From the INSERM U440, Institut du Fer à Moulin, 17 Rue du Fer à Moulin and § CNRS, UMR 7637, Ecole Supérieure de Physique et de Chimie Industrielles de la Ville de Paris, 10 Rue Vauquelin, 75005 Paris, France
Received for publication, November 26, 2000, and in revised form, February 14, 2001
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ABSTRACT |
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Stathmin family phosphoproteins (stathmin, SCG10,
SCLIP, and RB3/RB3'/RB3") are involved in signal transduction and
regulation of microtubule dynamics. With the exception of stathmin,
they are expressed exclusively in the nervous system, where they
display different spatio-temporal and functional regulations and hence play at least partially distinct and possibly complementary roles in
relation to the control of development, plasticity, and neuronal activities. At the molecular level, each possesses a specific "stathmin-like domain" and, with the exception of stathmin, various combinations of N-terminal extensions involved in their association with intracellular membrane compartments. We show here that each stathmin-like domain also displays specific biochemical and tubulin interaction properties. They are all able to sequester two
Formation, plasticity, and activities of the mature nervous system
require numerous coordinated events such as cell proliferation and
migration, neurite extension, guidance toward targets, synapse formation, and stability. Intracellular signaling and cytoskeleton dynamics are key processes for these events, in which stathmin family
phosphoproteins are good candidates for playing a significant role. The
generic element of this phylogenetically conserved family (reviewed in
Ref. 1) is stathmin, also designated Op18 (2), a ubiquitous cytosoluble
phosphoprotein most highly expressed in the nervous system. The
stathmin family further includes SCG10, SCLIP, RB3, and its splice
variants RB3' and RB3", expressed exclusively in various cell types and
populations of the nervous system, and possessing a stathmin-like
domain (SLD)1 with various
N-terminal extensions (3-6). Their involvement in signal transduction
and regulation of microtubule dynamics, in relation with their
different spatio-temporal expression patterns, suggests that stathmin
family proteins may play related but distinct and likely complementary
roles in the regulation of differentiation, activities, and plasticity
of the nervous system.
During rat development, expression of stathmin family proteins is
highest from late embryogenesis until a week after birth (3, 7). They
are likely involved in neural differentiation: SCG10 was shown to be
induced in neural crest cells when they differentiate into sympathetic
neurons (7); in the PC12 cell model of neuron-like differentiation,
SCG10, SCLIP, and to a lesser extent RB3" are induced in response to
nerve growth factor (3, 7, 8), and overexpression of SCG10 potentiates
neurite extension (9).
All proteins of the stathmin family are expressed in the adult brain,
some of them at a reduced level (3, 7), indicating that they also have
a role in the mature nervous system. This role might be in relation
with differentiated neural activities or with regeneration or
plasticity, as suggested by the induction of SCG10 with neurite
regrowth following corticostriatal deafferentiation (10), or the
up-regulation of RB3/RB3" (but not SCG10) after neuronal activation in
the hippocampus (8). Interestingly, the various stathmin family
proteins are expressed in different but overlapping cell populations
(3, 11-15). SCG10 and SCLIP are expressed only in neurons, whereas
stathmin and RB3/RB3'/RB3" are also expressed in glial cells (3, 7).
Stathmin family proteins may thus play related but distinct roles in
different physiological environments.
