From the Departments of Molecular Genetics,
¶ Biochemistry, and §§ Pathology,
University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390,
Klinische Genetik von Herz Kreislauferkrankungen,
Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine (MDC), D-13122
Berlin-Buch, Germany, the ** Institut für
Anästhesiologie und Operative Intensivmedizin,
Universitätsklinikum D-68131 Mannheim, Germany, and the
Department of Veterinary and Comparative
Anatomy, Pharmacology, and Physiology, Washington State University,
Pullman, Washington 99164
Received for publication, November 18, 2002, and in revised form, November 27, 2002
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ABSTRACT |
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Titin is a giant protein responsible for muscle
elasticity and provides a scaffold for several sarcomeric proteins,
including the novel titin-binding protein MURF-1, which binds near the
titin M-line region. Another unique feature of titin is the presence of
a serine/threonine kinase-like domain at the edge of the M-line region
of the sarcomere, for which no physiological catalytic function has yet
been shown. To investigate the role(s) of the titin M-line segment, we
have conditionally deleted the exons MEx1 and MEx2 (encoding the kinase
domain plus flanking sequences) at different stages of embryonic
development. Our data demonstrate an important role for MEx1 and MEx2
in early cardiac development (embryonic lethality) as well as
postnatally when disruption of M-line titin leads to muscle weakness
and death at ~5 weeks of age. Myopathic changes include pale M-lines
devoid of MURF-1, and gradual sarcomeric disassembly. The animal model
presented here indicates a critical role for the M-line region of titin in maintaining the structural integrity of the sarcomere.
Titin is the third myofilament of vertebrate striated muscles and
spans the half-sarcomere by integrating into the Z-disc and M-line
through its amino and carboxyl terminus, respectively (1-6). Titin
consists of subdomains that perform distinct functions (7, 8). Close to
its carboxyl-terminal M-line region, titin contains a kinase domain
that shares homology with the catalytic serine/threonine kinase domain
of smooth muscle myosin light chain kinase
(MLCK),1 and the invertebrate
muscle proteins twitchin, projectin, and stretchin-MLCK and Ce
titin (9-14). Although a variety of different functions have been
hypothesized for the titin kinase domain, its physiological
substrate(s) remain unknown. Based on its crystal structure, Mayans
et al. proposed that the titin kinase is under strong
autoinhibitory control with a dual activation mechanism that controls
kinase activity (15). In vitro phosphorylation experiments
using a constitutively active kinase fragment suggested that the titin
kinase domain phosphorylates the sarcomeric protein telethonin/T-cap, a
Z-line-associated protein. More recently, Centner et al.
searched for proteins that specifically interact with the titin kinase
region to identify potential titin kinase substrate or regulator
molecules (16). This demonstrated that the novel RING finger protein
MURF-1 binds to the A168/A169 Fn3/Ig repeats of titin, which locate
amino-terminal to the titin kinase domain at the periphery of the
M-line lattice. MURF-1 together with its close homologues MURF-2 and
MURF-3 form a distinct subgroup of the known RING finger proteins that
has been implicated in the control of muscle degeneration, microtubule
stabilization, M-line function, and transcriptional regulation (17,
18). Within the MURF family, only MURF-1 interacts with the A168/A169 Fn3/Ig repeats of titin, and it has been suggested that MURF-1 may participate in the regulation of titin kinase activity (16).
Recently, titin has been identified as the gene mutated in an autosomal
dominant form of dilated cardiomyopathy (19, 20). The mutation results
in a truncated titin, and patients that express the truncated protein
suffer from heart failure of variable age of onset in the absence of
clinically detectable skeletal muscle disease. In contrast, mutations
within the carboxyl-terminal region of titin cause the distal type
skeletal muscular dystrophy TMD without affecting the heart (21).
Because these mutations occur in a constitutively expressed region of
titin it is unclear why some of these mutations cause a disease
specific to the heart muscle, whereas other mutations cause a
skeletal-muscle-specific myopathy.
