Analysis of the Kinetics of Prothrombin Activation and Evidence
That Two Equilibrating Forms of Prothrombinase Are Involved in the
Process*
Nicole
Brufatto
and
Michael E.
Nesheim
§¶
From the Departments of
Biochemistry and
§ Medicine, Queen's University, Kingston,
Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada
Received for publication, June 27, 2002, and in revised form, December 19, 2002
 |
ABSTRACT |
Prothrombinase cleaves prothrombin at
Arg271 and Arg320 to produce thrombin.
The kinetics of cleavage of five recombinant prothrombins were
measured: wild-type prothrombin (WT-II), R155A/R284A/R271A prothrombin (rMZ-II), R155A/R284A/R320A prothrombin (rP2-II), S525C
prothrombin labeled with fluorescein (WT-II-F*), and
R155A/R284A/R271A/S525C prothrombin labeled with fluorescein
(rMZ-II-F*). rMZ-II and rP2-II are cleaved only at
Arg320 and Arg271, respectively, to yield the
intermediates meizothrombin and prethrombin-2, respectively.
WT-II-F* and rMZ-II-F* were labeled at Cys525 with
fluorescein; cleavage was monitored by enhanced fluorescence. Activation kinetics of WT-II, rMZ-II, and rP2-II indicated that the
catalytic efficiency of cleavage at Arg320 was increased by
30,000-fold by the cofactor factor Va, as was the conversion of
prothrombin to thrombin. However, factor Va increased cleavage at
Arg271 only by 34-fold. Although WT-II competitively
inhibited cleavage of WT-II-F*, rMZ-II or rP2-II did not inhibit
completely even at saturating concentrations. However, rMZ-II and
rP2-II together inhibited WT-II-F* cleavage competitively. Both WT-II
and rMZ-II competitively inhibited rMZ-II-F* cleavage, whereas rP2-II
did not. A model of prothrombin activation that includes two
equilibrating forms of prothrombinase, each recognizing one of the
cleavage sites, is quantitatively consistent with all of the
experimental observations. Therefore, we conclude that the kinetics of
prothrombin activation can be described by a "ping-pong"-like mechanism.
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INTRODUCTION |
The coagulation cascade culminates in the activation of
prothrombin to thrombin. This reaction is carried out by the
multicomponent complex prothrombinase, which comprises the
serine protease factor Xa, the activated protein cofactor
factor Va, calcium ions, and an appropriate cell membrane or
phospholipid surface (1-5). Factor Xa alone can slowly generate
thrombin by an extremely inefficient reaction; however, the rate of
this reaction is enhanced by 5 orders of magnitude by incorporation of
factor Va, Ca2+, and the procoagulant surface (5).
Two bond cleavages are required for thrombin formation, one at
Arg271 and one at Arg320. Therefore, two
activation pathways are possible during prothrombin activation,
yielding the intermediates fragment 1.2:prethrombin-2 (F1.2:Pre2)1 and
meizothrombin. Cleavage at Arg271 first produces the
intermediate F1.2:Pre2, whereas cleavage at Arg320 first
produces the intermediate meizothrombin. In the absence of factor Va,
the accumulation of the intermediate F1.2:Pre2 is observed (6-8). In
the presence of fully assembled prothrombinase, however, accumulation
of the intermediate meizothrombin is observed (9), suggesting that
factor Va directs the reaction toward the meizothrombin pathway.
The first objective of this study was to determine the effects of
factor Va on cleavage at Arg271 and Arg320 in
prothrombin. Three recombinant prothrombin derivatives were prepared
for this purpose (see Fig. 1). These were WT-II, which can be cleaved
at both Arg271 and Arg320 to produce thrombin
(10); the derivative rMZ-II, which can be cleaved only at
Arg320 to produce the intermediate meizothrombin (10), and
the derivative rP2-II, which can be cleaved only at Arg271
to produce the intermediate F1.2:Pre2. These mutants, in addition to
meizothrombin and F1.2:Pre2, allowed us to isolate each individual step
of the overall reaction and to determine the catalytic efficiency of
all bond cleavages involved in prothrombin activation.
Two additional recombinant prothrombin derivatives were used to carry
out competition assays between each of the three recombinant prothrombin derivatives (see Fig. 1). The derivative WT-II-F* is an
active-site mutant of prothrombin in which the active-site serine was
mutated to cysteine, which was subsequently labeled with fluorescein
(11). The derivative rMZ-II-F* is the rMZ-II derivative with the
active-site serine-to-cysteine mutation labeled with fluorescein. Both
of these mutants displayed an increase in fluorescence intensity upon
activation and therefore allowed us to monitor their activation
specifically in the presence of WT-II, rMZ-II, and rP2-II as
competitors. As will be shown, the competition studies suggest that
prothrombinase exists in two equilibrating forms, one catalyzing
cleavage at Arg271 and the other at Arg320.
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES |
Materials
DNA restriction and modification enzymes were obtained from New
England Biolabs Inc. (Mississauga, Ontario, Canada) or Invitrogen (Burlington, Ontario). Recombinant DNA polymerase from
Pyrococcus sp. (Pfx) with proofreading activity,
newborn calf serum, Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium/nutrient
mixture F-12 (1:1), Opti-MEM, penicillin/streptomycin/Fungizone
mixture, and reduced glutathione were obtained from Invitrogen. Baby
hamster kidney cells and the mammalian expression vector pNUT (12) were
graciously provided by Dr. Ross MacGillivray (University of British
Columbia). Methotrexate (David Bull Laboratories, Vaudreuil, Quebec,
Canada) and vitamin K (Sabex, Boucherville, Quebec) were purchased at
Kingston General Hospital. For enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay,
horseradish peroxidase-conjugated sheep anti-human prothrombin was from
Affinity Biologicals (Ancaster, Ontario). Benzamidine, Russell's viper
venom, DEAE-cellulose, benzamidine-Sepharose,
phosphatidyl-L-serine, phosphatidyl-L-choline, XAD-2 resin, and Sephadex G-25 were obtained from Sigma.
Q-Sepharose Fast Flow anion-exchange resin, Cibacron blue-Sepharose,
and CNBr-activated Sepharose 4B were from Amersham Biosciences
(Uppsala, Sweden). 5-Iodoacetamidofluorescein was purchased from
Molecular Probes, Inc. (Eugene, OR). IODO-BEADS were obtained from
Pierce. 125I was obtained from ICN Pharmaceuticals Ltd.