Stathmin (reviewed in Ref. 16) has been originally identified as a
relay protein integrating diverse intracellular signaling pathways (17)
through combinatorial phosphorylation of its four phosphorylation sites
(18). Several target/partner candidates have been identified (19, 20),
among which tubulin (21) is the protein whose interaction with stathmin
has been best characterized. Stathmin indeed interacts with two
The various stathmin-like domains (3, 4) of the stathmin family
proteins display 65-75% amino acid identity with stathmin, including
the predicted Like stathmin, the other members of its phosphoprotein family were also
shown to destabilize the microtubule network when overexpressed in
cultured cells (28, 35). All these proteins thus form a family involved
in the regulation of microtubule dynamics in the nervous system, in
relation to differentiation, activities, and plasticity. Their
diversity, partly originating in their different spatio-temporal
expression and in the presence of specific combinations of N-terminal
domains, suggests that they play related and likely complementary
roles. The stathmin-like domains of stathmin family proteins might also
have different contributions to the control of microtubules, especially
as they show a molecular variability that could result in different
tubulin binding and hence functional properties. This would be
particularly relevant in cells of the nervous system and in their
subcompartments such as axons, dendrites, or the growth cone, which
display specific and distinctive microtubule organization and
dynamics. To test this hypothesis, we examined the specific properties
of the various stathmin-like domains. We show that they each interfere
with microtubule polymerization and interact with two
Plasmid Constructs for Prokaryote Expression of Stathmin-like
Domains
Standard recombinant DNA techniques were carried out as
described (36). The full-length cDNA of human stathmin (37) within the pET-8c vector (38) was used for stathmin expression. Rat SCG10 (6),
mouse SCLIP (3), rat RB3, and rat RB3' (4) cDNA clones were used
for polymerase chain reaction amplification of the stathmin-like domain
coding region. At the 5' end, the primers (Genset, Paris, France) were
designed to introduce a NcoI site including an initiating
ATG codon, a following alanine codon, and the appropriate sequence for
each stathmin-like domain, starting at the residue corresponding to
amino acid 5 in the stathmin sequence. At the 3' end, a
BamHI site was introduced in the non-coding region. Vent
DNA-polymerase and restriction enzymes were from Biolabs (Surrey,
British Columbia, Canada). The resulting digested polymerase chain
reaction fragments were subcloned into the corresponding sites of the
pET-8c plasmid (Novagen, Madison WI) (39). For protein expression, the
various plasmids were used to transform the Escherichia coli
strain BL21(DE3) (Stratagene, La Jolla CA), which provides an inducible
expression system suitable for the pET-8c vector.
Recombinant SLD Expression, Characterization, and
Purification
Prokaryote Expression--
An overnight preculture was used to
seed 1 liter of Luria-Bertani medium containing 50 µg/ml ampicillin,
which was grown at 37 °C. At exponential phase, recombinant protein
expression was induced for 3 h by the addition of 0.4 mM isopropyl- Heat Stability and Protein Purification--
Bacterial extracts
were centrifuged at 100,000 rpm (Optima MAX ultracentrifuge, rotor TLA
100.2, Beckman Instruments, Fullerton, CA) for 6 min at 4 °C
to yield the S2 supernatants and P2 pellets. The S2 supernatants were
then heated to 100 °C for 5 min in the presence of 100 mM NaCl, and the samples were centrifuged again as above to
yield the S3 supernatants and P3 pellets (17).
S3 extracts were adjusted to 20 mM Tris-HCl, 1 mM EGTA, pH 8.0, using Centriprep 10 (Millipore, Bedford,
MA), loaded on a Q-Sepharose FF anion exchange column (Amersham
Pharmacia Biotech), and eluted with a 0-200 mM NaCl linear
gradient in 20 mM Tris-HCl, 1 mM EGTA, pH 8.0. The eluted fractions were analyzed by SDS-polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis and Coomassie Blue staining. Stathmin-like domain-positive fractions were pooled, concentrated with Centriprep 10, and loaded on a Superose 12 HR 10/30 FPLC gel filtration column (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) equilibrated with phosphate-buffered saline, 1 mM EGTA. Stathmin-like domain-positive fractions
were pooled and concentrated as above. The precise masses of the
purified protein products were checked by MALDI-TOF (see below), and
their protein concentrations were accurately determined by amino acid analysis. In the case of RB3SLD and RB3'SLD,
purification and subsequent experiments were performed in the presence
of 1 mM dithiothreitol to avoid disulfide bond formation.
Mass Spectrometric Analysis--
Purified recombinant proteins
were analyzed with a matrix-assisted laser-desorption/ionization
time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometer (Voyager-DE STR
Biospectrometry Work station, PE Biosystems Inc., Framingham, MA). The
spectra of positive ions were recorded in linear mode with an
accelerating voltage of 25 kV and a delayed extraction of 400 ns. The
samples were mixed with a saturated solution of sinapinic acid
(3,5-dimethoxy-4-hydroxicinnamic acid, Aldrich) in 30% acetonitrile
and 0.1% aqueous trifluoroacetic acid. External calibration was
performed with horse apomyoglobin using the monoprotonated and
biprotonated ions with average mass-to-charge ratios of 16,952.56 and
8476.78, respectively.
