From the Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405
Received for publication, August 4, 2000, and in revised form, November 1, 2000
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ABSTRACT |
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Escherichia coli transcription
termination factor Rho is a ring-shaped hexameric protein that uses the
energy derived from ATP hydrolysis to dissociate RNA transcripts from
the ternary elongation complex. To test a current model for the
interaction of Rho with RNA, three derivatives of Rho were made
containing single cysteine residues and modified with a photo-activable
cross-linker. The positions for the cysteines were: 1) in part of the
primary RNA-binding site in the N terminus (Cys-82 Rho); 2) in a
connecting polypeptide proposed to be on the outside of the hexamer
(Cys-153 Rho); and 3) near the proposed secondary RNA-binding site in
the ATP-binding domain (Cys-325 Rho). Results from the cross-linking of
the modified Rho proteins to a series of Transcription termination factor Rho in Escherichia
coli consists of six identical protein subunits arranged in a ring
structure (1, 2). For its function in termination, Rho binds to the nascent transcript and acts to dissociate the transcript from RNA
polymerase and the DNA template (3, 4). Rho can also act as a helicase
to dissociate a DNA molecule that is base paired to a 3'-segment of an
RNA with a Rho attachment site (5, 6). The motive power for these
actions comes from the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and Pi. The
mechanism for coupling ATP hydrolysis to these dissociation reactions
is not known.
The Rho polypeptide contains two major domains: an N-terminal
RNA-binding domain (residues 1-130) and a C-terminal ATP-binding domain (residues 131-419) (7, 8). The RNA-binding domain contains an
oligosaccharide/oligonucleotide-binding domain (OB-fold) (9). Rho forms
strong binding interactions with single-stranded C-rich RNA molecules,
and RNA segments with these characteristics form the attachment sites
(known as the rut or Rho utilization sites) used by Rho to mediate termination of a transcript. The structure of a complex of the RNA-binding domain of Rho with
oligo(rC)9, determined by x-ray crystallography, shows that
a cytidylate residue forms H bonds with Arg-66 and Glu-78 and a
Evidence for a second RNA-binding site distinct from that in the
RNA-binding domain has come from a detailed analysis of the polynucleotide requirements for activation of ATP hydrolysis by Rho
(11) and from the finding that mutant forms of Rho with changes in
certain residues in the ATP-binding domain are defective in their
interactions with RNA that are coupled to ATP hydrolysis (12-14).
Large parts of the Rho polypeptide are similar to the corresponding
parts of the Previously, Rho was identified as being related to a subclass of DNA
helicases (superfamilies IV and V) (21, 22). All the proteins in this
group contain seven common sequence motifs, possess a hexameric
quaternary structure, and couple NTP hydrolysis to 5'- to
3'-translocation along a nucleic acid. Biochemical evidence obtained
with two members of this subclass, DnaB (23) and the T7 gene 4 product
(24), indicate that they migrate along single-stranded DNA by pulling
the DNA through the center of their respective hexameric ring
structures. Because Rho is structurally related to these proteins, it
could readily have a similar mechanism for nucleic acid translocation.
To probe the points of interaction of Rho with RNA, several mutational
derivatives of Rho-containing single cysteine residues were prepared.
The positions of the cysteines were chosen based on the known
structure of the RNA-binding domain and the proposed structural model
of the hexameric ATP-binding domains of Rho (17). The mutants were then
modified with the cysteine-specific, photo-activable cross-linker
N-[4-(p-azidosalicylamidobutyl]-3'-(2'-pyridyldithio)propionamide (APDP),1 and the interactions
of these modified proteins with various forms of Materials--
All restriction enzymes, T4 DNA ligase, T4 RNA
ligase, T4 polynucleotide kinase, and T4 DNA polymerase were purchased
from New England BioLabs Inc. APDP and 5,5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoate) (DTNB) were purchased from Pierce Chemicals. The
oligonucleotides were purchased from either Life Technologies, Inc. or
Integrated DNA Technologies. All deoxyribonucleotides, ribonucleotides,
and Proteinase K were purchased from Roche Molecular
Biochemicals. Radioactive nucleotides were purchased from ICN
Radiochemicals. Bio-Rex 70 resin was purchased from Bio-Rad. T7 RNA
polymerase was provided by Lislott Richardson (Indiana University).
MGP1-2 helper phage was a gift from Stanley Tabor (Havard University Medical School). The p39-AS plasmid containing the C202S mutation was a
gift from Terry Platt (University of Rochester). pA4 and pB3 were gifts
from Bill Scott (University of California, Santa Cruz).
Construction of rho Variants--
pCB111, a plasmid containing
the E. coli rho gene under control of the T7
promoter (25), and a p39-AS derivative, containing the E155K and C202S
mutations in the rho gene (26), were partially digested with PstI. The resulting 5926-base pair fragment
from pCB111 and the 567-base pair fragment from the p39-AS derivative were ligated overnight at 17 °C with T4 DNA ligase. The resulting plasmid, pBB-1, contains rho with a C202S mutation. This and
all subsequent mutations were confirmed by sequence analysis.
To create a plasmid that can be used to express C202S,S325C Rho
(Cys-325 Rho), pBB-1 was transformed into competent CJ236 (dut
Plasmids that could express C202S,S82C Rho (Cys-82 Rho) and C202S,S153C
Rho (Cys-153 Rho), respectively, were created using the Stratagene
QuikChange mutagenesis kit. Two complementary DNA oligonucleotides
containing the required nucleotide changes were used to introduce the
respective mutations into the pBB-1 rho gene which
contains the C202S mutation as follows: primer 1, 5'-GATGACATCTACGTTTGCCCTAGCCAAATCCG-3', and primer 2, 5'-CGGATTTGGCTAGGGCAAACGTAGATGTCATC-3' for the S82C mutation; primer 3, 5'-CGTGGTAACGGTTGTACTGAAGATTTAACTGCTCGC-3', and primer 4, 5'-GCGAGCAGTTAAATCTTCAGTACAACCGTTACCACG-3' for the S153C
mutation. The plasmids containing Cys-82 Rho and Cys-153 Rho were named
pBB-4 and pBB-6, respectively.
