I)--
Our
previous studies provided evidence that LacCer endocytosis is
distinguishable from clathrin-dependent endocytosis by
several criteria including cargo, sensitivities to selective
inhibitors, dependence on specific proteins (e.g. Eps15),
and overlap with specific markers (1). In this study, we first verified
that LacCer and Tfn were initially endocytosed into separate vesicle populations by distinct mechanisms using HSFs pretreated with nystatin
or expressing DN Eps15. We also showed that LacCer internalization could be further differentiated from clathrin-mediated endocytosis on
the basis of its lack of dependence on Rab5a. Namely, we found that
although internalization of the clathrin marker Tfn was inhibited by
expression of DsRed-Rab5a-DN as would be expected from the literature
(14), no effect on LacCer uptake was seen (Fig. 2, C and
D). Similarly, the initial step in desensitization of
protein kinase C involves its delivery to endosomes via a
caveolar-mediated process that is also Rab5a-independent (26). Rab5a is
required for homotypic fusion of endocytic vesicles derived from
clathrin-mediated endocytosis, and for recruitment of EEA1 to form
sorting endosomes (Fig. 8, Step II) (12, 27). Thus, it is
curious that endocytic vesicles containing LacCer and derived from a
Rab5a-independent process are able to fuse with early endosomes that
are presumably Rab5a-positive. One possible explanation for this is
that other Rab5 homologs play a role in LacCer transport, leading to
fusion with the classical EEA1-positive sorting endosome. Indeed, it has recently been shown that Rab5a and Rab5b have distinct functions in
the sorting of endocytic cargo (28). In addition, Rab22a, which has a
high degree of sequence homology with Rab5, has recently been shown to
interact with EEA1 (29). In the future, we hope to evaluate the
potential role of other Rab5 homologs in LacCer internalization and
transport to early endosomes.
In this study, we also examined the mechanism of LacCer internalization at low temperature and showed that it was not altered (e.g. to a clathrin-mediated process) by lowering the incubation temperature from 37 to 16 °C (Fig. 3). Nichols et al. (3) have suggested that temperatures below 20 °C inhibit non-clathrin uptake; however, that was not the case in this study using BODIPY-LacCer in HSFs. Thus, the intermixing of the LacCer analog and Tfn seen during a 16 °C pulse is not the result of clathrin-dependent internalization of the LacCer analog at low temperature.
Merging of LacCer and Tfn in Early Endosomes-- An important finding of our study is that although LacCer and Tfn were internalized by distinct endocytic mechanisms, these markers rapidly converged and co-localized in EEA1-positive early endosomes (Fig. 1), demonstrating that the fusion of the two vesicle types occurred very early in the endocytic itinerary (Fig. 8, Step III). Similarly, we found that fluorescently tagged albumin internalized via the caveolar pathway also merged with Tfn-positive early endosomes. These findings are in apparent conflict with those of Pelkmans et al. (30) who showed that SV40 virus, internalized by caveolar endocytosis, did not co-localize with markers for the clathrin pathway. In addition, Nichols (4) showed that cholera toxin internalized into caveolin-1 containing endosomes did not accumulate within endocytic compartments containing early endosomal markers. However, our results are consistent with a number of other studies demonstrating that cargo internalized via caveolae (cholera toxin and basic fibroblast growth factor) and markers of the clathrin pathway merge at early endosomes (5, 6, 31) and with the detection of caveolin-1 on early endosomes (32, 33). Together, these results suggest that cargo and membranes internalized via caveolae are predominantly transported to the early endosomes for further sorting and delivery to cellular locations, although exceptions due to cell type may occur. Interestingly, a recent study (34) shows that the M2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor internalized via a non-clathrin, non-caveolar DN dynamin 2 (K44A)-insensitive mechanism also rapidly merges with the clathrin pathway at early endosomes. Thus, although LacCer and the M2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor are internalized by different clathrin-independent mechanisms, they both converge with the clathrin pathway at early endosomes.
Zerial and colleagues (7) have used GFP-tagged Rab4, Rab5, and Rab11 to study the lateral distribution of these proteins on early endosomes in living cells and provided evidence that they localized in distinct subdomains on these endosomes. They and others (7-10) have speculated that some lipids may also be present in discrete membrane microdomains in various endosomal compartments; however, there is currently no direct evidence for this possibility. In this study, we were able to visualize the apparent segregation of the LacCer analog into microdomains within early endosomes (Fig. 4B) by taking advantage of the concentration-dependent spectral properties of the BODIPY-fluorophore (Fig. 8, Step IV). Although fluorescent lipid analogs have been used previously to detect domain formation in red blood cells (35) as well as at the PM of nucleated cells (36), we believe that this is the first direct visualization of laterally segregated lipid microdomains in the intracellular membranes of living cells. At present, we do not yet know how general this phenomenon is for different lipids. In the future, it will be of interest to examine the role of various factors that may contribute to lipid microdomain formation in early endosomes, particularly the nature of the lipid headgroup, lipid hydrophobicity, and the role of cellular cholesterol.
