From the Department of Biochemistry, The Cancer
Institute of the Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research (JFCR), Tokyo
170-8455, Japan, the § First Department of Internal
Medicine, Gunma University School of Medicine, Maebashi 371-8511, Japan, ¶ PharmaDesign Inc., Tokyo 104-0032, Japan, and the
Department of Molecular Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine,
University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
Received for publication, October 28, 2002, and in revised form, November 7, 2002
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ABSTRACT |
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c-Ski and SnoN are transcriptional co-repressors
that inhibit transforming growth factor- Cytokines of the transforming growth factor- Transcription of target genes by TGF- R-Smads and Co-Smads are composed of the N-terminal MH1 domains, linker
regions, and the C-terminal MH2 domains. Among the various regions of
Smads, the MH2 domains play important roles in binding to type I
receptors, formation of Smad oligomers, and interaction with
DNA-binding proteins (13). Upon ligand stimulation, R-Smads and
Co-Smads may form heterotrimers or heterodimers through their MH2
domains, although their exact oligomeric structures have not been fully
determined (14-16). Smads interact with various transcription factors
and transcriptional co-activators/co-repressors through the MH2
domains. Among them, Mixer and FoxH3 (originally termed FAST1) have
been shown to bind to Among mammalian Smad proteins, Smad2, Smad3, and Smad4 interact with
c-Ski, but Smad1 or Smad5 does so only weakly (6). In the present
study, we have shown that the SE and QPSMT parts in the MH2 domain of
Smad3 interact with c-Ski and SnoN. SE and QPSMT are located on the
N-terminal upper side of the toroidal structure of the MH2 oligomer,
toward which the MH1 domain and the linker region face. Since
Smurf2 binds to the linker region of Smad2, it may be located in
the vicinity of SnoN. Amino acid sequences similar to SE and QPSMT are
found in Smad2, but not in Smad1 or Smad4. Thus, these sequences may be
responsible for specific interaction of Smad2/3 with c-Ski and SnoN.
Plasmid Construction--
The constructions of HA-tagged
constitutively active forms of human BMP type IB and TGF- DNA Transfection, Immunoprecipitation, and
Immunoblotting--
COS7 cells and 293T cells were cultured in
Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium containing 10% fetal bovine serum
and antibiotics and were transiently transfected using FuGENE6 (Roche
Diagnostics). Amounts of transfected DNAs were adjusted to 2.0 µg for
each sample. Immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting were performed as
described (21). For inhibition of proteasomal degradation, cells were incubated with 2.5 µM of lactacystin (Calbiochem) for
24 h.
Molecular Modeling of the Smad3 MH2 Oligomer--
Sequences of
MH2 domains of human Smad3 and Smad2 were aligned using ClustalW (25),
and comparative modeling of the Smad3 MH2 domain monomer was performed
by program MODELLER (26) using coordinates of phosphorylated form of
the Smad2 MH2 domain (Protein Data Bank code 1khx) as a template. The
modeled monomer was tripled and superposed onto subunits A, B, and C of
the crystal structure of the oligomeric Smad1 MH2 domain (Protein Data
Bank code 1khu) to make root mean square deviation of the C Role of a Region of the Smad3 MH2 in Interaction with
c-Ski--
Smad2 and Smad3 interact with c-Ski, but Smad1 does so only
weakly (Ref. 6 and see below). The MH2 domain of Smad3 has been shown
to be the major binding site to c-Ski (6, 7). To determine the binding
site of the MH2 domain of Smad3 to c-Ski in more detail, we divided the
MH2 domain of Smad3 into four parts (termed 2a through 2d regions in
the present study) and generated chimeric Smad1/Smad3 molecules (Fig.
1, A and B). The 2d
region contains the L3 loop, which is important for the interaction of Smads with type I receptors (27). The 2c region includes H2, which is
important for interaction with Mixer (17, 18) and FoxH3 (19).