To investigate the physiological function(s) of the titin kinase
domain, we have used a conditional knockout approach to selectively delete the M-line exons MEx1 (which encodes the kinase domain) and MEx2
(to maintain the reading frame) in heart and skeletal muscle. When
exons MEx1/MEx2 are excised early in embryonic development (using the
Targeted Deletion of the Titin Kinase Domain and M-line
Titin--
A targeting construct was assembled by standard procedures
from a mouse genomic BAC clone (bacterial artificial chromosome library
MGS1 from mouse ES cells; Genome Systems/Incyte Genomics) spanning the
3' region of the mouse titin gene (Fig. 1a). To preserve the
open reading frame we flanked exon MEx1, which contains the kinase
domain, and the neighboring downstream exon MEx2 with loxP sites.
Briefly, a PCR-based strategy was used to introduce a neomycin expression cassette flanked by loxP- and FRT-sites into the intron 3'
of exon MEx2 (for nomenclature of M-line titin exons see Ref. 22). An
additional loxP site was placed in the intron 5' of MEx1. The targeting
vector was verified by sequencing.
Homologous recombination with this targeting vector occurred in 10% of
all G418-resistant ES cell colonies. ~30% of the clones also
contained the loxP site 5' to MEx1. These clones were used to derive
chimeric animals as described previously (23). The intronic
neomycin cassette has the potential to affect the phenotype of
knockout animals (24). Therefore, we mated heterozygous animals that
contained the altered titin locus to transgenic mice that expressed the
Flp recombinase in their germline (25). Offspring from this mating in
which the neomycin cassette had been removed by Flp-mediated excision
was used to generate a colony of homozygous mice that only contained
the loxP sequences in the two introns flanking MEx1 and MEx2 and one
residual FRT site in the 3' intron (Fig. 1a).
Genotyping (PCR and Southern Blotting)--
Genomic DNA from
embryonic and postnatal mouse tails or yolk sacs was genotyped as
described (Fig. 1 and Refs. 26, 27). Primers were designed to detect
homologous recombination, presence of the 5' loxP site, and Flp- and
Cre-mediated recombination (Fig. 1a). For Southern
genotyping, genomic DNA was digested with HindIII and probed
with a SmaI fragment 3' of Exon MEx2 (Fig. 1, a
and b) according to standard procedures (26).
Animal Procedures (Breeding and Maintenance)--
Timed matings
and harvesting of embryos were performed as follows: female mice were
superovulated using 10 IU intraperitoneal pregnant mare's serum
(Sigma), followed 48 h later by 10 IU intraperitoneal human
chorionic gonadotropin (Sigma) and mating to corresponding males. The
morning of detection of a vaginal plug was regarded as day 0.5 postconception. Embryos and resorbtion bodies were harvested at E15.
Transgenic mice were generously provided by Susan Dymecki (Flp deleter)
(25), Jun-Ichi Miyazaki (CAGcre) (28), Michael Schneider (MHCcre) (29),
and Ronald Kahn (MCKcre) (30). ROSA-26 In Situ Hybridization--
Templates to generate in
situ hybridization probes were amplified from genomic DNA and
included the kinase region (kin) and the exon MEx5 3' of the kinase
domain, respectively. PCR fragments were subcloned using the TA cloning
kit (Invitrogen), sequenced, linearized with HindIII (kin)
or BamHI (MEx5), and transcribed with T7 polymerase using
the Ambion in vitro transcription kit (Ambion, Austin, TX).
Embryos and adult hearts were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde and 5-µm
paraffin sections were used for in situ hybridization as
described previously (31).
Immunoelectron Microscopy--
Skinned heart muscle strips were
stretched, fixed, immunolabeled with an antibody directed against the
titin M-line region (see immunoblot analysis, Ref. 16) or against the
main immunogenic region of titin (32), embedded, and processed for
immunoelectron microscopy as described previously (33).