Subsequent Transport of LacCer from Early Endosomes-- Another interesting finding pertaining to the distribution of LacCer in the early endosomes concerns its relationship to the distribution of endocytosed Tfn. In dual-labeling experiments, we found that fluorescent Tfn was often present in tubular extensions of the early endosomes, whereas fluorescent EGF was usually localized to the larger spherical regions of this organelle (Fig. 4A), consistent with previous studies of lysosomally targeted ligands (16, 37). We also found that fluorescent albumin, which entered via the caveolar pathway, was transported to early endosomes at 16 °C where it became highly co-localized with endocytosed Tfn (Fig. 3). However, we were not able to visualize any segregation of albumin into endosomal subdomains (compare Figs. 4A and 3B), suggesting that albumin may be broadly distributed within this compartment. Interestingly, the distribution of Tfn in the early endosomes was similar to that of the high concentration (red) LacCer microdomains in early endosomes. This co-segregation of Tfn and LacCer was further supported by our finding that the high concentration LacCer in early endosomes co-localized with Tfn upon release from the 16 °C block (Fig. 5, B and C), suggesting that the LacCer-enriched microdomains were moving toward the endosomal-recycling compartment with Tfn (Fig. 8, Step V). This was verified by co-localizing LacCer with DsRed-Rab11 (Fig. 6A), a marker for recycling endosomes, and by our finding that AlF4, an agent that results in retention of Tfn in recycling endosomes in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells and Chinese hamster ovary cells (21, 22), caused pronounced accumulation of BODIPY-LacCer and Tfn in punctate endosomal structures in HSFs (Fig. 6B).
Finally, we note that approximately half of the LacCer analog, which was internalized at 16 °C, was subsequently recycled back to the PM in ~20 min (Figs. 6C and Fig. 8, Step VI). To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration that a lipid internalized exclusively by the caveolar-related mechanism can recycle back to the PM. It is important to note that most of the LacCer, which is not recycled to the PM, is subsequently transported to the Golgi apparatus (Fig. 7A) as reported previously (1, 2, 9, 24, 25). This Golgi targeting is independent of Rab5a2 but is dependent on Rab7 and Rab9 (2). Together with our current results, these data suggest that LacCer trafficks through the early and late endosomes en route to the Golgi (Fig. 8, Step VII).
At present, we can only speculate as to why sorting and internalization
of PM lipids into distinct endocytic vesicles occurs, only to be
followed by intermixing in a common endocytic compartment. One possible
explanation is that LacCer non-clathrin endocytosis reflects an
important regulatory mechanism to maintain an optimal PM lipid
composition for proper cell function. In this model, changes in PM
lipids including cholesterol would alter the extent of caveolar-related
endocytosis and microdomain formation at the early endosome, thereby
modulating the amount of SLs and cholesterol that are recycled back to
the PM versus the amount transported further along
the endocytic pathway. The latter process could result in transport of
lipids and cholesterol to the Golgi apparatus and/or ER where
regulation of de novo synthesis of SLs and cholesterol might
then occur.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank Dr. C. Bucci (University of Napoli) for the Rab5a constructs, Meredith Hilton for generating preliminary data, and James Tarara (Mayo Optical Morphology Core) for assistance with the data analysis of confocal images. We also thank members of the Leof, McNiven, and Pagano laboratories for helpful suggestions.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported by U. S. Public Health Service Grants GM-22942 (to R. E. P.).The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Both authors contributed equally to this work.
§ To whom correspondence should be addressed: Mayo Clinic and Foundation, Stabile 8, 200 First St., S. W., Rochester, MN 55905-0001. Tel.: 507-284-8754; Fax: 507-266-4413; E-mail: pagano.richard@mayo.edu.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, December 12, 2002, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M210457200
2 A. Choudhury and R. E. Pagano, unpublished observations.
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ABBREVIATIONS |
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The abbreviations used are: GSL, glycosphingolipid; LacCer, lactosylceramide; HSFs, human skin fibroblasts; PM, plasma membrane; GFP, green fluorescent protein; Tfn, transferrin; WT, wild type; DN, dominant negative; EEA1, early endosome antigen 1; HMEM, Hepes-buffered minimum Eagle's medium; BSA, bovine serum albumin.
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