We characterized Smad1 chimeras containing the MH2 domains, parts of
which were sequentially replaced by corresponding regions of Smad3 from
the C terminus (Fig. 1A). Immunoprecipitation of the Smad1
chimeras followed by immunoblotting of c-Ski revealed that the chimeras
containing the 2b region of Smad3, i.e. 1-1-3 and 1-1-1333, interacted with c-Ski, and that this interaction was increased more in
the presence than in the absence of constitutively active TGF- SE Is Responsible for Differential Binding of Smad1 and Smad3 to
c-Ski--
Comparison of the amino acid sequences of the 2b region of
Smad1 and Smad3 (Fig. 1B) showed that two parts in this
region are more varied than other parts between Smad1 and Smad3. The "SE" sequence of Smad3 and its corresponding part of Smad1 (NKN) are almost opposite to each other in its electrostatic properties. The
"AAVEL" sequence of Smad3 and its corresponding part of Smad1 (STIEN) are different from each other in its hydrophobic properties. To
identify locations of these two parts in the three-dimensional structure of monomer and trimer forms of Smads, we explored the crystal
structure of the Smad1 MH2 domain (15) and homology-modeled Smad3
structure based on the crystal structure of the Smad2 MH2 domain (16).
Interestingly, SE and AAVEL are distantly located, facing the
N-terminal upper and bottom sides of the toroidal structure of MH2
domain trimer, respectively (Fig. 1, C and
D).
We therefore generated Smad1 and Smad3 mutants in which the SE or AAVEL
parts were replaced by the corresponding parts of the other Smads. As
shown in Fig. 1E, Smad1(AA), the "STIEN" to AAVEL mutant of Smad1, did not interact with c-Ski. In contrast, Smad1(SE), the "NKN" to SE mutant of Smad1, interacted with c-Ski as efficiently as the Smad chimera 1-1-1311. Our results thus suggest
that only two amino acid residues of Smad3 is crucial for interaction
of Smad3 with c-Ski. However, Smad3(NK), the SE to NKN mutant of Smad3,
still bound to c-Ski (data not shown), suggesting that other parts of
Smad3 may also participate in the interaction with c-Ski.
QPSMT Is Located Close to SE--
We next inspected sequence
alignment and three-dimensional structures of the Smad1 and Smad3 MH2
domains. We identified the QPSMT sequence, which is present in the 2a
region in the Smad3 MH2 domain and is highly varied from the
corresponding part of Smad1 (Fig.
2A, upper panel).
QPSMT and SE are located apart from each other in the primary
structure, but positioned in the close vicinity on the N-terminal upper
surface of the MH2 trimer toroid (Fig. 2A, lower
panels).
We constructed mutants of Smad1 and Smad3 in which the QPSMT part was
replaced by the corresponding part of the other Smads. As shown in Fig.
2B, Smad1(QP), the STSVL to QPSMT mutant of Smad1 weakly
bound to c-Ski. Interestingly, Smad1(Q/S) with mutations in both the
QPSMT and SE parts in Smad1 bound to c-Ski more strongly than Smad1(SE)
did. Similarly, Smad3(NK) and Smad3(ST), which have the NKN sequence in
SE and the "STSVL" sequence in QPSMT, respectively, efficiently
bound to c-Ski, but Smad3(S/N) with double mutations in QPSMT and SE in
Smad3, bound to c-Ski much less efficiently than wild-type Smad3 (data
not shown). These findings suggest that QPSMT does not strongly bind to
c-Ski by itself, but plays a role in supporting SE in interacting with c-Ski.
We also studied the interaction of SnoN, a structurally related protein
to c-Ski, with the Smad chimeras (data not shown) and mutants (Fig.
2C). Similar to c-Ski, SnoN weakly interacted with
Smad1(SE), and more strongly with Smad1(Q/S). Thus, SE and QPSMT are
the major sites of specific interaction of Smad3 with c-Ski and SnoN.