PAGE and Immunoblot Analysis--
Cells and tissues designated
for protein preparation were snap-frozen, pulverized, and quickly
solubilized with 9 volumes of hot 1.1× solubilization buffer (50 mM Tris-Cl, 2% SDS, 10% glycerol, 80 mM
dithiothreitol, 30 µg/ml pyronin Y, pH 6.8 at 25 °C) (34). Titin
protein gels and Western blots were performed and analyzed as described
(35) using rabbit polyclonal antibodies specific to Z1/Z2, A169/A170
(MEx1), M7/M8/M9 (MEx3 + 4) (32), CARP, and ankrd2 (36, 40).
Generation and Characterization of Titin Kinase-deficient
Mice--
To allow conditional tissue-specific excision of the titin
kinase region we have used homologous recombination in ES cells to
introduce loxP and FRT recombination sites into introns flanking the
kinase (Fig. 1a). To maintain
an uninterrupted open reading frame, exon MEx1, which encodes the
kinase domain, and the neighboring downstream exon MEx2 were both
designated to be deleted. Introduction of loxP sites into the gene did
not interfere with normal mRNA transcription and had no discernable
phenotypic effect in mice that were homozygous for the floxed allele.
The targeting frequency was 1:10 with one-third of the targeting events
including the lox site 3' of MEx1 (data not shown). Chimeric mice
derived from targeted ES cells were mated to Flp transgenic mice to
remove the intronic neomycin expression cassette and to avoid any
potential adverse physiological effects (24). Offspring in which the
neomycin cassette had been deleted was used to derive a colony of
homozygous mice (RECf+/+) that only contained the loxP sequences in the
two introns flanking MEx1 and MEx2 and one residual FRT site in the 3'
intron (Fig. 1a). These animals showed no morphological or functional abnormalities and were indistinguishable from genetically similar wild type controls. Genotyping and PCR analysis of Cre/loxP and
Flp/FRT recombination was performed as shown in Fig. 1,
b-e. Both recombination with the FLP recombinase (Fig.
1d) as well as with the Cre recombinase (Fig. 1e)
worked well. The efficiency of recombination in the germline through
the Flp/FRT recombination has been reported to be incomplete (25). In
our animals ~40% of male germ cells were recombined as judged from
germline transmission, i.e. 40% of all transmitted floxed
titin alleles were recombined. Additionally, the integration of the lox
site does not interfere with titin gene function since heterozygous
matings lead to offspring at the expected Mendelian ratios
(wild-type:heterozygote:knockout = 14:30:16 and Fig.
1c). Both heterozygous and homozygous animals with and
without the neomycin cassette were phenotypically normal.
To remove the titin kinase domain from striated muscle, we obtained
Cre transgenic animals that direct recombination to heart and skeletal
muscle (29, 30). Expression of the Cre recombinase under control of the
The Cardiac Titin Kinase Domain Is Essential for Embryonic
Development--
Deletion of the kinase domain from cardiac titin
during development (by the MHCcre transgene) led to early embryonic
lethality. Resorbtion bodies from knockout animals were isolated at
embryonic day 15 (Fig. 3a). No
homozygous offspring was obtained, indicating a critical role for titin
in heart development.
A Syndrome of Severe Muscular Weakness in the Titin
Kinase-deficient Knockout Animals--
In contrast to the MHCcre
animals expressing the Cre recombinase from the early stages during
development, the skeletal muscle-specific MCKcre transgene allowed
generation of live-born mice that expressed the recombinase and that
were homozygous for the floxed allele at the expected Mendelian ratios
(data not shown). These animals, in which deletion of the titin kinase
domain in skeletal muscle was virtually quantitative (see below),
developed a severe syndrome characterized by progressive muscle
weakness, which affected their posture and gait and caused ptosis of
the eyelids (movie available at titin.mdc-berlin.de/titinmovie.html;
Fig. 3b). Failure to thrive was usually apparent at 3 weeks
of age, with progression of the phenotype until death at ~5 weeks of
age (Fig. 3d). During autopsies, the heart of titin
kinase-deficient animals appeared small but in proportion when compared
with body size (results not shown). Light microscopy did not show
evidence for necrosis or myositis (Fig.