(Montreal, Canada). Echis (carinatus)
pyramidium venom was purchased from Latoxan (Rosans,
France). Purified ecarin was prepared from the venom by a modification
of the procedure described previously (13). Briefly, ~70 mg of
lyophilized venom was dissolved in 20 ml of 0.05 M Tris-HCl
(pH 8.0). The solution was clarified by centrifugation and treated with
2 mM diisopropyl fluorophosphate for 1 h at room temperature, followed by incubation with 5 µM
Phe-Phe-Arg-chloromethyl ketone for 1 h at room temperature. The
sample was then applied to a 20-ml DEAE-cellulose column equilibrated
with 0.05 M Tris-HCl (pH 8.0). The column was washed with
the equilibration buffer until the absorbance of the eluent was zero at
280 nm. Ecarin was eluted with a NaCl gradient (0.05 M
Tris-HCl and 0 M NaCl to 0.05 M Tris and 0.25 M NaCl). Fractions were assayed for ecarin activity (13) in
the presence and absence of calcium ion. Fractions containing
ecarin-like activity (both calcium ion-dependent and -independent) were pooled and loaded onto a 2-ml Cibacron
blue-Sepharose Column. The column was washed with 0.05 M
Tris-HCl and 0.1 M NaCl (pH 8.0) until the absorbance of
the eluent was zero at 280 nm. Calcium ion-dependent
ecarin-like activity was found in the flow-through fractions. Calcium
ion-independent ecarin was eluted with 0.05 M Tris-HCl and
0.25 M NaCl (pH 8.0). Ecarin-containing fractions were
assayed for activity in the presence and absence of calcium ion.
Calcium ion-dependent and -independent fractions were
pooled separately and ammonium sulfate-precipitated (80% saturation). Ecarin was stored in 0.05 M Tris-HCl (pH 8.0) and 0.02%
sodium azide at 4 °C. The fluorescent inhibitor
dansylarginine-N-(3-ethyl-1,5-pentanediyl)amide (DAPA) was
prepared as described previously (14). Phospholipid vesicles (75% PC
and 25% PS (PCPS)) were prepared as described by Bloom et
al. (15). Human prothrombin (16), thrombin (17), factor Xa (16),
and factor Va (18) were prepared as described previously. F1.2:Pre2 was
made by incubating human prothrombin (10 µM) with an
equal volume of factor Xa-Sepharose in the presence of 10 µM DAPA at room temperature for 3 h. The sample was
filtered through 0.2-µm filters and subsequently incubated
with 0.1 volume of benzamidine-Sepharose at room temperature for 10 min
to remove traces of thrombin and factor Xa, followed by 0.2-µm
filtration. Meizothrombin was formed by treating prothrombin with
purified Ca2+-independent ecarin in 0.02 M
Tris, 0.15 M NaCl, and 5 mM CaCl2 in the presence of 5 µM DAPA. F1.2:Pre2 and meizothrombin
were freshly prepared for each experiment and were used within 10 min. Factor Xa-Sepharose and 125I-labeled human prothrombin were
prepared as described previously (19).
Methods
DNA Construction and Mutagenesis--
The cDNAs for rMZ-II
(10) and for WT-II-F* (11) had been prepared previously in our
laboratory. The cDNA for rMZ-II-F* was prepared as described
previously for WT-II-F*, except that the starting template was
that for rMZ-II instead of WT-II, and the DNA polymerase used was
Pfx. For the production of the rP2-II cDNA, pBluescript
SK+ containing full-length rMZ-II cDNA was digested
with HindIII, SacI, and PstI. The
HindIII/SacI fragment spanned nucleotides 307-1076 and was excised to facilitate the amino acid substitution of
Ala271 with Arg271 and the insertion of a
BsiWI restriction site. The primers used were
5'-GAAGGGCGTACGGCCACA-3' with the T7 promoter primer (Stratagene) and
5'-TGTGGCCGTACGCCCTTC-3' with the T3 promoter primer (Stratagene). The
SacI/PstI fragment spanned nucleotides 1076-1583
and was excised to facilitate the amino acid substitution of
Arg320 with Ala320 and the insertion of a
NarI restriction site. The primers used were
5'-ATCGACGGCGCCATTGTG-3' with the T7 promoter primer and 5'-CACAATGGCGCCGTCGAT-3' with the T3 promoter primer. Each PCR product
was ligated into the EcoRV site of pBluescript
SK+ and then cut with the appropriate restriction
endonuclease along with that for the newly introduced site. Digested
fragments were ligated at their new restriction sites and subcloned
into pBluescript SK+. The presence of mutations and correct
PCR amplifications were verified by DNA sequence analysis using the T3
and T7 promoter primers. The mutated fragments were ligated into the
cDNA for rMZ-II. The resulting cDNA was subcloned into the pNUT
vector and prepared for expression as described previously (11). Cell culture, transfection, and selection was carried out as described previously (11).
Recombinant Protein Purification--
Recombinant prothrombins
were purified as described previously (11). Briefly, stored media were
thawed at 4 °C and loaded onto XAD-2 (2.5 × 15 cm) and
Q-Sepharose (1.4 × 8 cm) columns in tandem at either 4 or
21 °C. The XAD-2 column was used to remove indicator dye in the
medium. Adsorbed prothrombin was eluted from the Q-Sepharose with 0.02 M Tris-HCl and 0.5 M NaCl (pH 7.4). Protein-containing fractions were identified using a Bio-Rad assay and
pooled. Fluorescent labeling of mutants containing free cysteine residues was performed directly on this pooled fraction by adding a
30-fold molar excess of 5-iodoacetamidofluorescein from a 20 mM stock solution of 5-iodoacetamidofluorescein in
N,N-dimethylformamide and incubating the sample
for 2 h at room temperature in the dark. Prothrombin pools were
subjected to barium citrate adsorption by the addition of sodium
citrate to a final concentration of 0.025 M, followed by
the addition of 1.0 M BaCl2 solution, with stirring, to a final concentration of 0.08 M. The solution
was stirred at 4 °C for 1 h and centrifuged. The resulting
pellet was washed and solubilized as described previously (11). The sample was then dialyzed against 0.02 M Tris-HCl and 0.15 M NaCl (pH 7.4) and subjected to anion-exchange
chromatography on a fast protein liquid chromatography Mono Q HR 5/5
column (Amersham Biosciences) at 4 °C. The protein was eluted with a
0-30 mM CaCl2 gradient in 0.02 M
Tris-HCl and 0.15 M NaCl (pH 7.4) (total volume of 30 ml;
flow rate of 0.5 ml/min). This was performed to separate protein that
was fully
-carboxylated (10). The first peak was pooled, and protein
concentrations and labeling efficiencies (where applicable) were
determined by absorbance readings at 280 and 495 nm, respectively.
Activation of Prothrombin Derivatives in the Absence of Factor
Va--
Substrates were activated at various concentrations in the
presence of 50 µM PCPS and 5 µM DAPA in
0.02 M Tris-HCl, 0.15 M NaCl, 5 mM
CaCl2, and 0.01% Tween 80. Reactions were started at room
temperature by the addition of 20 nM factor Xa. In the
cases of WT-II, rMZ-II, and F1.2:Pre2, reactions were allowed to
proceed for 10 min, at which time an aliquot was removed and diluted
into a 96-well plate that had been pretreated with 0.02 M
Tris-HCl, 0.15 M NaCl, and 1% Tween 80. Wells contained a
sufficient volume of S2238
(H-D-phenylalanyl-L-pipecolyl-L-arginine-p-nitroaniline dihydrochloride) so that the final concentration was 400 µM. Absorbance at 405 nm was read over time in a
Spectromax Plus spectrophotometer (Molecular Devices) at room
temperature. Initial rates of S2238 hydrolysis were determined and
compared with a thrombin standard curve. In the case of rP2-II,
aliquots were removed from activation reactions and diluted into 2 volumes 0.2 M acetic acid. Aliquots were concentrated, and
reduced samples were subjected to SDS-PAGE on 5-15% polyacrylamide
minigels according to Neville (20). Densitometry was carried out
to determine the amount of prethrombin-2 produced at each time point.