Expression and Purification of the Mutant Rho
Proteins--
DH5
The mutant Rho proteins were purified as described by Nowatzke et
al. (28), with one modification. The purification of the protein
was stopped after the Bio-Rex 70 column. Analysis of Coomassie Blue-stained SDS-polyacrylamide gels indicated that the protein(s) were
greater than 95% pure. Proteins were kept in Rho storage buffer (10 mM Tris·HCl, pH 8.0, 0.1 M EDTA, pH 8.0, 0.1 mM dithiothreitol, 0.1 M KCl, and 50%
glycerol) and stored at Modification of Mutant Rhos with APDP--
The modification
reactions were done using 1:1 molar mixtures of the Cys-0 Rho to
Cys-82 Rho, Cys-153 Rho, and the Cys-325 Rho mutant Rho polypeptides. A
100-µl reaction containing 17 µM (monomer) of both the
Cys-0 Rho and one of the mutant Rho polypeptides were mixed in TGES
buffer (50 mM Tris·HCl, pH 8.0, 5% glycerol, 1 mM EDTA, and 50 mM KCl) and allowed to
equilibrated on ice for 30 min. This 30-min incubation allows for
formation of mixed hexamers (30). The mixed hexamer solutions were then
spun through a 1-ml Sephadex G-50 spin column equilibrated in TGES
buffer to remove residual dithiothreitol. The eluate from the G-50
column was then mixed with 10 µl of a 50 mM APDP solution
in 100% dimethyl sulfoxide and incubated at 22 °C for 3 h in
the dark. The unreacted APDP was removed by centrifugation of the
solution through a 1-ml Sephadex G-50 spin column. The protein
concentration was determined by Bradford assay. The modified protein
was stored at Quantification of APDP Modification--
Reaction of free
sulfhydryl groups with 5,5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoate) (DTNB) results
in the release of the 2-nitro-5-thiobenzoate anion, which can be
detected by its characteristic absorbance at 412 nm (molar absorptivity
of 13,600 M ATPase Assay--
For values in Table III (see below), the assay
was performed as described previously by Nowatzke and Richardson (32)
with the modification that 20 ng of Rho protein was used per 100-µl reaction. For values in Table IV (see below), the ATPase reaction buffer was TGES buffer, 2 mM MgCl2, 1 mM ATP, 3.6 nM wild type Rho hexamer, and 10 nM RNA (100-µl reaction volume). This buffer was chosen
to more closely resemble the buffer conditions of the cross-linking
experiments. The concentration of ATP used for these assays was
one-fifth the concentration used in the cross-linking studies due to
the high background in the colorimetric assay when using 5 mM ATP, thus the MgCl2 concentration was
adjusted to one-fifth (2 mM) the amount used in the
cross-linking studies.
Preparation of
DNA templates were prepared for T7 transcription by linearization of
the plasmid with a restriction enzyme as indicated. After digestion
with the appropriate restriction enzyme, 25 µg of Proteinase K and
0.2 volume of 5× Proteinase K buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.8, 25 mM EDTA, and 5% SDS) were added and incubated for
90 min at 37 °C. The reaction mixture was then treated with an equal volume of phenol, then treated with an equal volume of
chloroform:iso-amyl alcohol (24:1), and ethanol-precipitated. The DNA
was washed with 70% ethanol, dried, and resuspended in water. The DNA
concentration was determined by absorbance at 260 nm.
T7 transcription was carried out in a 100-µl mixture containing 5 pmol of linearized DNA, 40 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.1, 30 mM MgCl2, 2 mM spermidine, 4 mM each of ATP, CTP, GTP, and UTP, 0.02 N NaOH, and 8 µg of T7 RNA polymerase. The reaction mixture was incubated at
37 °C for 2 h. The RNA was precipitated by addition of 0.1 volume of 8 M LiCl and 3 volumes of 100% ethanol, followed
by 30 min at
To label the 5'-end of the T7 transcripts from the linearized pB3 and
pA4 plasmids, which have a free 5'-hydroxyl as a result of cleavage
with the 5'-hammerhead, 1 µM RNA was mixed with 10 units
of T4 polynucleotide kinase and 2.8 µM
[
TaqI and BglII pIF2 T7 transcripts were
3'-end-labeled using [5'-32P]cytidine-3',5'-bisphosphate,
which was prepared by mixing 50 pmol of 3'-CMP, 10 units of T4
polynucleotide kinase, and 5 µM [ Cross-linking of APDP-modified Rho to
[32P]RNA--
The APDP-modified Rho proteins were
diluted to 10 ng/µl in Rho dilution buffer (40 mM
Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 0.1% acetylated bovine serum albumin, 50 mM KCl, 5 mM MgCl2, 0.1% Nonidet
P-40). The cross-linking reactions, prepared under subdued light,
contained 20 ng of modified Rho, 10 nM
32P-labeled RNA, and 5 mM adenine nucleotide
(if present) in 20 µl of TGES buffer with 10 mM
MgCl2 and were incubated for 2 min at 22 °C. The samples
were then placed onto a piece of Parafilm, directly under a mid-range
UV 302-nm lamp (Model UVM-57, UVP Products). A polystyrene filter was
placed over the samples during irradiation; this helped to filter out
shorter wavelength UV light, which can induce nonspecific
protein-nucleic acid cross-linking. The samples were irradiated for 2 min at 4 °C. The samples were then mixed with 0.2 volume of SDS
loading dye (150 mM Tris-HCl, pH 6.8, 4% SDS, 0.2%
bromphenol blue, and 20% glycerol), and run on a 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel (acrylamide:bis, 29:1) at 25 mA in Tris-glycine buffer (25 mM Tris, 250 mM glycine, and 0.1%
SDS) (34). Rho-RNA cross-linked species were detected by using a 20- × 25-cm Storage Phosphor Screen and PhosphorImager (Molecular Dynamics).