4a).
To verify that this phenotype was due to the selective loss of the
targeted titin M-line segment and not caused by aberrant splicing of
the transcript, which might introduce additional defects in the
carboxyl-terminal end of the molecule, we confirmed by in
situ hybridization that exons 3' of the deleted kinase region were
transcribed at normal levels (Fig. 4b). Furthermore, reverse transcribed-PCR across the new splice junction confirmed removal of
MEx1/MEx2 and maintenance of the open reading frame when joining A170
to MEx3 (data not shown). In situ hybridization demonstrated that by 4 weeks of age, wild-type titin message was found in only a few
isolated fibers (Fig. 4b, panel F), whereas
mutant titin protein had almost completely replaced full-length titin
in heart muscle (Fig. 5, b and
c). Western blots with MEx1- and MEx3/MEx4-specific antibodies and quantification by densitometry demonstrated that >80%
of the expressed titin was deficient in its kinase region. The presence
of the carboxyl terminus in the recombined titin protein was confirmed
by Western blotting with antibodies directed against the kinase domain
or against epitopes located at the amino- and carboxyl terminus of
titin (Fig. 5, a and d).
Structural Analysis of Sarcomeres with Mutant Titins--
Electron
microscopy of RECf+/+ control animals revealed normal sarcomeres with
well resolved M-line bridges (see arrow in Fig.
6a, panel A).
Myocytes of 4-week-old KO animals (MCKcre RECf+/+) contained regions
with sarcomeres with relatively normal structure (>50% of the area of
the cells) as well as irregular regions with sarcomeres in various
stages of disarray. Sarcomeres of KO animals had typically widened and
pale M-lines that were devoid of M-line bridges (arrows in
Fig. 6a, panels B and C). When
sarcomeres were labeled with anti-M7-M9 (MEx3/MEx4) M-line epitopes
were obtained that were ~100 nm apart in control animals (Fig.
6b, panel A), but in the KO animals this distance
had significantly increased (Fig. 6b, panel B,
and 6c). Interestingly, the epitope separation appeared to
correlate with the degree of disassembly of the sarcomere (see Fig.
6c, myofibril with ends labeled with arrows). We
also used an antibody against MURF-1 and found M-line labeling in
control animals (Fig. 6d, panel A) but absence of
M-line labeling in KO animals (Fig. 6d, panel B).
Because in vitro studies have shown that MURF-1 binds to the
A169/A170 domains that are encoded by MEx1 (16), absence of MURF-1
supports the notion that MEx1 has been excised from sarcomeres in KO
animals, whereas labeling with M7-M9 indicates that the titin carboxyl
terminus is present.
Rationale for the Animal Model--
Impaired titin function most
likely cannot be substituted by another gene, since no other gene
coding for a protein of similar size and complexity is known.
Therefore, we expected that mice after conventional gene targeting of
the titin locus would die during early embryonic development,
precluding studies of the role of titin in muscle. Accordingly we
introduced an intragenic deletion in a specific region of titin using a
conditional gene-targeting strategy. We anticipated that the deletion
of the MEx1 exon might provide insights into structural and regulatory
roles of titin because MEx1 codes for the 200-kDa M-line portion of
titin, which is highly conserved between species and contains a
serine/threonine kinase domain and a binding site for the RING finger
protein MURF-1.
We addressed the biological roles of the titin kinase in the heart and
in skeletal muscle at different stages of embryonic and postnatal
development by using transgenic animals that express Cre recombinase
under control of the well characterized muscle-specific promoters
Functional Implications of the Titin Truncation--
The expected
mutant titin transcripts were detected by reverse transcribed-PCR in
which the exons 357 (coding for A167/A168 located in the periphery of
the M-line) and exon 360 (MEx3 coding for M8) were joined in-frame.