In the case of meizothrombin activation, reactions were carried out in
a 96-well plate that had been pretreated with 0.02 M
Tris-HCl, 0.15 M NaCl, and 1% Tween 80 and monitored in a
Spectra Max Gemini fluorescence plate reader (Molecular Devices) at
excitation and emission wavelengths of 280 and 545 nm, respectively, with a 515-nm emission cutoff filter in the emission beam. Initial rates of activation for all substrates were calculated and plotted versus the substrate concentration. The data are plotted as
the means ± S.D. of at least three experiments. The
Km and kcat values were
determined by nonlinear regression of the data to the Michaelis-Menten
equation using the NONLIN module of SYSTAT (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL).
Activation of Prothrombin Derivatives in the Presence of Factor
Va--
Substrates were activated at various concentrations in the
presence of 50 µM PCPS, 20 nM factor Va, and
5 µM DAPA in 0.02 M Tris-HCl, 0.15 M NaCl, 5 mM CaCl2, and 0.01%
Tween 80. In the case of WT-II, rMZ-II, F1.2:Pre2, and meizothrombin,
reactions were carried out in 96-well plates that had been pretreated
with 0.02 M Tris-HCl, 0.15 M NaCl, and 1%
Tween 80. Reactions were started at room temperature by the addition of
0.02 nM factor Xa and monitored in the Spectra Max Gemini
fluorescence plate reader at excitation and emission wavelengths of 280 and 545 nm, respectively, with a 515-nm emission cutoff filter in the
emission beam. In the case of rP2-II, aliquots were removed from
activation reactions and diluted into 2 volumes of 0.2 M
acetic acid. Aliquots were concentrated, and reduced samples were
subjected to SDS-PAGE on 5-15% polyacrylamide minigels. Densitometry
was carried out to determine the amount of prethrombin-2 produced at
each point. Initial rates of activation for all substrates were
calculated and plotted versus the concentration of
substrate. The data are plotted as the means ± S.D. of at least
three experiments. The Km and
kcat values were determined by nonlinear regression.
Time Courses of Prothrombin, Meizothrombin, and Thrombin during
Prothrombin Activation--
Unlabeled prothrombin (1 µM)
was activated in the presence of a trace amount of
125I-prothrombin (150,000 cpm) with 50 µM PCPS, 20 nM factor Va, 0.035 nM factor Xa, and 5 mM CaCl2 in
0.02 M Tris-HCl, 0.15 M NaCl, and 0.01% Tween
80. The reaction was started at room temperature by the addition of
factor Xa. Aliquots were removed from the reaction, diluted into 2 volumes of 0.2 M acetic acid, and concentrated. Reduced
samples were subjected to SDS-PAGE on a 5-15% polyacrylamide gel. The
gels were fixed in 50% methanol, 20% ethanol, and 6% trichloroacetic
acid for 2 h and then stained with Coomassie Blue and destained.
Bands were excised and counted in an Amersham Biosciences Minigamma
1275
-counter. The experiment was performed twice, and three gels
were analyzed. The data are plotted as the means ± S.D. of three results.
Competition Experiments and Mathematical Modeling of Prothrombin
Activation--
Studies of prothrombin activation indicated that the
substrates rMZ-II and rP2-II only partially inhibited prothrombin
activation (see below). This phenomenon could not be rationalized by
any conceivable equilibrium model that involved only one form of
prothrombinase because, in such a model, competing substrate at a
sufficiently high concentration would occupy all of the enzyme, thereby
completely inhibiting prothrombin activation. Therefore, the following
model was constructed to account for partial inhibition by rMZ-II and rP2-II. The model includes two equilibrating forms of prothrombinase, designated E and E', as indicated in Equation 1.
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(Eq. 1)
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One of these forms (E) catalyzes cleavage at
Arg320. Thus, it catalyzes conversion of prothrombin (P) to
meizothrombin (M), F1.2:Pre2 (P2) to thrombin (T), and rMZ-II (rMZ) to
rMZ-IIa(rMZa). The other form (E') catalyzes cleavage
at Arg271 and thereby catalyzes conversion of prothrombin
to F1.2:Pre2, meizothrombin to thrombin, and rP2-II (rP2) to
rP2-IIa(rP2a). In this model, once a particular form of the
enzyme catalyzes its corresponding bond cleavage, it releases the
product and reverts to the other form of the enzyme. In this sense, the
model is similar to the classical "ping-pong" mechanism of enzyme
kinetics. The proposition that E and E' can
equilibrate is included in the model to account for the fact that
rMZ-II, rP2-II, meizothrombin, and F1.2:Pre2 can be completely
activated. This could not happen if the two forms of the enzyme could
not interconvert spontaneously.
Each form of the enzyme is presumed to interact with its substrate (S)
in an equilibrium binding interaction such that [E][S] = K[ES] and [E'][S] = K[E'S]. The enzyme-substrate complexes then turn over to product at rate r, where r = k[ES] or r = k[E'S]. The term k is the turnover
number. Each reaction rate can therefore be expressed in terms of the
free enzyme forms according to r = (k/K)[E][S] or r = (k/K)[E'][S]. Each
specific reaction is allowed its own k and K
values. These are shown in Equations 2 and 3.
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(Eq. 2)
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(Eq. 3)
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The rate of thrombin formation (r) is the sum of the
rates of conversion of the intermediates meizothrombin and F1.2:Pre2 to
thrombin (Equation 4).
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(Eq. 4)
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To express the rate of the reaction in terms of the prothrombin
concentration, steady states with respect to the levels of the
intermediates are assumed, such that their rates of formation from
prothrombin and subsequent conversion to thrombin are equal. Thus, for
meizothrombin,
(k2/K2)[P][E] = (k6/K6)[E'][M];
and for prethrombin-2,
(k5/K5)[E'][P] = (k3/K3)[E][P2].
The rate of prothrombin activation then can be expressed in terms of
the prothrombin concentration according to Equation 5.
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(Eq. 5)
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To further develop the rate equation, the conservation of enzyme
is considered. Because some experiments were carried out in the
presence of rMZ-II and rP2-II as competing substrates, the interactions
of E and E' with them are also accounted for in
the conservation equation. The total concentration of the enzyme ([E]T) is given in Equation 6 and again in
Equation 7, where all [ES] or [E'S] forms
have been expressed in terms of [E], [E'],
[S], and the appropriate K values. rMZ-II and rP2-II are
assumed to interact with E and E' with
dissociation constants K4 and
K7.
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(Eq. 6)
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(Eq. 7)
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The steady states in meizothrombin and F1.2:Pre2 are again
invoked to eliminate terms containing them from the conservation equation. Thus, [E'][M]/K6 = (k2/k6)[E][P]/K2
and [E][P2]/K3 = (k5/k3)[E'][P]/K5.
The conservation of enzyme is then given according to Equation 8.
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(Eq. 8)
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Division of Equation 5 by Equation 8 and then division of the
numerator and denominator of the resulting equation by [E] yield Equation 9, which gives the rate per total
concentration of enzyme.