Smad Oligomers Interact with c-Ski and Mixer or FoxH3 at Different
Sites--
Mixer is a transcription factor that specifically interacts
with Smad2/3. Mixer interacts with Smad3 through a region around H2 in
the MH2 domain (see Fig. 1B) (17, 18), which is located on
the outer region of the bottom side of the Smad3 homotrimer toroid
(Fig. 3A). FoxH3 also
interacts with Smad3 through H2 in the MH2 domains (19). We examined
whether c-Ski affects the interaction of Smad3 with Mixer. As shown in
Fig. 3B, increasing amounts of c-Ski did not affect the
binding of Mixer to Smad3. Similarly, c-Ski did not affect the
interaction of FoxH3 with Smad2 and Smad3 (data not shown). In
contrast, increasing amounts of FoxH3 competed with Mixer for
association with Smad3 (data not shown). Thus, Mixer and FoxH3 interact
with Smad3 on the bottom side of the MH2 oligomer toroid, and they can
interact with Smad3 even in the presence of c-Ski/SnoN.
SnoN and Smurf2 Are Located in the Vicinity through
Interacting with Smad2--
SnoN is degraded by an E3 ubiquitin ligase
Smurf2, which binds to the linker region of Smad2 (20). Although
SnoN does not directly bind to Smurf2, it may be located in the
vicinity of Smurf2 through Smad2. The amino acid sequences of
the SE part of Smad2 and Smad3 are identical. Moreover, the QPSMT parts
are identical in Smad2 and Smad3 with the exception of one amino acid exchange (QPSLT in Smad2). As shown in Fig.
4A, wild-type Smad2 efficiently bound to SnoN. In contrast, Smad2(S/N) with double mutations in QPSLT and SE in Smad2 bound to SnoN much less efficiently than the wild-type Smad2.
When ubiquitin-dependent degradation of SnoN
was examined in the presence of Smurf2, wild-type Smad2 enhanced
the degradation of SnoN, but Smad2(S/N) did so less efficiently than
the wild-type Smad2 (Fig. 4, B and C). These
findings suggest that Smurf2 may be located close to SnoN upon
binding to Smad2, allowing efficient degradation of SnoN by
Smurf2. In contrast, Smad1 mutants, Smad1(SE) and Smad1(Q/S),
failed to induce degradation of SnoN by Smurf2 (data not shown).
Since amino acid sequences of the linker regions are divergent between
Smad1 and Smad2, it is possible that SnoN is not located close enough
to Smurf2 when it binds to these Smad1 mutants.
Stoichiometry of Interaction of Multiple Proteins with
Smads--
The amino acid sequences of the SE and QPSMT parts of Smad2
and Smad3 are similar, whereas those of Smad1, Smad5, and Smad8 are
highly divergent from those of Smad3, suggesting a reason for
differential binding of c-Ski to R-Smads. Moreover, amino acid
sequences of the parts corresponding to SE and QPSMT of Smad4 are
highly divergent from those of Smad2/3. Qin et al. (28) reported that Ski (17-45), containing amino acids 17-45 of c-Ski, directly interacts with Smad3. In contrast, Wu et al. (29)
recently reported that a region containing amino acids 219-312 of
c-Ski interacts with the L3 loop of Smad4. Thus, Smad4 binds to c-Ski through a region different from those of Smad2/3. Since Smad4 binds to
c-Ski, BMP signals are inhibited by c-Ski (30) even though BMP-specific
R-Smads do not strongly interact with c-Ski. In contrast,
ubiquitin-dependent degradation of SnoN by Smurf2 occurs independently of Smad4, since Smurf2 does not bind to
Smad4 (24).
We have shown in the present study that c-Ski and SnoN bind to the
N-terminal upper side of the toroidal structure of MH2 oligomer.