The tryptic peptide digests of RB3SLD and
RB3'SLD were desalted and mixed with a saturated solution
of 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid in 0.1% aqueous trifluoroacetic acid.
MALDI-TOF mass spectra of the peptide mixture were performed in
positive ion reflector mode with an accelerating voltage of 20 kV and a
delayed extraction of 200 ns. External calibration was performed using
the protonated ions of des-Arg bradykinin, angiotensin, and ACTH-(clip
1-17) with monoisotopic mass-to-charge ratios of 904.468, 1296.685, and 2465.199 respectively.
After desalting of the tryptic digests, half of the sample was dried
and dissolved in 3 µl of a mixture of water/formic acid/methanol (49:1:50) for tandem mass spectrometry analyses using a
nano-electrospray ionization Q-TOF (Q-TOF II, Micromass, Manchester,
UK). The samples were loaded into nanoelectrospray capillaries
(Protana, Odense, Denmark). The capillary voltage was set at 1000 V,
the cone voltage at 45 V, and collision energies were about 20-30 eV.
Argon was used as the collision gas. The instrument was calibrated
between 150 and 2000 atomic mass units with a solution of NaI.
Stokes Radius Measurement--
The Stokes radii
(RS) and apparent molecular masses of the various
proteins were measured by gel filtration on a Superose 12 HR 10/30 FPLC
column (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) equilibrated with 80 mM
Pipes-KOH, 5 mM MgCl2, 1 mM EGTA,
pH 6.5, at a 0.5 ml/min flow rate. The standard proteins used to
calibrate the column are as follows: ribonuclease A
(RS = 16.4 Å), chymotrypsinogen A
(RS = 20.9 Å), ovalbumin (RS = 30.5 Å), bovine serum albumin (RS = 35.5 Å),
aldolase (RS = 48.1 Å), catalase
(RS = 52.2 Å), and ferritin (RS = 61 Å). The void volume V0 was measured as the
blue dextran elution volume and the total volume of the gel bed
Vt as the acetone elution volume. The data were
plotted according to Siegel and Monty (40). At least two runs were
performed for each protein.
Bovine Brain Tubulin Preparation
Tubulin was purified from bovine brain crude extracts by two
cycles of polymerization (41), followed by phosphocellulose chromatography (42). Tubulin was stored at In Vitro Tubulin Polymerization Assay
Samples containing varying concentrations of either tubulin
alone or tubulin plus stathmin-like domain in 50 mM
Mes-KOH, 30% glycerol, 6 mM MgCl2, 0.5 mM GTP, 1 mM EGTA, pH 6.8, were loaded in
100-µl quartz cuvettes with a 1-cm light path. Tubulin polymerization was turbidimetrically monitored at 350 nm (43) in an Ultrospec 3000 thermostated spectrophotometer (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). The
temperature was raised from 3 to 37 °C, and the increase in turbidity was recorded until a plateau was reached. The temperature was
then set back at 3 °C, and the decrease in turbidity recorded until
depolymerization was complete. The polymerized stationary state level
was defined as the difference between the plateau value at 37 °C and
the base line after return at 3 °C.
Gel Filtration Assay
100-µl samples containing 10 µM tubulin, either
alone or with varying concentrations of each stathmin-like domain, were
analyzed by gel filtration on a Superose 12 HR 10/30 FPLC column
(Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) equilibrated with 80 mM
Pipes-KOH, 1 mM EGTA, 5 mM MgCl2,
pH 6.5, at a 0.5 ml/min flow rate. The elution profile of the samples
was recorded either at 278 nm (only tubulin is visible, as the
stathmin-like domains have very few aromatic amino acids) or at 226 nm
(both species monitored). When necessary, fractions were collected and
analyzed by Western blot with an anti- Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR)
BIAcore 2000 system, CM5 sensorchips, HBS buffer (10 mM Hepes, 150 mM NaCl, 3.4 mM EDTA,
P20 surfactant 0.005% (v/v), pH 7.4), and the Amine Coupling Kit
(N-hydroxysuccinimide,
N-ethyl-N'-(3-diethyl-aminopropyl)-carbodiimide, ethanolamine-hypochloride) were from BIAcore AB (Uppsala, Sweden).