Thus, at the protein level a 214-kDa segment coding for most of the
M-line portion of titin was deleted, including the binding site for the
RING finger protein MURF-1 and the serine-threonine kinase domain of
titin. Consistent with this, when analyzing the myofibrillar proteins
on low percentage protein gels, titin from the mutant mice showed an
increased mobility on SDS gels. The levels of myofibrillar titin in the
mutant and wild-type mice were comparable (Fig. 5b).
Therefore, the mutant titin transcribed from the exon 358/359-deficient
gene locus is correctly spliced, translated, and incorporated into
myofibrils. The strategy applied here for the removal of the titin
exons 358/359 is applicable for the deletion of other regions of
interest in titin, while keeping the remainder of this giant molecule intact.
The most obvious phenotype of our mice is their progressive muscle
wasting, leading to a pronounced weakness, apparent for example by
ptosis of both eyes (Fig. 3b), inability to climb, and
progressively impaired gait (compare at
titin.mdc-berlin.de/titinmovie.html). Muscle weakness is evident at
2-3 weeks of age, before the mutant mice become dystrophic at around 4 weeks of age. This suggests that the muscle weakness it not a secondary
effect of e.g. reduced cardiac output.
The sarcomeres containing mutant titin appeared to be unstable (Fig.
6). Within the same region of the myocyte, sarcomeric structure varied
from relatively normal sarcomeres with pale M-lines devoid of M-bridges
(Fig. 6b, panel B) to nearly fully disassembled sarcomeres (Fig. 6c, left). Interestingly, the
C-terminal M7-M9 antibody labels two epitopes in the center of the
A-band, separated by ~100 nm in the control but up to ~200 nm in
the KO animals (Fig. 6c). The separation in control
sarcomeres is consistent with a model in which titins from opposite
half-sarcomeres overlap by ~100 mm within M-lines (39). The reduced
size of mutant titin (~200 kDa) suggests that titin molecules do not
overlap, but instead stop short of the center of the A-band. Absence of
titin from the center of the A-band, a region of the sarcomere under
high systolic stress, is likely to compromise the mechanical strength of the sarcomere, and this may contribute to sarcomeric disassembly.
Changes in Muscle-specific Gene Expression in Kinase-deficient
Animals--
Our mouse model will allow future studies on the
physiological role(s) of the titin kinase domain and its potential
in vivo substrate(s). Interestingly, the potential candidate
substrates for the titin kinase, Tcap/telethonin and MURF-1 (15, 16), were not significantly affected in our animal model as verified both by
TaqMan and Western blot analysis (data not shown). In contrast,
transcripts for CARP (CARP-1) and its homolog ankrd2 (CARP-2) were both
significantly up-regulated, and Western blotting with specific
antibodies confirmed elevated CARP/ankrd2 protein levels in the titin
kinase-deficient mice (Fig. 5e). CARP epitopes have been
shown to co-localize with N2A titin and myopalladin epitopes during
myofibrillar stretch, which suggests that titin, CARP, and myopalladin
form an I-band-associated signaling complex (36). ankrd2 (CARP-2) in
turn has been shown to increase in expression upon chronic myofibrillar
stretch (40). Our present finding that both CARP and ankrd2 are
up-regulated in titin kinase-deficient mice raises the possibility that
CARP and titin-dependent signal pathways could be
connected. Since titin-based signaling is likely to respond to
myofibrillar stretch (8) and CARP-based signaling to modulate
NKX2.5-dependent muscle gene expression (41), we speculate
that the titin-dependent signaling involves CARPs,
coordinating myofibribrillar stretch with the regulation of muscle gene expression.