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(Eq. 9)
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The ratio [E'][E] in Equation 8 can be eliminated
by assuming a steady state in [E] (and therefore
[E']). Thus, the rates of formation and removal of
E are presumed equal. This is expressed in Equation 10.
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(Eq. 10)
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Invoking steady states in the levels of the intermediates allows
for simplification of Equation 10 to give Equation 11.
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(Eq. 11)
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Equation 11 is then solved for the ratio
[E']/[E], which is given in Equation 12.
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(Eq. 12)
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The right-hand side of Equation 12 is substituted for
[E']/[E] in Equation 9. When this is done,
Equation 13 is the result, with the terms kcat,
Km, a1,
a2, a3,
b1, b2,
b3, c, and
given in Equations
14-23.
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(Eq. 13)
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(Eq. 14)
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(Eq. 15)
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(Eq. 16)
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(Eq. 17)
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(Eq. 18)
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(Eq. 19)
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(Eq. 20)
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(Eq. 21)
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(Eq. 22)
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(Eq. 23)
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Equation 13 predicts that, in the absence of competing
substrates ([rMZ-II] = 0, [rP2-II] = 0), prothrombin activation
kinetics will conform to the Michaelis-Menten equation
r/[E]T = kcat[P]/(Km + [P]), with
kcat and Km defined in
Equations 14, 15, and 23. It also predicts that the competing substrates rMZ-II and rP2-II will inhibit prothrombin only partially. With rMZ-II, for example, as [rMZ-II] is raised without bounds (in
the absence of rP2-II), Equation 13 predicts that prothrombin activation will occur at a non-zero rate, r
= a1[P]/(a2 + a3[P]). Thus, at saturation with respect to
[rMZ-II], a finite rate of prothrombin activation will be expected.
Furthermore, its value will depend on the prothrombin concentration.
The same behavior is predicted with rP2-II, with r
= b1[P]/(b2 + b3[P]).
By analogous reasoning, the rate of rMZ-II activation in the presence
of rP2-II is given in Equation 24, with kcat,
Km, g1,
g2, and g3 given in
Equations 25-29.
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(Eq. 24)
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(Eq. 25)
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(Eq. 26)
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(Eq. 27)
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(Eq. 28)
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(Eq. 29)
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Similarly, the rate of activation of rP2-II with rMZ-II as a
competing substrate is given in Equation 30, with
kcat, Km, h1, h2, and
h3 given in Equations 31-35.
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(Eq. 30)
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(Eq. 31)
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(Eq. 32)
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(Eq. 33)
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(Eq. 34)
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(Eq. 35)
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Equations 24 and 30 show that the activation kinetics of rMZ-II
and rP2-II, each in the absence of the other, will conform to the
Michaelis-Menten equation r/[E]T = kcat[S]/(Km + [S]), with
kcat and Km values given in
Equations 25, 26, 31, and 32. The forms of Equations 24 and 30 also
predict that rMZ-II and rP2-II will only partially inhibit the
activation of each other, just as they only partially inhibit the
activation of prothrombin. In addition, the activation rate of either
of the substrates in the presence of the competitor will depend on the
concentration of the substrate, as is predicted to occur in prothrombin activation.
The rate equations for activation of meizothrombin and F1.2:Pre2 to
thrombin are found also by analogous reasoning. The rate equation for
meizothrombin activation is given in Equation 36, with
kcat and Km given in
Equations 37 and 38.
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(Eq. 36)
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(Eq. 37)
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(Eq. 38)
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The rate equation for activation of F1.2:Pre2 to thrombin is
given in Equation 39, with kcat and
Km values given in Equations 40 and 41.
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(Eq. 39)
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(Eq. 40)
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(Eq. 41)
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Equations 36 and 39 indicate that the kinetics of activation of
meizothrombin and F1.2:Pre2 also will conform to the Michaelis-Menten equation.
 |
RESULTS |
Characterization of Recombinant Prothrombin Derivatives--
Three
recombinant prothrombin derivatives were prepared to determine the
effects of factor Va on cleavage at Arg271 and
Arg320 in prothrombin (Fig.
1). Two additional recombinant
prothrombin derivatives were used to carry out competition assays
between each of the three recombinant prothrombin derivatives (Fig. 1). The recombinant prothrombins WT-II, rMZ-II, and rP2-II were activated with prothrombinase, and aliquots were subjected to SDS-PAGE under reducing conditions (Fig. 2). Activation
of WT-II produced the intermediates expected when cleavage occurs at
both Arg271 and Arg320. Activation of rP2-II
produced the intermediate F1.2:Pre2 only, indicating a single cleavage
at Arg271. Finally, activation of rMZ-II produced the
intermediate meizothrombin, indicating a single cleavage at
Arg320. Activation of WT-II-F* and rMZ-II-F* was also
carried out and analyzed in two ways. In the first, fluorescence
intensity was monitored throughout the reaction. In the second,
aliquots were removed and subjected to SDS-PAGE. The change in
fluorescence observed was coincident with cleavage, and the expected
cleavage patterns were obtained (data not shown).

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Fig. 1.
Representation of recombinant
prothrombins. The five recombinant prothrombin derivatives are
displayed. Mutations are shown in boldface.
Fluorescein-labeled residues are indicated (F*). The WT-II
(w.t.-II) derivative can be cleaved by factor Xa at
Arg271 and Arg320 to produce thrombin. It can
also be cleaved by thrombin at Arg155 and
Arg284 in the absence of DAPA. The other mutants are
cleaved as described in the Introduction.
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Fig. 2.
Activation of recombinant prothrombins.
Recombinant WT-II (A), rMZ-II (B), and rP2-II
(C) (1 µM) were activated with 50 µM PCPS, 20 nM factor Va, 0.035 nM factor Xa, 10 µM DAPA, and 5 mM CaCl2 in 0.02 M Tris-HCl, 0.15 M NaCl, and 0.01% Tween 80. Reactions were started at room
temperature by the addition of factor Xa. Aliquots were removed from
the reactions at 0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.5, 4.0, 6.0, 10, 20, and 30 min;
diluted into 0.2 M acetic acid; and concentrated. Reduced
samples were subjected to SDS-PAGE on 5-15% polyacrylamide minigels.
The positions of molecular weight standards are indicated on the left,
and the proteins represented by each band are indicated on the right.
The thrombin A- and B-chains are indicated.
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Kinetics of Activation of Prothrombin Derivatives in the Absence
and Presence of Factor Va--
The Initial rates of activation of
rMZ-II to meizothrombin, rP2-II to F1.2:Pre2, meizothrombin to
thrombin, and F1.2:Pre2 to thrombin were measured in the absence and
presence of factor Va at various substrate concentrations. These data
were fit to the Michaelis-Menten equation, and catalytic efficiencies
were calculated for each step of the overall reaction (Table
I). In the absence of factor Va, the
catalytic efficiencies for conversion of rMZ-II to meizothrombin and of
rP2-II to F1.2:Pre2 indicated that cleavage at Arg271 was
~50-fold more efficient than cleavage at Arg320. The
catalytic efficiencies for conversion of meizothrombin to thrombin and
of F1.2:Pre2 to thrombin indicated that, when prothrombin was initially
cleaved at Arg271 to produce F1.2:Pre2, subsequent cleavage
at Arg320 represented the rate-limiting step of thrombin
formation, as the catalytic efficiency of cleavage was 100-fold lower
for this second step. Additionally, the catalytic efficiency of
cleavage at Arg271 in meizothrombin was 10-fold greater
than that in rP2-II. These data rationalize the accumulation of the
intermediate F1.2:Pre2 and the lack of detectable meizothrombin
accumulation when prothrombin is activated in the absence of factor
Va.