Although we were not able to determine in detail which region of the
MH2 domain of R-Smads interacts with transcriptional co-activators p300
and CBP, c-Ski competed with p300 for interaction with Smad3 (data not
shown; Ref. 6), suggesting that p300/CBP may bind to R-Smads on the
N-terminal upper side of the MH2 domains. Wu et al. (29)
reported that c-Ski binds to the L3 loop of Smad4, resulting in
disruption of the complex formation of R-Smads and Smad4. In contrast,
binding of c-Ski to Smad2/3 does not affect the oligomer formation of
Smads.2 Understanding the
mode of interaction between Smads and c-Ski/SnoN may therefore provide
information important for elucidation of the functional protein-protein
interaction and for development of new strategies for regulation of the
activities of TGF- signaling through
interaction with Smad proteins. Among receptor-regulated Smads, c-Ski
and SnoN bind more strongly to Smad2 and Smad3 than to Smad1. Here, we show that c-Ski and SnoN bind to the "SE" sequence in the
C-terminal MH2 domain of Smad3, which is exposed on the N-terminal
upper side of the toroidal structure of the MH2 oligomer. The
"QPSMT" sequence, located in the vicinity of SE, supports the
interaction with c-Ski and SnoN. Sequences similar to SE and QPSMT are
found in Smad2, but not in Smad1. The N-terminal MH1 domain and linker region of Smad3 protrude from the N-terminal upper side of the MH2
oligomer toroid. Smurf2 induces ubiquitin-dependent
degradation of SnoN, since it appears to be located close to SnoN
through binding to the linker region of Smad2. In contrast,
transcription factors Mixer and FoxH3 (FAST1) bind to the bottom side
of the Smad3 MH2 toroid; therefore, c-Ski does not affect the
interaction of Smads with these transcription factors. Our findings
thus demonstrate the stoichiometry of how multiple molecules can
associate with the Smad oligomers and how the Smad-interacting proteins
functionally interact with each other.
INTRODUCTION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
(TGF-
)1 superfamily bind
to two different serine/threonine kinase receptors, type I and type II,
and transmit intracellular signals through Smad proteins (1).
Receptor-regulated Smads (R-Smads) are directly phosphorylated by type
I receptors, and form complexes with common-partner Smad (Co-Smad). The
R-Smad·Co-Smad complexes translocate into the nucleus, where
they regulate transcription of target genes through interacting with
various transcription factors and transcriptional co-activators or
co-repressors. Of the eight different mammalian Smad proteins, Smad1,
Smad5, and Smad8 are R-Smads activated by bone morphogenetic proteins
(BMPs) and anti-Müllerian hormone, whereas Smad2 and Smad3 are
R-Smads activated by TGF-
s, activins, and nodal. Smad4 is the only
Co-Smad in mammals.
is up-regulated by binding of
Smads to transcriptional co-activators, including p300 and CBP, which
induce acetylation of histones (2-4). In contrast, transcriptional
co-repressors, including c-Ski and its related protein SnoN, physically
interact with Smads and repress TGF-
superfamily signaling through
recruitment of histone deacetylases (5-9). Ski was originally
identified as the oncogene present in the avian Sloan-Kettering
retroviruses (10). Although c-Ski regulates transcriptional activities
of some other proteins (11, 12), Smads may be one of the most important
partners of c-Ski in transcriptional regulation.
-helix 2 (H2) of the MH2 domains of Smad2/3
(17-19). However, sites of binding to other proteins in Smads have not
been determined in detail. Interestingly, SnoN was shown to be degraded
by a HECT type E3 ubiquitin ligase Smurf2, which binds to the
linker region of Smad2 (20). SnoN does not directly bind to
Smurf2, but it may be located in the vicinity of Smurf2
when it binds to Smad2. It is thus important to determine through which
regions c-Ski/SnoN bind to Smad2 and Smad3.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
type I
receptors (ALK-6(QD) and ALK-5(TD), respectively) were previously
described (21). The construction of FLAG- or 6Myc-tagged Smad cDNAs
were described (6, 22). Smad1 and Smad3 chimeras and mutants were
prepared by a PCR-based approach (23). To generate the chimeras,
restriction enzyme sites were introduced, if not present, into the MH2
domains of Smad3 and Smad1 by PCR without changing amino acid residues. Phosphorylation of the Smad chimeras and mutants used in the present study was efficiently induced by constitutively active ALK-5 or ALK-6
(data not shown). c-Ski and its deletion constructs were described
previously (6). The cDNAs for Mixer (17), SnoN (11), and
Smurf2 (24) were provided by Dr. C. S. Hill, Dr. T. Nomura, and Dr. X.-H. Feng, respectively. All of the
PCR products were sequenced.
atom positions minimum.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
View larger version (37K):
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Fig. 1.