Sensorchip Coupling--
The first flow cell of each CM5 sensor
chip was coupled with bovine serum albumin to be used as a reference
flow cell, and the three others were coupled with various stathmin-like
domains to allow direct comparison. The coupling was performed using
the Amine Coupling Kit and the automated Immobilization Application Wizard included in the BIAcore software. The proteins to be coupled were in 10 mM sodium acetate, pH 5.0, and the coupling
level was aimed at 1500 resonance units, except for
RB3'SLD for which we coupled two flow cells at 1500 and
2500 resonance units.
Interaction Cycles--
To study the interaction of tubulin on
the flow cells coupled with the various stathmin-like domains, SPR
experiments were performed at 20 µl/min in 80 mM
Pipes-KOH, 1 mM EGTA, 5 mM MgCl2, pH 6.5. In a single interaction run, a given concentration of tubulin
was injected for 720 s to record the association phase on the four
flow cells, after which buffer was supplied for 720 s to record
the dissociation phase. At last, 10 µl of 20 mM NaOH, 2.5 M NaCl were injected to regenerate the flow cells. The
whole process was automated, and we performed multiple interaction runs with tubulin concentrations ranging from 0.6 to 20 µM. We
checked the absence of mass transfer. For the analysis, the sensorgrams were processed by subtracting the corresponding reference flow cell
sensorgram, in order to abolish base-line drift, bulk, and nonspecific
interaction contributions. The half-association (dissociation) time was
determined as follows: if RM is the maximal signal
reached during the association phase, then the half-association (dissociation) time is the time elapsed from the start of the association (dissociation) phase to reach the RM/2 level.
Biochemical Characterization of Recombinant Stathmin-like
Domains
All stathmin family proteins possess a stathmin-like domain
displaying a high (65-75%) amino acid sequence identity with
stathmin (Fig. 1). The aim of the present
study was to determine how this strong but partial sequence identity is
translated into similar or different functional properties, by
comparing the biochemical properties of stathmin and stathmin-like
domains, as well as their activities toward tubulin and microtubules.
For clarity, we use the generic term "stathmin-like domains" that
includes stathmin and the related stathmin-like domains, unless
specified otherwise. Stathmin was produced in bacteria as described
previously (38), and four other constructs were generated to produce
the recombinant stathmin-like domains of SCG10, SCLIP, RB3, and RB3',
respectively, designated SCG10SLD, SCLIPSLD,
RB3SLD, and RB3'SLD. RB3"SLD was not studied separately because it is identical to RB3SLD
(Fig. 1).
/
tubulin heterodimers as revealed by their
inhibitory action on tubulin polymerization and by gel filtration.
However, they differ in the stabilities of the complexes formed as well
as in their interaction kinetics with tubulin followed by surface
plasmon resonance as follows: strong stability and slow kinetics for
RB3; medium for SCG10, SCLIP, and stathmin; and weak stability and rapid kinetics for RB3'. These results suggest that the fine-tuning of
their stathmin-like domains contributes to the specific functional roles of stathmin family proteins in the regulation of microtubule dynamics within the various cell types and subcellular compartments of
the developing or mature nervous system.
INTRODUCTION
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
/
tubulin heterodimers in vitro to
form a T2S complex (22, 23). The two tubulin heterodimers bind mostly the predicted
-helical "interaction" domain of
stathmin (24), likely forming a curved complex whose three-dimensional structure has been recently revealed with the stathmin-like domain of
RB3 (25). Stathmin displays a microtubule destabilizing activity both
in vitro and in vivo (21, 26-29), which is
stoichiometrically accounted for in vitro by a free tubulin
sequestration mechanism (22, 27), although it has been proposed to be
also due in part to a direct catastrophe-promoting activity (21, 30,
31). Interestingly, the activity of stathmin toward tubulin and
microtubules is diminished when it is phosphorylated on various site
combinations (28, 29, 32). Being phosphorylated during mitosis and in response to numerous extracellular signals, stathmin appears as a
phosphorylation-dependent microtubule destabilizing factor, which may play important roles in proliferating as well as postmitotic cell regulations, in particular in the nervous system (1).