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Table I
Activation of Prothrombin derivatives in the presence and absence of
factor Va
-Fold difference values refer to the ratio of catalytic efficiencies in
the presence and absence of factor Va.
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In the presence of factor Va, the kinetic parameters determined for
cleavage at Arg271 in rP2-II and at Arg320 in
rMZ-II were indistinguishable from each other and were very similar to
that obtained for the overall conversion of prothrombin to thrombin.
Because the activation of WT-II to thrombin was monitored by DAPA
fluorescence, the rates of activation of prothrombin to thrombin could
be overestimated somewhat. This is because the increase in DAPA
fluorescence is due to the formation of both meizothrombin and
thrombin, and the meizothrombin-DAPA complex is 30% more fluorescent
than the thrombin-DAPA complex (9). Nonetheless, these results suggest
that, with rMZ-II and rP2-II, neither of the cleavages required for
prothrombin activation is rate-limiting. They also suggest that, in the
presence of factor Va, prothrombin activation would be expected to
proceed through both pathways at equal rates. However, this does not
appear to be the case, as will be shown when the catalytic efficiencies of cleavages in prothrombin are compared with those of cleavages in the
derivatives and intermediates (see below).
The increase in catalytic efficiency of each cleavage upon the addition
of factor Va was also calculated. Efficiency of cleavage for the
overall conversion of prothrombin to thrombin was enhanced by
39,700-fold by factor Va. Cleavage at Arg320 was enhanced
by 20,600-fold (with rMZ-II as the substrate) or by 27,200-fold (with
F1.2:Pre2 as the substrate), whereas cleavage at Arg271 was
enhanced only by 453-fold (with rP2-II as the substrate) or by 34-fold
(with meizothrombin as the substrate). Therefore, cleavage at
Arg271 is not nearly as dependent upon factor Va as
cleavage at Arg320.
Activation of 125I-Prothrombin in the Presence of
Factor Va--
Prothrombin that had been labeled with 125I
was activated in the presence of factor Va and subjected to SDS-PAGE.
The time courses of prothrombin, meizothrombin, and thrombin during the
reaction are shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3
illustrates that the decline in the concentration of prothrombin during
the reaction was nearly first-order at this prothrombin concentration.
The intermediate meizothrombin first increased to a maximum at 6 min,
followed by a steady decline. The intermediate F1.2:Pre2 was not
observed. The thrombin concentration in the first 300 s is shown
in the inset and appeared to rise immediately upon
initiation of the reaction, without the lag that is characteristic of a
mechanism with an obligatory intermediate. Because this lag did not
occur, the time course of thrombin formation suggests that some direct
conversion of prothrombin to thrombin occurred without equilibration of
free intermediates with the prothrombinase complex, thereby indicating
a channeling phenomenon (19). In addition, these data indicate that the
catalytic efficiency for conversion of prothrombin to meizothrombin is
much larger than that for conversion of prothrombin to F1.2:Pre2. This
can be appreciated by comparing the initial rates of meizothrombin and
thrombin accumulation. The initial rate of meizothrombin accumulation was less than or equal to the initial rate of meizothrombin formation from prothrombin. Because F1.2:Pre2 did not accumulate, the initial rate of thrombin formation was greater than or equal to the rate of
F1.2:Pre2 formation from prothrombin. Because the initial rate of
meizothrombin accumulation was much greater than that of thrombin accumulation, the catalytic efficiency of cleavage at
Arg320 in prothrombin must be considerably greater than
that of cleavage at Arg271. This is in contrast to the
nearly identical catalytic efficiencies measured with rMZ-II and
rP2-II.

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Fig. 3.
Time courses of prothrombin, meizothrombin,
and thrombin during prothrombin activation. Unlabeled prothrombin
(1 µM) was activated in the presence of a trace amount of
125I-prothrombin (150,000 cpm) with 50 µM
PCPS, 20 nM factor Va, 0.035 nM factor Xa, 10 µM DAPA, and 5 mM CaCl2 in 0.02 M Tris-HCl, 0.15 M NaCl, and 0.01% Tween 80. The time courses of prothrombin ( ), meizothrombin ( ), and
thrombin ( ) are shown. The data for meizothrombin and thrombin
formation over the first 300 s are reproduced in the
inset (solid lines). The predicted thrombin
concentration when meizothrombin is an obligatory intermediate was
calculated (dashed line) and was dependent upon the
concentration of meizothrombin at each time point.
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Activation of WT-II-F* and rMZ-II-F* in the Presence of WT-II,
rMZ-II, and rP2-II--
The prothrombin derivative WT-II-F* is an
active-site mutant of prothrombin in which the active-site serine was
mutated to a cysteine, which was subsequently labeled with fluorescein.
The prothrombin derivative rMZ-II-F* is the rMZ-II mutant with the same
active-site mutation. Both mutants displayed an increase in
fluorescence intensity upon activation and therefore allowed us to
monitor their activation specifically in the presence of WT-II, rMZ-II,
and rP2-II as competitors. Fig. 4
illustrates the inhibition of WT-II-F* activation observed in the
presence of WT-II, rMZ-II, or rP2-II at various concentrations. Simple
competitive inhibition was observed when WT-II-F* was activated in the
presence of WT-II. The substrates rMZ-II and rP2-II did not, however,
exhibit simple competitive inhibition when activated in the presence of WT-II-F*. In both cases, inhibition was not complete, even at saturating levels of competitor. In addition, the extent of inhibition was dependent upon the starting concentration of WT-II-F*. However, when both rMZ-II and rP2-II were added together as competitors, inhibition was competitive. As illustrated in Fig.
5, cleavage of rMZ-II-F* was inhibited
competitively by both WT-II and rMZ-II. However, inhibition by rP2-II
was not complete, and the extent of inhibition was dependent upon the
starting concentration of rMZ-II-F*. These data are consistent with a
ping-pong-like model of kinetics in which prothrombinase exists
in two equilibrating forms, each specific for a unique site in
prothrombin. This model is mathematically outlined under
"Experimental Procedures." In Figs. 4 and 5, the lines on the
graphs correspond to global fits of the data by nonlinear regression to
the appropriate rate equations. The data of Fig. 4B (with
rP2-II as the inhibitor) were fit to Equation 13 with [rMZ-II] = 0. The best fit values of the parameters, along with the standard errors
returned by the regression algorithm, are as follows:
kcat = 107 ± 7 s
1,
Km = 386 ± 55 nM,
b1 = 1.11 ± 0.19 nM
1 s
1,
b2 = 6.2 ± 1.1, and
b3 = 0.018 ± 0.003 nM
1. The values obtained upon nonlinear
regression of the data of Fig. 4C (with rMZ-II as the
inhibitor) are as follows: kcat = 127 ± 11 s
1, Km = 557 ± 88 nM, a1 = 0.51 ± 0.09 nM
1 s
1, a2 = 7.0 ± 1.1, and a3 = 0.012 ± 0.002 nM
1. The data of Fig. 5B (with
rP2-II as the inhibitor) were fit to Equation 24. The best fit values
of the parameters were as follows: kcat = 190 ± 12 s
1, Km = 924 ± 97 nM, g1 = 0.32 ± 0.04 nM
1 s
1, g2 = 5.0 ± 0.6, and g3 = 0.021 ± 0.001 nM
1. The fits are very good, indicating
that the model rationalizes the data very well.