In summary, we used a conditional gene targeting strategy as a novel
approach toward functional characterization of the titin M-line region
(MEx1-2). Excision of MEx1-2 from cardiac titin during development
(by the MHCcre transgene) leads to absence of homozygous offspring.
This indicates a critical role for MEx1-2 in heart development. This
is consistent with the report by Gerull et al. who found
patients with heterozygous titin defects, but no homozygous carriers,
in pedigrees of familial cardiomyopathy (20). In addition the titin
M-line region is likely to play a critical role in maintaining the
structural integrity of the sarcomere and myofibrillar signaling
following birth (excision by the MCKcre transgene) when skeletal muscle
are load-bearing and the heart is actively pumping blood, continuously
stressing the M-line region of the sarcomere. The conditional knockout
technology used in this work appears to be well suited for
investigating selected regions of the giant titin molecule both during
development and in mature muscle tissues. This approach can also be
applied to those regions of titin that cause
titin-dependent familial myopathies in humans.
INTRODUCTION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-MHC promoter) mice die in utero. In contrast, excision during late embryonic development (using the MCK promoter) allows the
mice to survive but causes development of a progressive myopathy, resulting in death at 5 weeks of age. Ultrastructural analysis indicates that sarcomeres incorporate the mutant titins but
subsequently disassemble. Gene expression profiling data suggest that a
family of molecules involved in myocyte signaling become dysregulated after deletion of MEx1/MEx2, including members of the ankyrin repeat
family. This raises the possibility that MEx1/MEx2 are involved in
myofibrillar signaling and in maintaining the structural integrity of
the contracting sarcomere.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-galactosidase reporter mice
were obtained from the Jackson Laboratories (www.jax.org). All
animal experiments were carried out under protocols approved by the
University of Texas Southwestern Institutional Review Committee for
animal use and followed the National Institutes of Health guidelines,
"Using Animals in Intramural Research."
-Galactosidase Staining--
Cryosections (25 µm) of
3%-paraformaldehyde-fixed tissue were stained with X-gal and
counterstained with eosin using the "Stain for
-Galactosidase Expression" (Speciality Media
(www.specialitymedia.com)) according to the manufacturer's instructions.
RESULTS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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Fig. 1.
Generation of tissue-specific knockout
mice. Analysis was done on tail DNA. a, protein structure of the
region designated for excision and outline of the targeting vector
including restriction sites used for linearization and genotyping
(HindIII, H; NotI, N).
Exons are indicated in white, 357-363 above refers to the
numbers of the titin exons in the human gene sequence (42); the probe
for Southern blot as a black box, the neomycin cassette is
depicted in gray. LoxP and FRT sites are represented by
filled and empty triangles, respectively. The
binding sites for MURF-1 and p94 are indicated with filled
arrows. Different mutant alleles after targeting and successive
recombination with the Cre and Flp recombinase are shown.
Immunoglobulin domain, ig; fibronectin 3 domain,
fn3. The location of primers used in genotyping is indicated
on the targeted allele. b, Southern blot analysis of titin
knockout animals after digestion with HindIII. T
is the fragment produced by the targeted allele, WT by the
wild-type allele. c, PCR genotyping of a litter derived from
heterozygous parents containing the targeted allele (T)
using primers PL1 and PL2. d, PCR-based verification of
Flp/FRT recombination. Offspring from a Flp transgenic father and a
heterozygous-targeted titin mouse (T+/ ). wt, wild-type
animal; WT, wild-type allele; RECf (primers PL3
and PL4), Flp-recombined allele. e, PCR-based verification
of Cre/loxP recombination. Offspring from a Cre deleter mouse (CAGcre)
mated with homozygous floxed titin mice. CRE, PCR product
corresponding to the Cre transgene; REC (primers PL1 and
PL4), recombined titin fragment.