-helix, and several of the four stathmin phosphorylation sites. Besides their stathmin-like domain, the neural
members of the stathmin family are characterized by additional N-terminal domains. The A domain is common to SCG10, SCLIP, and RB3/RB3'/RB3" with 56-68% amino acid sequence identity. As
demonstrated in the case of SCG10 and very likely in the case of SCLIP
and RB3/RB3'/RB3", it is responsible for the membrane attachment and targeting of the proteins to the Golgi area (33); the presence of SCG10
is also demonstrated in neuritic processes and in the growth cone (3,
6, 28, 34). RB3/RB3'/RB3" also possesses a specific additional A'
domain between the A and the stathmin-like domains. RB3" further
possesses another additional A" domain, between A and A'. Finally, RB3'
differs from RB3 within its stathmin-like domain by an alternative
splicing thus resulting in a different C terminus. The roles of these
specific domains are still unknown, but they likely participate in
extending and specifying the properties and functions of the various
stathmin family proteins.
/
tubulin heterodimers. However, the
T2S complexes formed have different stabilities and display
distinct tubulin-SLD interaction kinetics, suggesting that each
stathmin family protein is involved in microtubule dynamics regulation in a specific, distinctive fashion. The specific functional properties of the various proteins of the stathmin family in the nervous system
thus appear to be determined not only by their characteristic N-terminal extensions but also through the fine-tuning of their stathmin-like domains.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-D-thiogalactopyranoside. Bacteria were then pelleted by sedimentation at 4 °C, resuspended in
20 mM Tris-HCl, 1 mM EGTA, pH 8.0, containing
the antiprotease mixture Complete (Roche Molecular Biochemicals), and
sonicated three times for 1 min on ice.
80 °C in either 25 mM Mes-KOH, 0.25 mM dithiothreitol, 0.25 mM EGTA, 0.125 mM MgCl2, 0.025 mM EDTA, pH 6.8, for short term use, or in 50 mM Mes-KOH, 0.5 mM dithiothreitol, 0.5 mM EGTA, 0.25 mM MgCl2, 0.05 mM EDTA, 3.4 M glycerol, 0.1 M GTP,
pH 6.8, for long term storage. In the latter case, an additional cycle
of polymerization was performed before use, at the end of which tubulin
was resuspended in 12.5 mM Mes-KOH, 0.25 mM
EGTA, 0.25 mM MgCl2, pH 6.8. Tubulin concentration was determined by amino acid analysis.
-tubulin monoclonal antibody
(Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) and a rabbit polyclonal serum against
SCG10 (4).
RESULTS
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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Fig. 1.
The stathmin family and the corresponding
stathmin-like domains. A, all stathmin family proteins
possess a stathmin-like domain displaying a 65-75% amino acid
sequence identity with stathmin. Stathmin family proteins also
possess additional domains as follows: A (light gray), A'
(black), and A" (dark gray) (see Introduction).
The four stathmin phosphorylation sites, identified as phosphorylated
in vivo (black dots), and the corresponding
conserved putative phosphorylation sites (crosses) for the
other family members are indicated. The characteristic predicted
-helix region with high coiled-coil probability is
hatched. B, amino acid sequence of stathmin-like
domains produced in bacteria. The generic term "stathmin-like
domains" includes stathmin and the related stathmin-like domains.
Stathmin was produced full length, whereas the other stathmin-like
domains started at the amino acid corresponding to amino acid 5 of
stathmin, preceded by a methionine (cleaved) and an alanine (bold
italic). For all proteins, the amino acid number is always the
number of the corresponding residue in stathmin. The C-terminal
sequence divergence between RB3 and RB3' is boxed. Amino
acid differences between the various stathmin-like domains are
highlighted. Double arrows indicate the variable regions
flanking the predicted
-helix. The sequences in gray are
the two duplicated stretches in the
-helix, the first being more
conserved among the stathmin family proteins than the second.
Solubility and Heat Stability of Stathmin-like Domains--
To
examine the solubility of the various recombinant proteins, the
corresponding bacterial extracts were submitted to high speed
centrifugation. As shown for RB3SLD in Fig.