The computer program ImageQuaNT (Molecular Dynamics) was used to
quantify the cross-linked products.
Molecular Modeling--
Coordinates for the N-terminal 125 amino
acids of Rho were downloaded from the Brookhaven Protein Data Bank,
accession code 1A62 (9). The coordinates for the C-terminal region
(amino acids 126-419) of Rho were downloaded from the web site of the Department of Biotechnology, University of Virginia (17).
Modeling of the Rho monomer was performed using the InsightII
visualizer software obtained from Molecular Simulations, Inc.
Properties of Rho Factors with Cross-linking Groups--
Variants
of Rho protein containing single cysteine residues at different
positions were created by site-directed mutagenesis. Wild-type Rho
contains a single cysteine at position 202. Dombroski and Platt
(26) showed that it could be changed to a serine or an alanine without
affecting the function of Rho. Starting with a rho gene
containing the C202S mutation, derivatives with single cysteines at
other positions were made. The positions were chosen based on the
proposed quaternary structure of E. coli Rho (Fig. 2) (17). All the residues changed were
predicted to be solvent-exposed serines. The changes were thus expected
to have minimal perturbation of wild-type function and allow for a high
potential for modification with a cysteine-reactive cross-linking
moiety. Position 325 is in a section called the R loop and is believed
to be near a proposed secondary RNA-binding site located in the center
of the Rho hexamer (13). Position 82 is in close proximity to the
RNA-binding cleft in the RNA-binding domain (9, 10), and position 153 is a residue on a large loop on the outside of the hexamer (17).
The mutant proteins were purified and tested for retention of normal
function by measuring their ATPase activity with
The mutant forms of Rho with single cysteine residues were reacted with
APDP to make derivatives containing the photo-activable azidosalicylamido group. To determine the extent of modification, the
amounts of free sulfhydryl in the protein preparations before and after
APDP modification were determined by reaction with
dithiobis(nitrobenzoate) (Ellman's reagent). The results (Table
II) show that at least 25% of the Cys
residues in the Cys-153 and Cys-325 Rhos were modified and 50% of the
Cys residues in Cys-82 Rho were modified. The Cys at residue 202 of
wild-type Rho was not substantially modified with APDP. Hence,
wild-type Rho was not suitable for use in this cross-linking study.
To reduce the chance that multiple cross-linking groups on a single Rho
hexamer might interfere with normal interactions, the fractionally
modified derivatives were mixed at a 1:1 ratio with the Cys-0 Rho under
conditions that allow exchange of subunits (30). These modified, mixed
proteins were then tested for retention of function by measuring their
abilities to hydrolyze ATP with Cross-linking of APDP-modified Rho Factors to the
The reason for the differing mobilities of cross-linked species is not
known. Because the rut segment of the RNA is believed to
bind across several subunits of the hexameric Rho, subunits cross-linked at different positions on the RNA would have different structures that might have differing mobilities. This point will be
considered in more detail later, because the appearance of multiple
bands depends on the RNA used and the position of the cross-linker
group in the protein.
To investigate the topological interactions between Rho and RNA, the
modified mutant Rho proteins with Cys positioned at different locations
on the hexameric structure were cross-linked to
cro(216-365). Fig. 4 shows
the mobility-shift evidence for cross-linking in the absence and
presence of ATP for the APDP-modified Rho proteins. Lanes 1 and 2 show that the addition of ATP to the complexes greatly enhances the percentage cross-linking with modified Cys-82 Rho (from
0.99 to 4.62%). Lanes 3 and 4 show that very
little RNA was cross-linked to the modified Cys-153 Rho in the absence
of ATP (0.13%) with even less (<0.06%) in the presence of ATP.
Finally, lanes 6 and 7 show that
cro(216-365) RNA formed cross-links with modified Cys-325
Rho almost as effectively as to the modified Cys-82 Rho in the presence
of ATP. However, in this case the presence of ATP had no effect on the
signal. Thus, this evidence indicates that this form of
To further demonstrate that the formation of the cross-linked complexes
is due to specific Rho-RNA interactions, the effect of the inclusion of
various competitor RNAs on the formation of shifted complexes with
labeled cro(1-380) RNA was tested (Table III). When poly(C), which has a very high
affinity for Rho, was added to the reaction mixture, it eliminated the
formation of complexes with modified forms of either Cys-82 or Cys-325.
On the other hand, when poly(A), which binds with very low affinity and
does not activate ATP hydrolysis, was present, the yields of
cross-linking were not greatly affected. These results are further
evidence that the formation of shifted complexes is due to specific
interactions between Rho and cro(1-380).
Requirement for RNA Sequence 3' of the cro rut Site for
Cross-linking to Cys-325 Rho--
To investigate the role of the
rut site, the sequences 3' and 5' of rut and the
overall RNA length on the yields of cross-linking with Rho factors
modified either at residue 82 or 325, several
Second, a 61-nucleotide
Other cro RNA fragments starting at residue 216 but ending
at positions between 276 and 365 also formed cross-links with
APDP-modified Cys-325 Rho. The relative abilities of these RNAs to form
cross-links with modified Cys-325 Rho to that with modified Cys-82 Rho
are presented in Table IV as ratios of Cys-325/Cys-82 Rho. Although these intermediate-sized cro RNA fragments were not as
effective as the cro(216-365) in forming cross-links with
Cys-325 Rho, they were considerably more effective than the
cro(216-276) RNA. To test whether the presence of extra RNA
sequences 5' of the rut were as effective as the extra
sequences on the 3'-side of the rut sequence in enhancing an
interaction with residue 325, an RNA containing the first 276 nucleotides of the wild-type cro RNA was tested. This RNA
formed cross-links to the Cys-325 Rho less than 9% as well as with
Cys-82 Rho. Thus, extra sequences on the 5'-side of rut were
not as effective as extra sequences on the 3'-side in allowing
interactions with residue 325 in Rho.