-myosin heavy chain promoter (MHCcre) resulted in recombination of
the ROSA26-lacZ reporter construct in heart and large arteries of the
lung (Fig. 2, a-e). Cre
expression under control of the muscle creatine kinase promoter
(MCKcre) caused recombination in all striated muscle including the
heart and in smooth muscle cells in large arteries (Fig. 2,
f-j). The more uniform staining in MHCcre-
versus MCKcre-expressing hearts (Fig. 2, a and
f) reflects higher efficiency of recombination.
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Fig. 2.
Tissue-specific recombination by
-myosin heavy chain promoter-driven Cre (MHCcre)
versus muscle creatine kinase-driven Cre
(MCKcre). All animals analyzed were 4 weeks of age, contain one
allele of the rosa26-
gal reporter, and are stained with X-gal and
counter-stained with eosin. a-e, MHCcre-mediated
recombination is restricted to the heart and the large vessels in the
lung. f-j, recombination through the MCKcre transgene is
specific for striated and smooth muscle cells. The intensity of
staining in the MCKcre heart (f) is less than that in MHCcre
hearts (a), which we interpret as higher cumulative
recombination with earlier onset in the MHCcre mice. k-o,
staining of corresponding tissues in control animals only transgenic
for the reporter construct.
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Fig. 3.
Phenotypes of the heart and striated
muscle-specific titin kinase knockout mice. a, litter
of embryos at E15 with two resorbtion bodies out of 10 offspring from a
MHCcre+ RECf+/ x RECf+/+ mating. b, at 4 weeks, the
striated muscle-specific knockout mouse (right) is smaller
than its littermate (left), does not groom, and cannot open
its eyes. c, PCR genotyping of animals shown in
a. The resorbtion bodies (8 and 9) contain the Cre transgene
(Cre) and are homozygous for the RECf allele. C,
wild-type control. d, weight curve of the striated
muscle-specific knockout animals. Wild-type (MCKcre
,
n = 9) and heterozygous animals (MCKcre+ RECf+/
,
n = 3) show normal weight gain, while knockout animals
(MCKcre+ RECf+/+, n = 5) fail to thrive and deteriorate
at 4 weeks of age.
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Fig. 4.
Histological comparison of MCKcre
RECf+/+ knockout mice. a, light microscopy of
hematoxylin- and eosin-stained cardiac sections reveals reduced
ventricular size in knockout animals but no apparent pathology.
b, in situ hybridization confirms that the titin
kinase domain message is reduced in cardiac ventricle. While exon MEx5,
located 3' of the kinase domain, is expressed at similar levels in
wild-type and knockout animals (panels C and D;
G and H at higher magnification), the mRNA
level for the exon encoding the kinase domain is significantly reduced
in kinase knockout mice (panel A compared with B;
G and F at higher magnification). Higher
magnification reveals that individual nuclei still express titin
mRNA containing the kinase region (panel F).
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Fig. 5.
Characterization of the truncated
titin protein and up-regulation of CARP expression. a,
location of the epitopes recognized by the anti-titin antibodies used
for Western blotting. Below the protein domain structure, Z-disc and
M-line domains are magnified to show antibody binding sites
(Y) as well as binding sites for MURF-1, myomesin, and
calpain 3 (C3). b, SDS-PAGE analysis of
myocardium reveals that in knockout animals (KO) titin has a
higher mobility than in littermate controls (C), consistent
with quantitative excision of the titin kinase domain. c,
magnification of the upper region of the gel shown in b.
Note that there is no visual difference in the total amount of titin
protein in KO compared with C. d, Western blot analysis of
titin knockout (KO) and littermate control (C)
animals with antibodies directed against epitopes amino-terminal,
carboxyl-terminal, and within the kinase domain. The titin kinase
domain is removed in knockout animals, while the carboxyl-terminal
M-line region is still produced. Densitometry reveals that the titin
kinase region is reduced in the knockout heart by a factor of 5.5 compared with the carboxyl-terminal region M7-M9. India ink stain,
Ink; Z-line titin, Z1-Z2; titin kinase domain,
kinase; M-line titin, M7-M9. e,
Western blot analysis of titin knockout (KO) and littermate
control animals (C) animals demonstrates the up-regulation of CARP and
ankrd2 in knockout animals, consistent with their regulation on
transcription level (data not shown).