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Fig. 4.
Activation of WT-II-F* in the presence of
WT-II, rMZ-II, and rP2-II. WT-II-F* at 100 nM ( ),
200 nM ( ), 300 nM ( ), 400 nM
( ), 500 nM ( ), 600 nM ( ), and 700 nM ( ) was activated in the presence of WT-II
(w.t.-II; A), rP2-II (B), rMZ-II
(C), and both rP2-II and rMZ-II (D) at various
concentrations. Reactions were carried out in the presence of 50 µM PCPS, 20 nM factor Va, and 5 µM DAPA in 0.02 M Tris-HCl, 0.15 M NaCl, 5 mM CaCl2, and 0.01%
Tween 80. Reactions were carried out in 96-well plates that had been
pretreated with 0.02 M Tris-HCl, 0.15 M NaCl,
and 1% Tween 80. Reactions were started at room
temperature with 0.02 nM factor Xa. Activation of WT-II-F*
was monitored in a fluorescence plate reader at excitation and emission
wavelengths of 495 and 538 nm, respectively, with a 515-nm emission
cutoff filter in the emission beam. Initial rates of
WT-II-F* activation were calculated and plotted
versus the concentration of inhibitor. The lines
correspond to global fits of the data to the appropriate rate equations
as outlined under "Experimental Procedures." For competition of
rP2-II against WT-II-F*, see Equation 13, when [rMZ-II] = 0. For
competition of rMZ-II against WT-II-F*, see Equation 13, when
[rP2-II] = 0. For competition of rP2-II and rMZ-II against WT-II-F*,
see Equation 13.
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Fig. 5.
Activation of rMZ-II-F* in the presence of
WT-II, rMZ-II, and rP2-II. rMZ-II-F* at 100 nM ( ),
200 nM ( ), 300 nM ( ), 400 nM
( ), 500 nM ( ), 600 nM ( ), and 700 nM ( ) was activated in the presence of WT-II
(w.t.-II; A), rP2-II (B), and rMZ-II
(C) at various concentrations. Reactions were carried out in
the presence of 50 µM PCPS, 20 nM factor Va,
and 5 µM DAPA in 0.02 M Tris-HCl, 0.15 M NaCl, 5 mM CaCl2, and 0.01%
Tween 80. Reactions were treated as described in the legend to Fig. 4.
Initial rates of rMZ-II-F* activation were calculated and
plotted versus the concentration of inhibitor. The
lines correspond to global fits of the data to the
appropriate rate equations as outlined under "Experimental
Procedures." For competition of rP2-II against rMZ-II-F*, see
Equation 24.
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Comparison of the Catalytic Efficiencies of Cleavage at the
Arg271 and Arg320 Bonds in Prothrombin with
Those in Meizothrombin, Prethrombin-2, rMZ-II, and
rP2-II--
According to Equations 31, 32, 37, and 38, the
kcat/Km ratios (Table I) for
cleavage at the Arg271 bond in meizothrombin and rP2-II are
given by (k1/(k1 + k
1))(k/K)271(M) = 0.230 ± 0.029 and
(k1/(k1 + k
1))(k/K)271(rP2) = 0.291 ± 0.053, where
(k/K)271(M) and
(k/K)271(rP2) are the
intrinsic catalytic efficiencies of cleavage at the
Arg271 bond in the two respective prothrombin derivatives.
Similarly, according to Equations 25, 26, 40, and 41, the
kcat/Km ratios for cleavage
at the Arg320 bond in F1.2:Pre2 and rMZ-II are
(k
1/(k1 + k
1))(k/K)320(P2) = 0.198 ± 0.023 and
(k
1/(k1 + k
1))(k/K)320(rMZ) = 0.309 ± 0.033.
The kcat/Km ratios for
cleavage at Arg271 in meizothrombin and rP2-II are similar
to one another, as are the values for cleavage at the
Arg320 bond in F1.2:Pre2 and rMZ-II. The average
kcat/Km values for the
respective cleavages at the two bonds in the prothrombin derivatives
are thus
(kcat/Km)271(d) = (k1/(k1 + k
1))(k/K)271(d) = 0.261 and
(kcat/Km)320(d) = (k
1/(k1 + k
1))(k/K)320(d) = 0.252, where the subscript d designates "derivative."
The kcat/Km value for
prothrombin activation is given by the ratio of Equations 14 and 15,
(kcat/Km)P = (k
1/(k1 + k
1))(k/K)320(P) + (k1/(k1 + k
1))(k/K)271(P) = 0.262 ± 0.024, where
(k/K)320(P) and
(k/K)271(P) are the respective intrinsic catalytic efficiencies of cleavages at Arg320 and
Arg271 in prothrombin.
If the catalytic efficiencies of cleavage at Arg271 and
Arg320 in prothrombin were the same as those in the
prothrombin derivatives, then the
kcat/Km ratio for
prothrombin, as indicated by the above equations, would be expected to
equal the sum for the prothrombin derivatives, which is 0.513. However,
the experimentally determined value (0.262) is only about one-half of
the expected value. Thus, the intrinsic catalytic efficiency of
cleavage at one or possibly both of the bonds in prothrombin is not
equal to that for cleavage at the same bonds in the prothrombin derivatives.
That this is so is evident in the data of Fig. 3. As shown,
meizothrombin was clearly produced and transiently accumulated, but
F1.2:Pre2 did not. If the
kcat/Km values for both cleavages were approximately equal, as they are in the derivatives, one
would expect F1.2:Pre2 to accumulate with a time course similar to that
of meizothrombin. Even channeling through the F1.2:Pre2 pathway would
not account for the lack of this intermediate because if channeling
were to occur so that F1.2:Pre2 did not accumulate, the initial rate of
thrombin formation would equal or exceed the rate of meizothrombin
formation, which clearly is not the case. Thus, the difference in
catalytic efficiencies of cleavages at Arg271 and
Arg320 in prothrombin compared with the derivatives appears
to lie with cleavage at Arg271. If one assumes that
cleavage at Arg320 in prothrombin proceeds with the same
efficiency as it does with the derivatives, one can calculate the
intrinsic catalytic efficiency of cleavage at Arg271 in
prothrombin relative to that in the derivatives. Using the above
equations to eliminate
k
1/(k1 + k
1) and
k1/(k1 + k
1) yields
(kcat/Km)P = (kcat/Km)320(d)((k/K)320(P)/(k/K)320(d)) + (kcat/Km)271(d)((k/K)271(P)/(k/K)271(d)).