A normalization procedure was necessary to compare the relative
efficiency of cross-linking to the two forms of Rho, because the
efficiency of cross-linking even to the modified Cys-82 Rho varied
considerably from one RNA to another with a general trend of producing
higher efficiencies as the length of the RNAs increased. This observed
increase is likely due to two factors. First, among the RNAs containing
the rut sequence, the larger RNAs bind Rho with a higher
affinity (20, 33) than the smaller RNAs. Second, although
cro RNA has only one known rut site, more than
one Rho might be binding to the larger RNA molecules. Evidence for
binding of more than one Rho to an RNA containing only one
rut-site was obtained with transcripts containing the
trpt' rut sequences (6). The cross-linking of more than one
Rho subunit per RNA may also explain the appearance of products with
very different mobilities on the larger RNAs (see Fig. 5B
for example).
Previous studies on the requirements for various segments of Effect of Various Adenine Nucleotides on Cross-linking
Yield--
To further investigate the role of nucleotide binding on
the efficiencies of cross-linking with Cys-82 Rho and Cys-325 Rho, yields of cross-linking were measured for all the cro
derivatives in the absence of nucleotide or in the presence of ATP,
ADP, and the nonhydrolyzable ATP analog AMP-PNP. These nucleotides were chosen to determine whether the effects seen were due to hydrolysis of
ATP, or just binding of the nucleotide to Rho. Some examples of the
various results are presented in Fig. 5. In general, all three
nucleotides increased the efficiency of cross-linking with the modified
Cys-82 Rho. However, ATP was more effective than AMP-PNP, which was
more effective than ADP. This could simply be due to the difference in
Kd values for the binding of these nucleotides to
Rho (0.2 µM for ATP, 10 µM for AMP-PNP, and
23 µM for ADP (37)). However, all nucleotide
concentrations were well above the Kd values (5 mM nucleotide, 10 mM MgCl2). Thus,
the effect is likely due to slightly different Rho conformations in the
presence of the different nucleotides. The fact that none of the
nucleotides had any significant effect on the yield of cross-linking
with the modified Cys-325 Rho is surprising, because that residue is
presumably on a loop that is not far from the ATP-binding site, whereas
Cys-82 is in a separate domain of the protein.
The cross-linking results presented here support a model in which
the rut site of cro RNA binds to clefts in the
RNA-binding domains arranged around the crown of the hexamer and has
the sequence on the 3'-side of rut passing through the hole
in the center of the hexamer (Fig. 6).
When the cross-linking group was placed in an accessible position in
the cleft in the RNA-binding domain, all cro derivatives
that could bind to Rho with high affinity formed cross-links. However,
when the group was placed in the center of the hole of the Rho hexamer,
the ability of those RNA molecules to form cross-links depended as well
on having an extension on the 3'-side of the rut site. In
contrast, a cro RNA with a rut site and a
3'-segment failed to cross-link efficiently with a group placed in an
equatorial position on the outside of the ring. Because the
3'-extension on the RNA is necessary for activation of ATP hydrolysis
(Table IV and Ref. 36), this result suggests that the interactions
coupled to ATP hydrolysis occur in the center of the hexamer rather
than around the outside. Although only one site in the Rho polypeptide
was used for attaching APDP groups on the outside, the length of that
group from the disulfide to the first nitrogen in the azido group is 21 Å. Hence, this group should be able to form a cross-link with RNA if
the RNA had been present within 40-Å wide circles placed in positions
around the equator of the hexamer. The extent of reach of the group is
indicated on Fig. 2. Thus, the results fail to support a fairly
stringent test of a model that has an ATP
hydrolysis-dependent wrapping of RNA around the
outside.
cro RNA
derivatives showed that Cys-82 Rho formed cross-links with all
transcripts containing the Rho utilization (rut) site, that
Cys-325 Rho formed cross-links to transcripts that had the
rut site and 10 or more residues 3' of the rut site, and
that Cys-153 did not form cross-links with any of the transcripts. From
a model of the quaternary structure of Rho, which is largely based on
homology to the F1-ATPase, amino acid 82 is located near
the top of the hexamer, and amino acid 325 is located on a
solvent-accessible loop in the center of the hexamer. These data are
consistent with binding of the rut region of RNA around the
crown, with its 3'-segment passing through the center of the Rho hexamer.
INTRODUCTION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-bond stacking interaction with Phe-64 (10).
and
subunits of the F1-ATPase (15). In
addition, the hexameric Rho protein is morphologically similar to the
3
3 sub-component of that ATPase (1, 2,
16). These similarities have led to proposed models of a tertiary
structure for the ATP-binding domain of the Rho polypeptide and a
quaternary structure of the hexamer, both based on the structure of the
bovine mitochondrial F1-ATPase (13, 16-18). A striking
feature of these models is that mutational changes in Rho that affect
secondary RNA-binding site interactions are found primarily in residues that face into the center of the hexameric hole (13). These observations have led to the proposal of a model for the interactions of Rho with RNA that cause transcript termination (19). In this model,
the nascent transcript first binds to an extensive site composed of the
RNA-binding domains on the six subunits arranged around one pole of the
hexamer. This binding occurs in a way that allows the RNA that is on
the 3'-side of the attachment segment to pass through the hole of the
hexameric ring, perhaps by assembly of the hexamer on the RNA (20).