The SE sequence is responsible for
differential binding of Smad1 and Smad3 with c-Ski.
A, the 2b region in the MH2 domain of Smad3 is
important for interaction with c-Ski. Structures of Smad1/3 chimeras
are shown in the upper part. The MH2 domains of Smad1 and
Smad3 were divided into four different regions (2a through 2d).
Physical interaction between the Smad chimeras and c-Ski in the
presence and absence of constitutively active type I receptors (ALK-5
or ALK-6) was studied using transfected COS7 cells. In A and
E, FLAG-Smad chimeras were immunoprecipitated by FLAG
antibody followed by immunoblotting of 6Myc-c-Ski by Myc antibody
(top panel). Expression levels of transfected proteins were
determined by immunoblotting (lower three panels).
B, comparison of the amino acid sequences of the 2b region
of Smad1 and Smad3. Amino acid residues not conserved between Smad3 and
Smad1 are boxed. The secondary structure elements are
schematically indicated below the alignment. B, -strand;
H,
-helix; L, loop. Restriction enzyme sites
used for generation of the chimeras are shown. Amino acid numbers of
Smad1 and Smad3 at the boundaries of 2a through 2d are indicated at the
bottom. C, a C
trace model of one of the
subunits of the Smad3 MH2 domain. SE faces one side of the MH2 oligomer
toroid (pink), and AAVEL faces the opposite side of the
toroid (orange). D, location of SE and AAVEL in
the three-dimensional model of the MH2 domain trimer shown in the
CPK representation. Upper panel, top view of the
Smad1 homotrimer (1 khu) from the N-terminal upper side.
Lower two panels, side views. Residues colored in
pink and orange represent the SE and AAVEL parts
in Smad3/1, respectively. E, interaction of c-Ski with Smad1
mutants in SE and AAVEL. Structures of the Smad1 mutants are shown in
the upper part. Physical interaction between the Smad1
mutants and c-Ski in the presence and absence of constitutively active
ALK-6 or ALK-5 was studied using transfected COS7 cells.
1AA, Smad1(AA); 1SE, Smad1(SE).
type
I receptor, ALK-5 (Fig. 1A). In contrast, the chimeras
containing the 2b region of Smad1 failed to efficiently interact with
c-Ski. Consistent results were obtained using Smad3 chimeras similar to
the Smad1 chimera used in Fig. 1A, but containing the MH1
and linker regions of Smad3 (data not shown; see supplementary Fig.
S1A). Moreover, analysis using Smad1 chimeras in which only one of the four regions of the MH2 domain was replaced by the corresponding region of Smad3 also revealed that the 2b region of Smad3
is most important for the interaction with c-Ski (data not shown; see
Fig. 1E and supplementary Fig. S1B).
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Fig. 2.
The QPSMT sequence supports interaction of SE
with c-Ski. A, an additional non-conserved part, QPSMT,
in Smad1/3. Top, sequence alignment between Smad1 and Smad3
around the SE part. The secondary structure elements are indicated
below the alignment. Non-conserved residues are boxed.
B, -strand; H,
-helix. Lower
left, QPSMT (colored in purple) is mapped on the
CPK model of the N-terminal upper side of the Smad3 MH2
homotrimer. The N-terminal residues of the MH2 domain and the SE part
are colored in yellow and pink, respectively.
Lower right, QPSMT (purple) is mapped on the C
trace model of one of the subunits of the Smad3 MH2 domain.