Assuming that (k/K)320(P) = (k/K)320(d) and letting
R = (k/k)271(P)/(k/K)271(d) yields (kcat/Km)P = (kcat/Km)320(d) + R((kcat/Km)271(d)). Thus, R = (0.262
0.252)/0.262 = 0.038, i.e. the intrinsic catalytic efficiency of cleavage at
Arg271 in prothrombin is only 3.8% of that of cleavage at
Arg271 in meizothrombin and rP2-II. Why this should be the
case is not revealed by these studies. These studies suggest, however,
that in the activation of prothrombin, under the conditions of our experiments, cleavage at Arg320 occurs first to form
meizothrombin. This is an event that, in effect, creates the second
cleavage site at Arg271. This site is then cleaved with an
efficiency roughly equal to that of the initial cleavage at
Arg320. Thus, under these conditions, prothrombin
activation appears to occur with an ordered sequence of cleavages, with
the bond at Arg320 cleaved first to produce meizothrombin,
as indicated previously by Krishnaswamy et al. (9, 21).
Estimation of the Rate Constants for Bond Cleavage and for
Equilibration of the Two Forms of Prothrombinase--
Analysis of the
kcat/Km ratios above
indicates that the intrinsic catalytic efficiency
(k/K) of cleavage at Arg271 in
prothrombin is only 3.8% of that of cleavage at Arg320 in
prothrombin and at Arg271 or Arg320 in the
prothrombin derivatives. If the further simplifying assumptions are
made that the low catalytic efficiency is due to a low turnover (low
k) rather than weak binding (high K) and that all
other k and K values are the same, then the rate
constant for bond cleavage (k) and the rate constants for
the E and E' interconversions
(k1 and k
1) can be
calculated. These can be calculated from the
kcat values for cleavage at Arg320
(average kcat for cleavage of rMZ-II and
F1.2:Pre2) and Arg271 (average kcat
for cleavage of rP2-II and meizothrombin) and for cleavage of
prothrombin. The relevant equations are as follows: kcat(320) = k
1k/(k
1 + k), kcat(271) = k1k/(k1 + k), and kcat(P) = (k
1k + 0.038k
k1)/(2k
1 + 1.038k). These are obtained by applying the above assumptions to Equations 40,
37, and 14, respectively.
Utilizing the kcat values from Table I and
solving these equations by iteration yield the following values:
k = 344/s, k1 = 214/s,
and k
1 = 166/s. These values indicate that the concentrations of E and E' at equilibrium are
such that [E']/[E] = k1/k
1 = 1.29, i.e. the concentrations of the two forms are about equal in
the absence of substrate. These values also indicate that the
kcat values for bond cleavage are limited by the
rate constants for interconversion of E and E',
i.e. the kinetics of prothrombin activation are determined
in part by the rate constants for interconversion of the two enzyme
forms. These low values of k1 and
k
1 (relative to the rate constant for
cleavage) are also responsible for the partial inhibition of
prothrombin activation by the single cleavage derivatives. If the
k1 and k
1 values were
very high relative to k, the partial inhibition phenomenon would not exist because E and E' would very
rapidly equilibrate. This can be argued formally by allowing
k
1 and k1 to approach infinity in Equation 13. Under these circumstances, this equation becomes r = kcat[P]/(Km + [P] +
1[rMz] +
2[rP2]), where kcat = (k2K5 + Ck5K2)/
,
Km = K2K5(C + 1)/
,
1 = K2K5/K4
,
2 = K2K5/K7
,
= K2K5/K1P1) + CK2(1 + k5/k3), and
C = k1/k
1, which is the
equilibrium constant for the E-to-E'
interconversion. The above rate equation, unlike Equation 13, does not
have terms containing [rMZ-II] and [rP2-II] in the numerator and
therefore describes simple competitive inhibition of prothrombin
activation by rMZ-II and rP2-II.
 |
DISCUSSION |
Two recombinant prothrombins labeled with fluorescein were
utilized in these studies. Both mutants displayed an increase in fluorescence intensity upon activation. Their activation was monitored specifically in the presence of WT-II, rMZ-II, and rP2-II as
competitors. Although WT-II was a competitive inhibitor of WT-II-F*,
rMZ-II or rP2-II did not inhibit cleavage of WT-II-F* completely, and the extent of inhibition was dependent upon the starting concentration of WT-II-F*. When both rMZ-II and rP2-II were added together, however,
the inhibition observed was competitive. In the case of rMZ-II-F*, both
WT-II and rMZ-II behaved as competitive inhibitors, whereas rP2-II did
not. Numerous models of prothrombin activation kinetics were
investigated to rationalize these data. No model that included only a
single form of prothrombinase was consistent with the data. The data
instead were consistent with a ping-pong-like model of kinetics in
which prothrombinase exists in two equilibrating forms, each specific
for a unique site in prothrombin (Fig.
6). The form of the enzyme that cleaves
at Arg320 has been designated E, and the form
that cleaves at Arg271 has been designated E'.
This model is like the classical ping-pong model in that two enzyme
forms are involved, and the enzyme is converted to its alternate form
after a catalytic event. However, the model differs from the ping-pong
model in that the two forms of the enzyme spontaneously interconvert in
the absence of substrate. This is so because if cleavage had to occur
to convert E to E' or vice versa, activation
reactions containing rP2-II or rMZ-II alone, with the substrate in
excess over the enzyme, would not go to completion, as they did in
these studies.

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Fig. 6.
Schematic representation of the
ping-pong-like mechanism. A, in this model, prothrombinase
exists in two equilibrating forms, each of which is specific for a
unique cleavage site in prothrombin. The E form of the
enzyme recognizes Arg320 in prothrombin (P),
F1.2:Pre2 (P2), or rMZ-II (rMZ), whereas the
E' form of the enzyme recognizes Arg271 in
prothrombin, meizothrombin (M), or rP2-II (rP2).
After cleaving the recognized site, the enzyme converts to its
alternate form. The binding constants (K) and the rate
constants (k) shown correspond to those used in the model
described under "Experimental Procedures." The constant
K1 refers to the equilibrium between
E and E' (K1 = k 1/k1). B,
this model suggests that, when rMZ-II or rP2-II is activated, only one
of the two forms of prothrombinase can catalyze the reaction.
Therefore, rMZ-II and rP2-II can each inhibit only one form of the
enzyme when activated in the presence of WT-II-F*. T,
thrombin; rP2a, rP2-IIa.
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Ping-pong-type kinetics have been identified in several other mammalian
systems. Some examples include cholesterol oxidase, which is a
monomeric flavoenzyme that catalyzes the oxidation and isomerization of
cholesterol to cholest-4-en-3-one. Two forms of the enzyme have been
identified, and the kinetics of the reaction have been shown to follow
a ping-pong mechanism (22). Lipoamide dehydrogenase is a flavoprotein
that catalyzes the reversible oxidation of hydrolipoamide by
NAD+, also through a ping-pong kinetic mechanism (23).
NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase is a membrane-bound protein that
is associated with the endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear envelope of
most eukaryotic cells and that transfers electrons from NADPH to FAD
and then to any number of cytochromes P450 through a nonclassical
(two-site) ping-pong mechanism (24).