Once bound, concerted cycles of ATP binding, hydrolysis, and release
can cause structural motions in the hole of the hexamer that could act
to pull the transcript through and away from its biosynthetic complex
with RNA polymerase.
cro RNA
was analyzed by measuring yields of cross-linked complexes.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
, ung
) cells, and
these cells were infected with helper phage M13KO7. The
uracil-containing single-stranded DNA template was recovered by
polyethylene glycol precipitation followed by phenol/chloroform (1:1)
extraction, ethanol precipitation, and resuspension in water. The mutagenic primer (3'-CGATACCGGTTGTAAAATGGACG-5') was annealed to the purified uracil-containing single-stranded DNA, followed by
addition of 1 unit of T4 DNA polymerase, 3 units of T4 DNA ligase, 0.4 mM each of dGTP, dCTP, dATP, and dTTP, and 0.75 mM ATP, which completed synthesis of the second strand. The
newly synthesized DNA was transformed into the
dut+, ung+ strain
DH5
F', and the cells were plated on LB-ampicillin (50 mg/ml) plates
and grown overnight at 37 °C. Plasmid DNA was isolated from several
of the plate colonies via standard plasmid mini-prep procedure. A
341-base pair BstXI to KpnI restriction fragment from a plasmid with the desired mutation was ligated to the 6152-base pair BstXI to KpnI restriction fragment from the
parental pBB-1 plasmid. The resulting plasmid, pBB-2, contained the
rho gene with both the C202S and S325C mutations.
F' cells containing one of the mutant plasmid
rho genes were infected with the M13 phage derivative mGP1-2
(27). mGP1-2 contains a gene encoding T7 RNA polymerase under control
of the E. coli lac promotor. Production of high levels of
mutant Rho protein was achieved by induction of a 500-ml LB culture at
an A600 nm = 0.6 with 1.0 mM
isopropylthiogalactoside and mGP1-2 (multiplicity of infection of
20-30). The culture was grown at 37 °C for 3 h after
induction. The cells were harvested by centrifugation at 7000 rpm for
20 min in a Sorvall RC2-B centrifuge (GS3 rotor). The cells were washed
with ice-cold STE (10 mM Tris·HCl, pH 8.0, 0.5 mM EDTA, pH 8.0, and 100 mM NaCl), pelleted as
above, and stored at
20 °C.
20 °C. Protein concentrations were
determined by the Bradford assay (29).
80 °C and was active for up to a month.
1 cm
1) (31). The
various proteins were modified with APDP as above, with the exception
that no Cys-0 Rho protein was added to the cysteine-containing mutants.
The reactions were done in a total volume of 105 µl. Protein
solutions containing at least 25 µg of cysteine-containing residues
(final Cys residue concentration of 3.5 µM or higher) in
a volume
40 µl was filled to 50 µl with TGES buffer. 50 µl of detection buffer (0.1 M sodium phosphate, 1.34 mM EDTA, and 6 M guanidine hydrochloride, pH
8.0) and 5.0 µl of freshly prepared DTNB buffer (10.1 mM
DTNB, and 0.1 M sodium phosphate, pH 8.0) were added and
mixed. The solution was incubated at 22 °C for 25 min. After 25 min,
the absorbance of the solution was measured at 412 nm, and the
concentration of free sulfhydryl was determined using the Beer-Lambert law.
cro Transcripts--
Plasmid pIF2 was
described by Faus and Richardson (33), and pB3 was described by Gan and
Richardson (20). Plasmid pA4, constructed by Dr. William Scott,
contained DNA base pairs 210-362 of the
cro gene
flanked by sequences encoding hammerhead ribozymes between the
XbaI and HinDIII restriction sites in pUC18. The
sequence of the A4 insert (underlined) and the
flanking hammerheads is as follows:
5'-CTAGAATGCTACTGATGAGGTTCGCCGAAACGTTCGCGTCTAGCATAAATAACCCCGCTCTTACACATTCCAGCCCTGAAAAAGGGCATCAAATTAAACCACACCTATGGTGTATGCATTTATTTGCATACATTCAATCAATTGTTATCTAAGGAAATACTTACATATGGTTCGTGCAAACAAACGCAACGTCTACCGAAAGGTACTGATGAGGTTCGCCGAAACGTTGCGTTA-3'. The plasmid pA4 was maintained in E. coli DH5
F'.
80 °C. The RNA was pelleted by centrifugation at
13,000 rpm for 30 min at 4 °C, washed with 150 µl of 70% ethanol,
and recentrifuged. The pellet was dried and subsequently resuspended in
20 µl of formamide loading dye (98% formamide, 2 mM
EDTA, 0.03% (w/v) bromphenol blue, and 0.03% (w/v) xylene
cyanol). The resuspended RNA was loaded onto a 6%/7
M urea polyacrylamide gel (acrylamide:bis, 19:1) containing
1× TBE buffer (45 mM Tris borate, and 1 mM
EDTA) and run in 1× TBE buffer at 30 watts. The RNA was detected by UV
shadowing, excised using a sterile razor blade, and placed into a
1.5-ml Eppendorf tube containing 200 µl of phenol, 200 µl of
chloroform:iso-amyl alcohol (24:1), and 250 µl of passive elution
buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 0.3 M sodium
acetate, and 1 mM EDTA). The gel slice was incubated for
10-12 h at 4 °C. The RNA was recovered by removing the aqueous
layer, performing two chloroform extractions, followed by ethanol
precipitation and 70% ethanol wash. The dried pellet was resuspended
in 25 µl of TE buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, and 1 mM EDTA), and stored at
80 °C. The concentration of
the RNA was determined by its absorbance at 260 nm.
-32P]ATP (7000 Ci/mmol) in 50 µl of PNK buffer (70 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 10 mM MgCl2,
and 5 mM dithiothreitol), and the mixture was incubated at
37 °C for 90 min. The RNA was precipitated with ethanol, washed, and
resuspended in 20 µl of formamide loading dye. The RNA was loaded
onto a 6%/7 M urea polyacrylamide gel and run at 30 watts
in 1× TBE buffer. The RNA was isolated as above. All RNAs were stored
in TE buffer at
80 °C (see Fig. 1).
-32P]ATP (7000 Ci/mmol) in 50 µl of T4 PNK buffer.