B and C, interaction of c-Ski (B) or
SnoN (C) with Smad1 mutants in SE and QPSMT. Structures of
the Smad1 mutants are shown in the upper part in
B. Physical interaction between the Smad1 mutants and
c-Ski/SnoN in the presence and absence of constitutively active ALK-6
or ALK-5 was studied using transfected COS7 cells. 1SE,
Smad1(SE); 1QP, Smad1(QP); 1Q/S,
Smad1(Q/S).
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Fig. 3.
c-Ski does not prevent interaction with Mixer
and FoxH3 of the Smad oligomer. A, molecular
surfaces viewed from the top (left) and the
bottom sides (right) of the homotrimer toroid of
MH2 domains. Molecular surfaces of Smad3 homotrimer theoretical model
are represented by program GRASP (31). The Mixer-interacting motif in
Smad3 (Y323-T329 and C331; Ref. 18) is colored in yellow.
Colored patches in pink and purple (left
panel) show the SE and QPSMT parts, respectively, in Smad1/3.
B, c-Ski does not compete with Mixer for interaction with
Smad3. Physical interaction of FLAG-Smad3 or Smad1 with 6Myc-Mixer in
the presence of increasing amounts of c-Ski (0.01, 0.03, 0.09, and 0.15 µg of DNA) was examined in the presence and absence of constitutively
active ALK-5 or ALK-6 using transfected COS7 cells. The top
panel shows the protein interaction, and the lower three
panels show the expression of transfected proteins.
View larger version (44K):
[in a new window]
Fig. 4.
Ubiquitin-dependent degradation
of SnoN by Smurf2 through interaction with Smad2.
A, interaction of SnoN with a Smad2 mutant in QPSLT and SE,
Smad2(S/N). Physical interaction between Smad2 (wild-type and the
mutant) and SnoN in the presence and absence of constitutively active
ALK-5 was studied using transfected COS7 cells. WT,
wild-type; 2S/N, Smad2(S/N). B and
C, ubiquitination of SnoN by Smurf2 in the presence
of Smad2 was analyzed in vivo. 293T cells were transfected
with the indicated plasmids and treated with 2.5 µM lactacystin for 24 h before cell lysis. In
B, lysates from cells were subjected to anti-FLAG
immunoprecipitation of FLAG-tagged SnoN, followed by anti-HA
immunoblotting of HA-tagged ubiquitin (HA-Ub). In
C, lysates were subjected to anti-HA immunoprecipitation of
HA-ubiquitin, followed by anti-Myc immunoblotting of 6Myc-tagged SnoN.
In B and C, polyubiquitination species of SnoN
([HA-Ub]n-SnoN) are indicated in the top panel.
Expression levels of SnoN, Smad2, and Smurf2 were confirmed by
immunoblotting and shown in the lower two panels.
superfamily proteins.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank M. Yanagiwatari for technical assistance, C. S. Hill for the Mixer cDNA, T. Nomura for the SnoN cDNA, and X.-H. Feng for the Smurf2 cDNA.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported by grants-in-aid for Scientific Research from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Science, Sports and Technology of Japan.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
The on-line version of this article (available at
http://www.jbc.org) contains supplemental Fig. S1.
** To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of Biochemistry, The JFCR Cancer Institute, 1-37-1 Kami-ikebukuro, Toshima-ku, Tokyo 170-8455, Japan. Tel.: 81-3-5394-3866; Fax: 81-3-3918-0342; E-mail: miyazono-ind@umin.ac.jp.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, November 7, 2002, DOI 10.1074/jbc.C200596200
2 M. Mizuide, unpublished observation.
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ABBREVIATIONS |
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The abbreviations used are:
TGF-, transforming growth factor-
;
R-Smad, receptor-regulated Smad;
Co-Smad, common-partner Smad;
BMP, bone morphogenetic protein;
H2,
-helix 2;
CBP, CREB-binding protein (where CREB is cAMP-response
element-binding protein);
E3, ubiquitin-protein isopeptide ligase;
HA, hemagglutinin.
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