2, all stathmin-like domains were
recovered, like stathmin, in the soluble "S2" fraction. Furthermore, after heat treatment at 100 °C in the presence of 100 mM NaCl, the recombinant stathmin-like domains were also
recovered in the subsequent high speed soluble fraction "S3," which
indicates that they all possess the characteristic heat stability
property of stathmin (17). Interestingly, the presence of the
additional A' domain common to all RB3 proteins (Fig. 1) resulted in
the production of an insoluble RB3SLD-A' protein,
essentially recovered in the insoluble "P2" fraction (Fig. 2). Due
to the low yield of soluble RB3SLD-A', its biochemical and
functional properties were not further investigated in this study.
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The molecular masses of the recombinant proteins were checked
by MALDI-TOF MS analysis. For stathmin, SCG10SLD, and
SCLIPSLD, the measured masses correspond to the calculated
masses of the proteins without N-terminal methionine. For
RB3SLD and RB3'SLD, they correspond to the
masses of the proteins without N-terminal methionine and a mass
increment of about 42 ± 3 Da. Since RB3SLD and
RB3'SLD are identical except for their C-terminal amino
acid sequence, we assumed that both could bear the same
post-translational acetylation that would account for a 42-Da mass
increment. A tryptic digestion followed by MALDI-TOF MS analysis of the
generated peptides showed that the N-terminal peptide of both
RB3SLD and RB3'SLD was indeed acetylated. This
result was confirmed by the fact that their N-terminal sequencing was
80-90% blocked. Furthermore, tandem mass spectrometric
fragmentation of the N-terminal peptides using a Q-TOF mass
spectrometer revealed that N-terminal peptides of both
RB3SLD and RB3'SLD were
N--acetylated on their N-terminal alanine.
Shape Characterization by Stokes Radius Measurement-- We analyzed the various stathmin-like domains by gel filtration, and their elution volumes were used to calculate their Stokes radii and apparent molecular masses (Table I). As expected, stathmin displayed an atypical behavior, since it eluted like a globular protein of about 110 kDa, i.e. about 6-fold its actual molecular mass. This high apparent molecular mass reveals an asymmetrical shape (44). The other stathmin-like domains also displayed abnormally high Stokes radii (Table I), implying that they are asymmetrical proteins as well. However, by using the MMapp/MMMS ratio (apparent molecular mass determined by gel filtration/molecular mass measured by MALDI-TOF MS) as a measure of this asymmetry, it appears that stathmin is more elongated than the other stathmin-like domains, followed by SCG10SLD and SCLIPSLD and then by RB3SLD and RB3'SLD (Table I). Altogether, all stathmin-like domains share an elongated form but to significantly different extents, suggesting that they possess specific structural features that might be functionally relevant.
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Activity on Tubulin Polymerization in Vitro
In order to compare the functional properties of the various
stathmin-like domains, we assessed their activity on tubulin polymerization in vitro. The addition of any stathmin-like
domain to the tubulin polymerization reaction resulted in a decreased microtubule amount at steady state. For example, 4 µM
RB3SLD lowered the amount of microtubules normally formed
with 20 µM tubulin to that obtained with 12 µM tubulin, as if 4 µM RB3SLD
prevented 8 µM tubulin to enter the polymerization
reaction (Fig. 3A). The effects of increasing concentrations of stathmin-like domain on microtubule assembly with 20 µM tubulin revealed that the
presence of any stathmin-like domain at a concentration C induced the
same effect as a 2C tubulin decrease (Fig. 3B). Therefore,
everything occurs as if each stathmin-like domain molecule were able to
sequester two /
tubulin heterodimers. It thus
seemed very likely that they might interact directly with tubulin, like
stathmin which forms a T2S complex preventing the
corresponding tubulin to enter the polymerization reaction (22,
27).
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Interaction of Stathmin-like Domains with Tubulin
Characterization of the Tubulin-Stathmin-like Domain
Complexes--
In order to assess the existence of a direct
tubulin-SLD interaction, samples containing 10 µM bovine
brain tubulin and a concentration range of each stathmin-like domain
(1, 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 µM) were loaded on an FPLC gel
filtration column. Monitoring at 278 nm was used to follow tubulin
elution only, whereas both tubulin and stathmin-like domains were
monitored either at 226 nm or in outflow fractions by Western blotting.