The reaction was incubated at 37 °C for 90 min. T4 polynucleotide
kinase was inactivated by boiling the reaction solution for 1 min at
95 °C. This solution was stored at
20 °C. To 3'-end label the
RNA, 1 µM RNA, 50 µM ATP, 12 units of T4
RNA ligase, and 2 µM
[5'-32P]cytidine-3',5'-bisphosphate were incubated at
4 °C for 10-12 h in 20 µl of 50 mM HEPES (pH 7.5),
10% (v/v) dimethyl sulfoxide, 20 mM MgCl2, 3 mM dithiothreitol, 0.5 ng/µl acetylated bovine serum
albumin. The reaction mixture was mixed with 10 µl of formamide loading dye then loaded and run at 30 watts on a 6%/7 M
urea polyacrylamide gel in 1× TBE buffer. The RNA was located by UV
shadowing and purified as above).
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Fig. 1.
Diagram of cro
RNA derivatives used for cross-linking studies. The
rut site region is indicated with dark shading.
The asterisk denotes the end of the RNA that was labeled
with 32P. All 3'-end-labeled transcripts had a nontemplate
C at their 3'-ends.
RESULTS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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Fig. 2.
Views of two subunits of Rho. The
two modeled subunits are arranged with rotational symmetry about
the vertical axis with the plane of the paper. The N-terminal 125 amino
acids are colored blue, the C-terminal region (amino acids
126-419) are colored green. Red CPK-rendered groups
indicate the positions of the three residues changed to cysteines in
the mutant Rhos. Yellow patches are placed at residues 60, 62, 64, 105, and 109. These five residues are known to contact with RNA
bound to the RNA-binding domain (10, 43). The scale is indicated by a
double-headed arrow representing an end-to-end length of
~40 Å.
cro mRNA. Mutant Rhos that are defective in transcript termination have
very reduced ATPase activity with this natural Rho-terminated transcript (35). The results (Table I)
show that the specific activities of the pure Cys-82 and Cys-325 Rhos
were about half that of the wild-type Rho, whereas the Cys-153 Rho had
about normal activity. With poly(C), a super activator for Rho ATPase,
Cys-82 had nearly the same activity as wild-type Rho, whereas the
Cys-325 still had reduced activity. Thus, changes of residues that are believed to be near or at parts of the protein that interact with RNA
do affect the functional interaction of Rho with a test transcript. However, the changes did not eliminate function, which means that the
mutants are suitable for probing functional interactions.
Effect of mutational changes and APDP modification on the ATPase
activity of Rho
1 µg
1 with poly(C), and 9 nmol of ATP
hydrolyzed min
1 µg
1 with
cro RNA.
Determination of the fraction APDP modification by titration of Cys
residues with DTNB
cro mRNA and poly(C)
(Table I). The proteins had at least one-third the activity of the
unmodified wild-type Rho, indicating that they all retained partial
function in their interactions with RNA.
cro
Derivative, cro(216-365)--
For the initial studies on the
formation of cross-linked complexes with the Rho derivatives, a form of
cro RNA called cro(216-365) was chosen,
because it contains both the rut site and sequence 3' of
rut. Previous filter binding experiments showed that Rho protein bound as well to this RNA as to the full-length cro
transcript.2 Complexes of
this RNA with APDP-modified Cys-82 Rho were irradiated with UV light
and separated on a 10% polyacrylamide gel in the presence of sodium
dodecyl sulfate. Fig. 3 shows that
irradiation of the complex for 1 min caused the appearance of 3.7% of
the RNA in slower-migrating complexes. Because irradiation for 2 min increased the yield only slightly, the cross-linking reaction is nearly
complete by 1 min. This was confirmed by findings (not shown) that
longer irradiations did not increase the yield over that with the 2-min
incubation. The mobility shift was dependent upon irradiation of
APDP-modified Rho protein (Fig. 3, lane 1) and was
eliminated by treatment of an irradiated sample with an excess of a
reducing thiol, dithiothreitol (Fig. 3, lane 2) prior to
electrophoresis, confirming that the linkage is through a disulfide. Irradiation of unmodified, Cys-82-mixed hexamers failed to produce shifted RNA (data not shown). Lastly, irradiation of the RNA alone did
not affect its mobility (Fig. 3, lane 5), indicating that the shifted bands are not due to a UV-induced change in the RNA structure itself. Overall, these experiments suggest that the observed
shift in radiolabeled RNA is an azide-specific cross-link between RNA
and the APDP-modified Rho protein.
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Fig. 3.
Cross-linking controls with Cys-82 Rho and
cro(216-365) RNA. 3.6 nM
APDP-modified Cys-82 Rho was mixed with 10 nM 5'-end
32P-labeled cro(216-365) RNA in the presence of
5 mM ATP, and treated by the standard method with the
modifications as indicated. All samples were separated by
electrophoresis on a 10% polyacrylamide gel with 0.1% sodium dodecyl
sulfate. Radioactivity was visualized by exposure to a PhosphorImager
plate and quantitated by ImageQuant software (Molecular Dynamics).
Lanes: 1, no irradiation; 2, 2-min
irradiation followed by mixing sample with 0.2 volume of SDS-loading
dye containing 200 mM dithiothreitol; 3,
irradiation for 1 min; 4, irradiation for 2 min;
5, irradiation of RNA only.
cro RNA does bind to Rho in a way that brings it in close
proximity to an amino acid residue on the R loop.
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Fig. 4.
Photo-activable cross-linking of
cro(216-355) to APDP-modified Cys-82 Rho, Cys-153
Rho, and Cys-325 Rho. 3.6 nM Rho hexamer was mixed
with 10 nM cro(216-365) and incubated in the
absence (lanes 1, 3, and 6) or
presence (lanes 2, 4, and 7) of 5 mM ATP. All samples were irradiated with 302-nm light for 2 min at 4 °C. The samples were separated and analyzed as described in
Fig. 3.