In the case of prothrombinase, other published data suggest the
existence of two forms of the enzyme. The actual cleavage sites in
prothrombin are spatially distinct, being separated by as much as 36 Å (25), with one site requiring extensive reorganization before factor Xa
can dock (26). Thus, separate forms of the enzyme may be required to
cleave these two sites. The ability of factor Xa to cleave the two
sites is affected differently by both factor Va (21) and PCPS (27).
Rapid kinetics, stopped-flow studies by Walker and Krishnaswamy (27)
suggest that two distinct types of enzyme-substrate interactions are
required for the two cleavage sites involved in prothrombin activation.
Additionally, factor Xa has been shown to behave differently both as an
enzyme (1-5) and as a target for antithrombin/heparin (11, 28-36)
when it is complexed with some or all of the prothrombinase components. For example, the half-life of factor Xa in the presence of antithrombin and heparin is increased by >100-fold when factor Xa is incorporated into the prothrombinase complex in the presence of prothrombin. Although this protection is profound, it is not complete. Conceivably, this protection could be due to the dynamics of the equilibrium between
E and E', with one form being more susceptible to
inhibition than the other.
In the absence of factor Va, cleavage at Arg271 was
~50-fold more efficient than cleavage at Arg320. Thus,
cleavage at Arg320 appears to be the rate-limiting step.
Additionally, the catalytic efficiency of cleavage at
Arg271 in meizothrombin was 10-fold greater than that in
rP2-II. These data rationalize the accumulation of the intermediate
F1.2:Pre2 and the lack of detectable meizothrombin accumulation when
prothrombin is activated in the absence of factor Va.
In the presence of factor Va, the estimated values for the catalytic
efficiencies of cleavage at Arg271 and Arg320
in prothrombin are 0.0961 × 108 and 2.52 × 108 M
1 s
1,
respectively. The value for cleavage at Arg320 in
prothrombin, in which the bond at Arg271 is intact, is very
similar to that for the Arg320 bond in F1.2:Pre2 (1.98 × 108 M
1 s
1), in
which the bond at Arg271 is not intact. Thus, the catalytic
efficiency of cleavage at Arg320 does not depend on whether
the bond at Arg271 has been cleaved. In contrast, the
catalytic efficiency of cleavage at Arg271 in meizothrombin
(2.3 × 108 M
1
s
1), in which the bond at Arg320 has been
cleaved, is 24-fold greater than the estimated value for cleavage at
the same bond in prothrombin, in which the bond at Arg320
is intact. This suggests that, in prothrombin, with factor Va as a
component of prothrombinase, the bond at Arg271 is not
readily available for cleavage until after the bond at Arg320 is cleaved. Curiously, the Arg271 bond
in rP2-II is cleaved with high efficiency (2.91 × 108
M
1 s
1). However, this mutant
has an alanine rather than an arginine residue at position 320. Perhaps
it interacts with prothrombinase in a way that had the bond at position
320 been cleavable, it would have been cleaved. Although this bond was
not cleaved because it could not be, perhaps the interaction with
prothrombinase was sufficient to produce high efficiency cleavage at
Arg271. A similar phenomenon exists in the absence of
factor Va. In this case, the catalytic efficiency of cleavage at
Arg320 in rMZ-II (1.5 × 104
M
1 s
1), in which the bond at
Arg271 is intact, is very similar to the value for cleavage
at this bond in F1.2:Pre2 (7.3 × 103
M
1 s
1), in which the bond at
Arg320 is not intact. In contrast, the catalytic efficiency
of cleavage at Arg271 in meizothrombin (6.76 × 106 M
1 s
1), in
which the bond at Arg320 is not intact, is 11-fold greater
than that of cleavage at this bond in rP2-II (0.64 × 106 M
1 s
1), in
which the bond at Arg320 is intact. Thus, either with or
without factor Va, the catalytic efficiency of cleavage at
Arg320 appears to be minimally affected by the state of
cleavage at Arg271. In contrast, the catalytic efficiency
of cleavage at Arg271 is strongly influenced by the state
of cleavage at Arg320, such that it increases by about an
order of magnitude if the bond at Arg320 is cleaved. In the
presence of factor Va, the catalytic efficiency of cleavage at
Arg271 is nearly identical to that at Arg320
once cleavage at Arg320 has occurred. This has also been
inferred by Krishnaswamy et al. (21).
Factor Va enhances the catalytic efficiency of prothrombin activation
by a factor of 39,700 compared with that obtained with factor Xa, PCPS,
and Ca2+ only. This effect is not expressed equivalently
for the two bond cleavages. The magnitude of the effect on cleavage at
Arg320 ranges from 20,600- to 27,200-fold, depending on
whether rMZ-II or F1.2:Pre2, respectively, is the substrate. In
contrast, the magnitude of the effect on cleavage at Arg271
ranges from only 34- to 453-fold, depending on whether meizothrombin or
rP2-II, respectively, is the substrate. Taking F1.2:Pre2 and meizothrombin as the natural substrates for prothrombinase, the best
estimates for the enhancement of catalytic efficiencies by factor Va
are 27,000-fold for cleavage at Arg320 and 34-fold at
Arg271.
Prothrombin interacts with prothrombinase at exosites that are separate
from the active site of factor Xa. These exosites may mediate substrate
recognition and/or cleavage (37-41). In addition, x-ray
crystallographic studies of prethrombin-2 indicate that the residues
preceding the Arg320-Ile321 bond require
extensive rearrangement to be successfully docked into the active site
of factor Xa (26). Such features are not observed for the identical
residues preceding the Arg274-Thr275 bond in
bovine meizothrombin-des-F1 (25). If incorporation of factor Va
into the prothrombinase complex is necessary to reorder the residues
preceding Arg320 in human prothrombin, perhaps factor Va
disproportionately enhances cleavage at Arg320, ultimately
shifting the equilibrium toward the meizothrombin pathway.
 |
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
We thank Reg Manuel and Angela Ward for
excellent technical assistance with mammalian tissue culture and human
protein purification and Tom Abbott for assistance with computing and graphics.
 |
FOOTNOTES |
*
This work was supported by Canadian Institutes of Health
Research Grant MA-9781 and by United States Public Health Service Grant
HL-46703-6 from the National Institutes of Health.The costs of publication of this
article were defrayed in part by the
payment of page charges. The article
must therefore be hereby marked
"advertisement" in
accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section
1734 solely to indicate this fact.
¶
To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of
Biochemistry, Queen's University, Botterell Hall, Rm. A212, Stuart
St., Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada. Tel.: 613-533-2957; Fax:
613-533-2987; E-mail: nesheimm@post.queensu.ca.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, December 20, 2002, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M206413200
 |
ABBREVIATIONS |
The abbreviations used are:
F1.2:Pre2, fragment
1.2:prethrombin-2;
WT-II, wild-type prothrombin;
rMZ-II, R155A/R284A/R271A prothrombin;
rP2-II, R155A/R284A/R320A prothrombin;
WT-II-F*, S525C prothrombin labeled with fluorescein;
rMZ-II-F*, R155A/R284A/R271A/S525C prothrombin labeled with fluorescein;
DAPA, dansylarginine-N-(3-ethyl-1,5-pentanediyl)amide;
PCPS, 75:25 phosphatidylcholine/phosphatidylserine unilamellar
vesicles.
 |
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