As illustrated in Fig. 4A for
SCG10SLD, we observed for each stathmin-like domain a
second tubulin peak with a smaller elution volume, which probably corresponds to tubulin within a larger molecular complex. The latter is
probably a tubulin-SLD complex because its amount increased with
stathmin-like domain concentration. Moreover, the gel elution profiles
obtained with 5, 10, and 20 µM stathmin-like domain are superimposable and do not reveal any free tubulin. Thus, 5 µM stathmin-like domain is sufficient to complex 10 µM tubulin, which is consistent, as in the case of
stathmin, with a 2:1 tubulin:SLD stoichiometry.
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Western blot analysis (Fig. 4B) confirmed the stoichiometry. Indeed, in a sample containing 10 µM tubulin and 2.5 µM SCG10SLD, SCG10SLD was eluted as a single species at the position of the shifted tubulin complex, ahead of the position of free SCG10SLD, whereas only about half of 10 µM tubulin was shifted. Thus, 2.5 µM SCG10SLD was totally complexed by about 5 µM tubulin. Conversely, a sample containing 10 µM tubulin and 10 µM SCG10SLD showed that 10 µM tubulin was entirely complexed by about half of 10 µM SCG10SLD, i.e. 5 µM.
Finally, monitoring the elution outflow at 226 nm (which allows the detection of both tubulin and stathmin-like domains) revealed a small peak corresponding to free stathmin-like domain in excess, as shown for RB3'SLD in Fig. 4C. This peak was present when the tubulin:SLD ratio was lower than 2:1, i.e. when there was more than 5 µM stathmin-like domain for 10 µM tubulin. Altogether, our results are consistent with a 2:1 stoichiometry of the tubulin-SLD complexes.
Different Stabilities of the Tubulin-Stathmin-like Domain
Complexes--
Besides the overall similarities of the various
stathmin-like domains in their interference with microtubule assembly
and their interaction with tubulin, the comparison of the gel
filtration elution profiles points out that the various tubulin-SLD
complexes have actually distinct properties. Indeed, the resulting
shifted elution peaks had different shapes, as seen, for example, for 10 µM tubulin in the presence of 10 µM of
any stathmin-like domain (Fig.
5A). The shifted peaks can be
sorted in three types as follows: tubulin peaks obtained with
SCG10SLD and RB3SLD were the most shifted
toward the smaller elution volumes and displayed a narrow and
relatively symmetrical shape. The peaks with stathmin and SCLIPSLD were less shifted and had an asymmetrical shape.
This is probably due to the dissociation along the column of some
originally complexed molecules, as they underwent dilution during their
migration and were separated from the slower migrating monomers.
Finally, the peak obtained with RB3'SLD was eluted at an
intermediary position between the other complexes and free tubulin;
this late elution position likely results from a more effective
dissociation. Indeed, if the dissociation on the column is extensive
from the beginning of the elution, it is possible that no tubulin
molecule originally complexed in the sample remains associated, all
being eluted at an average intermediate position between the volumes
corresponding to the free and complexed forms of tubulin.
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The dissociation of the complex is even more striking in more dilute concentration conditions, such as 10 µM tubulin + 1 µM stathmin-like domain, for example (Fig. 5B). In the case of stathmin and SCLIPSLD, there was no more individualized complex peak but only a shoulder in front of the free tubulin peak. On the other hand, the tubulin-RB3SLD complex peak remained individualized and was eluted at the same position as observed with 10 µM RB3SLD (about 10.5 ml). Therefore, it appears that the tubulin-RB3SLD complex is far less sensitive to dissociation along the column than tubulin-stathmin and tubulin-SCLIPSLD. The tubulin-SCG10SLD complex seems to have an intermediate stability, as its elution began at an early position but was spread out toward the free tubulin peak. As mentioned above, the tubulin-RB3'SLD complex is the least stable, since the tubulin peak was even less shifted at 1 µM than at 10 µM RB3'SLD.
As the tubulin-RB3SLD complex remained totally associated at 1 µM RB3SLD, we tried even more dilute concentration conditions to test to what extent the stability of this complex was different from the others. The elution profile of a stoichiometric mixture of 1 µM tubulin + 0.5 µM RB3SLD (Fig. 5C) reveals clearly that the complex did not dissociate during migration, as the peak position was not delayed and no trail appeared. We did not try lower concentrations, as the signal:noise ratio was too low.