Effects of poly(A) and poly(C) on the crosslinking of cro(1-380) to
APDP-modified Cys-82 and Cys-325 Rhos
cro
transcripts were made (see Fig. 1) and tested for their ability to form
cross-linked products (Table IV). First,
cro(1-86) RNA, a cro segment that lacks the
rut site, was tested. Although a transcript of the same size
carrying the rut sequence binds to Rho with a
Kd of ~0.6 nM (in 0.15 M
potassium glutamate with ATP present (20)), cro(1-86) forms
complexes that can barely be detected in the filter binding assay
(Kd > 50 nM). cro(1-86)
gave no detectable cross-linked products with either of the modified
Rhos (Table IV). Thus, the formation of cross-links with RNA correlates
with the ability of Rho to make a highly stable complex with the
RNA.
Percentage cross-linking of APDP-modified Cys-82 and Cys-325 Rho to the
various cro derivative RNAs
cro RNA segment
(cro(216-276) RNA) consisting of the rut
sequence but ending at residue 276, which is about the end of the
rut sequence, was tested. It binds Rho with high affinity
(Kd ~ 0.6 nM) and forms cross-links with Rho when the APDP group was attached to residue Cys-82 in the
RNA-binding site but not when the APDP group was on residue 325 (Fig.
5A). Thus, this RNA appears to
be in the primary RNA-binding site but does not extend into the range
of a group attached to a residue in the putative secondary RNA-binding
site. This result should be compared with those with
cro(216-365), which formed cross-links with Cys-325 Rho
almost as well as with Cys-82 Rho, when ATP was present (Fig. 4 and
Table III).
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Fig. 5.
Photo-activable cross-linking of
APDP-modified Rhos to the rut-site-only
cro(216-276) and to the full-length cro
transcript, cro(1-380). 3.6 nM
(hexamer) APDP-modified Cys-82 and Cys-325 Rho were each mixed in
A with either 10 nM cro(216-276) or
in B with 10 nM cro(1-380) RNA. The
samples were irradiated with 302-nm light for 2 min at 4 °C in the
absence of nucleotides (lanes 1 and 5) or in the
presence of 5 mM ATP (lanes 2 and 6),
5 mM ADP (lanes 3 and 7), 5 mM AMP-PNP (lanes 4 and 8), or in the
absence of Rho and nucleotides (lane 9). The samples were
separated and analyzed as described in Fig. 3.
cro RNA for activation of ATP hydrolysis by Rho (36) had shown that both the rut segment and sequences on the 3'-side
of rut were necessary for strong activation. To determine
whether the sequences on the 3'-side that are necessary for
cross-linking to residue Cys-325 in Rho are similar to those necessary
for activation of ATP hydrolysis, we measured the ATPase activity of
Rho with most of the RNAs used in this study (Table IV). The results
confirm that cro transcripts with rut and
extensive sequences to the 3' of rut (cro(1-380)
and cro(216-365)) activated ATPase very effectively, whereas the RNA lacking rut (cro(1-86)) did not.
The two RNAs that cross-linked to APDP-modified Cys-82 Rho but not as
well to the modified Cys-325 Rho (cro(1-276), and
cro(216-276)) gave reduced ATPase activity, as
expected. However, two of the shorter RNAs with longer
3'-segments than cro(216-276) gave very low levels of
ATPase even though they cross-linked moderately well with modified Cys-325 Rho. Hence, close proximity of that 3'-segment of RNA to
residue 325 is not sufficient for activating Rho ATPase. Because both
cro(216-313) and cro(216-388) have the
potential to form stable stem structures at their 3'-end (data not
shown), those structures could prevent the interactions that lead to
ATP hydrolysis but allow the RNA to bind in a way for it to cross-link
to a group on residue 325.
DISCUSSION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
View larger version (20K):
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Fig. 6.
Topological model of Rho bound to
mRNA. The shape of the hexameric Rho form was based on the
three-dimensional reconstruction of electron micrograph images as
reported by Yu et al. (18). We have placed the RNA-binding
domain(s) with the binding cleft(s) facing out to allow formation of a
continuous RNA-binding surface that was suggested previously from
RNaseA protection studies (44, 45).
In the structural model of Rho, each Cys residue that was created by mutagenesis was predicted to be solvent-exposed, whereas the Cys at position 202 in wild-type Rho was predicted to be partially buried. These predictions were confirmed by the relative reactivity of each of these groups; the three created by mutagenesis all reacted readily with the bulky APDP reagent, whereas the Cys at position 202 in wild-type Rho did not react well with that reagent. Hence, these results support the validity of the structural model.
At the concentration used in these experiments (~1 µg/ml), Rho is primarily monomeric in the absence of ATP and hexameric in the presence of ATP and other adenine nucleotides (20, 39, 46). This state of oligomerization was nearly the same in the presence of the 61-nucleotide rut segment, cro(216-276) (20). Gan and Richardson (20) found from cosedimentation studies that Rho monomers could bind to cro(216-276), but that the binding affinity increased greatly under conditions when nucleotides enhanced hexamer formation. Thus, the low level of APDP-modified Cys-82 Rho that formed cross-links to cro(216-276) in the absence of adenine nucleotides (Fig. 5A) could be from complexes between the RNA and a monomer, and the increase of cross-linking yields to that RNA could be a consequence of hexamerization. Although APDP-modified Cys-325 Rho did not form cross-links with that 61-nt rut segment, it did form cross-links with RNAs that had additional 3'-sequences. But unlike the Cys-82 derivative, it formed cross-links to those RNAs as well in the absence of nucleotides as in the presence of ATP. This result suggests that RNA is interacting near that site in both monomeric and hexameric forms and that either the process of hexamerization or some other consequence of the binding of nucleotides is reducing the cross-linking yield to an extent that offsets the higher binding affinity of the RNA to the hexamer.