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Fig. 6.
Ultrastructural analysis of control and
mutant cardiac sarcomeres. a, electron micrographs of
unlabeled myocytes. Panel A, control sarcomeres with A-bands
that contain M-line bridges (arrow). Panels B and
C, mutant sarcomeres with wide and pale-staining M-lines
devoid of M-bridges. Note in panels B and C
sarcomeres in disarray at the bottom of micrograph. b and
c, immunoelectron micrographs of myocytes labeled with M7-M9
antibody (for location of epitope see Fig. 5a).
b, panel A, control sarcomeres reveal M-line
labeling with epitopes ~100 nm apart. b, panel
B, and c, KO sarcomeres reveal two M-line epitopes
separated by ~140 nm in b and ~130-200 nm in c (see
numbers on micrographs). Myofibril in c with ends labeled
with arrows contains sarcomeres with epitope separation that
gradually increases from right to left (see
numbers) and structural disarray that increases in the same direction.
d, immunolabeling with anti MURF-1 antibody (see Fig.
5a for titin-binding site). The knockout sample was
co-stained with MIR antibody as a positive control (not used in
A), which labels the edge of the A-band. Note that Murf-1
labeling of the M-line is only seen in the control.
DISCUSSION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-MHC and MCK. These transgenic animals used to derive the MEx1-2
knockouts have been described by others (29, 30) but have not been
compared side by side. We confirmed their tissue distribution (Fig. 2)
with more generalized muscular expression of the MCK promoter. In rat,
expression of MCK begins at embryonic day 17, rises to 40% of maximum
activity by birth, and plateaus at day 10 of life (37). We hypothesized
that the delayed activity of the MCKcre system may allow homozygous
mice to survive through early postnatal stages, whereas Cre expression
driven by the
-MHC promoter may lead to early developmental
recombination with potential embryonic and perinatal effects (38).
These expectations were supported by the stronger
-galactosidase
staining in
-MHCcre hearts versus hearts from MCKcre
animals (Fig. 2, a and f) and by the early
embryonic lethality of the
-MHCcre RECf+/+ mice.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We gratefully appreciate the excellent technical assistance of Wen-Ling Niu, Matthew Nevitt, John Shelton, Jeff Stark, Nick King, Jennifer Eldridge, Sonja Kirsten LaPaglia, Jennifer Wellington, and LaMetria Blair and the generation of critical reagents by Dietmar Labeit. M. G. is particularly indebted to Dr. Michael Strauss (deceased) for the hospitality, support, and encouragement during the early phases of this study and to Jim Stull for critical reading of the manuscript and suggestions.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported by grants from the Human Frontiers Science Program (to J. H. and S. L.), the Keck Foundation, the Alzheimer Association, the Perot Family Foundation, and National Institutes of Health (to M. G., H. G., and J. H.), the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (to M. G. and S. L.), and the Sofja-Kovalevskaya (to M. G.) and Wolfgang-Paul (to J. H.) programs of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
§ Present address and to whom correspondence should be sent: Dept. of Veterinary and Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology, and Physiology, Washington State University, Wegner Hall, Rm. 205, Pullman, WA 99164-6520. Tel.: 509-335-7784; Fax: 509-335-4650; E-mail: Gotthard@vetmed.wsu.edu.
¶¶ Established investigator of the American Heart Association.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, December 2, 2002, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M211723200
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ABBREVIATIONS |
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The abbreviations used are: MLCK, myosin light chain kinase; MURF, muscle-specific ring finger; MHC, myosin heavy chain; ES, embryonic stem; FRT, flp recombinase target; KO, knockout; MCK, muscle creatine kinase; CARP, cardiac ankyrin repeat protein; ankrd, ankyrin repeat domain.
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