The formation of cross-links between Rho derivatives and RNA yielded multiple products with different mobilities in some cases (see Figs. 3, 4, and 5B) and a product with a single mobility in other cases (Figs. 4 and 5A). In general, the multiple products were found using APDP-modified Cys-82 Rho and RNA molecules longer than 98 nucleotides. One explanation for the multiple products is the formation of cross-links to different points in the RNA. However, when the 61-nucleotide rut segment RNA was used, the product appeared to have a unique mobility. We would expect the subunits to cross-link to different positions on it as well as to the other RNAs, but perhaps the different products with this smaller RNA have smaller differences in their mobility.
In contrast, APDP-modified Cys-325 Rho gave unique products with all
but the longest RNA used, suggesting that it is cross-linking to a
unique point in most of the RNAs. When cro(1-380) was used, two major products were found. In this case, the RNA was large enough
that some Rho molecules could bind at possible rut sequences downstream from the primary rut sequence of cro RNA. Indeed, as the ratio of Rho to RNA was increased
from 0.9 to 1.8, the yield of low mobility material saturated when the
ratio approached 1.0, whereas the yield of the higher mobility
complexes increased steadily (data not shown). Because of the low
efficiency of cross-linking, we do not believe the very slow moving
complexes could arise from two subunits cross-linked to the same RNA molecule.
ATP affected the cross-linking in very different ways depending on the location of the cross-linker group. It caused a 3-fold increase when the group was in the RNA-binding domain (Cys-82), had no effect when the group was on residue 325, and decreased even further the low level cross-linking when the group was attached on the equatorial position. ATP is also known to change the structure of Rho in a way that blocks access of trypsin to a site at Arg-128 (8, 38), probably by altering the conformation within a subunit. It also enhances oligomerization (39) and increases the affinity of Rho for RNA (20). However, because the cross-linking experiments were done using concentrations of Rho (21 nM as subunits) that saturate binding even in the absence of ATP, we believe that the changes in cross-linking efficiency are likely due to the ATP-induced changes in the conformation within a subunit. A change in conformation in the RNA-binding domain could bring the group into closer proximity to RNA bound in the clefts in the RNA-binding domains.
AMP-PNP and ADP, two other adenine nucleotides that bind to Rho and affect Rho's structure and RNA-binding activity in a seemingly similar extent (20), also increased the extent of cross-linking to the group on Cys-82 but to lesser degrees than did ATP. Although these nucleotides have lower affinities than ATP for Rho (37), they were used at concentrations that were at least 100-fold above their Kd values. Because the order of relative cross-linking was the same with RNAs that activated ATP hydrolysis as with RNAs that bound but did not activate ATP hydrolysis, the lower cross-linking yields with the nonsubstrate nucleotides could be due to differences in their effects on the conformation of Rho, rather than the absence of changes associated with nucleotide hydrolysis.
Hexameric Rho Model--
All experimental data from this paper
were interpreted using a model of the Rho hexamer based on the
structure of the F1-ATPase and
subunits. Additional
evidence for the structure of the Rho hexamer, positioning the
ATP-binding face (P loop) of the Rho monomer toward the center of the
hole, comes from work done with image reconstruction and image
superimposition on the hexameric form of the RecA onto the
F1-ATPase. In work reported by Yu and Egelman (40), the
crystal structure of the ATP-binding domain of RecA (similar to that of
F1-ATPase
subunit, Rho, Bacillus stearothermophilus PcrA RNA helicase (41), and many of the
hexameric, ATP-binding helicases) were superimposed on that of the
F1ATPase with less than 2.0-Å root mean square deviation.
The overall orientations of the ATP-binding domains in the RecA
hexameric structure are positioned so as to face the hole at the center
of the hexamer. Also, Sawaya et al. (42) recently solved the
x-ray crystal structure of the helicase domain from the T7 gene 4 protein. They found that the structure of this domain was similar to
both the RecA and F1ATPase
and
subunits. When the
crystal data were imposed on reconstructed EM structures of the T7 gene
4 protein, they found that the arrangement of the hexameric ring was
also similar to the F1-ATPase hexameric structure. Thus,
the proposed orientation of the monomers in the Rho hexameric model has
strong evidence based on structural and functional homology.
Further analyses of electron micrographic images of Rho have allowed an
orientation of the RNA-binding site domains in a three-dimensional reconstruction (18). The atomic structure or the N-terminal domain of
Rho is known (9) and could be readily modeled into a low resolution
structure of the Rho hexamer. In this model the cleft for binding RNA
is oriented facing outward from the hexameric ring. This orientation
was supported by images showing tRNA molecules bound to Rho (18). This
model is consistent with the evidence we have presented, because the
positions of the clefts are beyond the 21-Å distance to the equatorial
residue (residue 153) used for the cross-linking studies. These images
further support the consensus that Rho acts like the hexameric DNA
helicases. Our cross-linking studies, however, have supplied the first
direct experimental evidence that RNA on the 3'-side of the primary
attachment site does indeed pass through the hole of the hexameric structure.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
---|
We thank Dr. Terry Platt for providing us with the p39-AS derivative plasmid containing the C202S mutation, and Dr. William Scott for providing us with the pA4 and pB3 plasmids. We thank Lislott Richardson for graciously providing T7 RNA polymerase and wild type E. coli Rho. Eugene Gan was very helpful in discussing data concerning Rho's ability to bind to the various RNAs used herein.
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FOOTNOTES |
---|
* This work was supported by National Institutes of Health Grant GM 56095.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of Chemistry,
Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington, IN 47405. Tel.:
812-855-1520; Fax: 812-855-8300; E-mail: richardj@indiana.edu.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, November 8, 2000, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M007066200
2 E. Gan, unpublished results.
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ABBREVIATIONS |
---|
The abbreviations used are:
APDP, N-[4-(p-azidosalicylamidobutyl]-3'-(2'-pyridyldithio)propionamide;
DTNB, 5,5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoate);
AMP-PNP, adenosine
5'-(,
-imino)triphosphate.
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