In conclusion, we found that the complexes of tubulin with the various stathmin-like domains display different stabilities in the following order: RB3SLD, SCG10SLD, stathmin and SCLIPSLD, and finally RB3'SLD.
Different Interaction Kinetics of Tubulin with the Various Stathmin-like Domains
We further characterized the kinetics of the interaction between the various stathmin-like domains and tubulin by using the SPR BIAcore technology, which monitors the mass concentration variation at the vicinity of a surface. A constant tubulin concentration flow was applied (association phase) on flow cells coupled with the various stathmin-like domains, followed by a flow of buffer containing no tubulin (dissociation phase). The SPR signals were then corrected for nonspecific signal using a reference flow cell coupled with bovine serum albumin.
An example of the corresponding interaction kinetics is given in Fig.
6A, where the signals
corresponding to a 4 µM tubulin run have been normalized
(the maximum signal corresponding to 100%), to allow their more direct
comparison. We see clearly that the various tubulin-SLD complexes
displayed distinct association and dissociation kinetics. As a measure
of the kinetics differences, we represented the half-association and
dissociation times, which vary non-linearly with tubulin concentration
(Fig. 6, B and C).
|
The association kinetics of tubulin to stathmin,
SCG10SLD, and SCLIPSLD could not be
distinguished, whereas association to RB3SLD was much
slower and to RB3'SLD was much faster (this latter observation does not appear so clearly on the half-association plot
(Fig. 6B), as the measured times are very close to the
minimal measurable value, but it is striking on the SPR curve in
Fig. 6A). For their dissociation kinetics, stathmin
and SCLIPSLD were not significantly different,
although tubulin-SCLIPSLD always dissociated slightly more slowly.
Tubulin-SCG10SLD dissociated significantly
slower. Moreover, tubulin-RB3SLD dissociated even slower,
whereas tubulin-RB3'SLD dissociated extremely fast as compared with all the other stathmin-like domains. Altogether the
various kinetics of tubulin association and dissociation with stathmin-like domains are in good agreement with the stabilities of the
formed complexes as revealed by gel filtration chromatography: intermediate stability for stathmin and SCLIPSLD; slightly
higher stability for SCG10SLD due to slower dissociation;
and strong stability for RB3SLD with both slow association
and dissociation, as opposed to weak stability with RB3'SLD
with both fast association and dissociation.
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DISCUSSION |
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The biological expression and regulation of phosphoproteins of the stathmin family suggest that they play different, possibly complementary roles in development, plasticity, and activities of the nervous system. In the case of stathmin, its proposed signal integration and relay functions are at least in part mediated by its interaction with tubulin and hence its involvement in the control of microtubule dynamics (reviewed in Ref. 1). Interestingly, the other phosphoproteins of the stathmin family share a similar but distinct stathmin-like domain and have been shown to interfere also with microtubule assembly in vivo and in vitro (9, 28, 35). We demonstrate here that all known stathmin-like domains interact with tubulin and inhibit microtubule assembly in vitro through tubulin sequestration. We further report that each stathmin-like domain interacts with tubulin in a distinctive way, most likely contributing to the specific biological roles of the various stathmin family phosphoproteins, particularly in the differentially regulated control of microtubule assembly in the diverse cell and subcellular compartments of the nervous system, at the various stages of development and adult life.
Biochemical Properties of Stathmin-like Domains--
All
recombinant stathmin-like domains display characteristic stathmin-like
biochemical properties, such as high solubility and heat stability, as
well as high Stokes radius indicating an elongated shape. This
illustrates their genuine stathmin-like character, consistent with
their extensive amino acid sequence identity (65-75%), and their
similar predicted secondary structure including a long -helix (3, 4,
45). However, beside these overall similarities, the various
stathmin-like domains display distinctive structural features as
suggested by differences in their measured Stokes radii, which most
likely reveal different conformations possibly related to specific
biological roles.
The biochemical characterization of recombinant stathmin-like domains
revealed an unexpected feature, the N--acetylation of
RB3SLD and RB3'SLD. Although
N-
-acetylation is rarely observed in prokaryote systems,
it was reported previously for the endogenous ribosomal proteins L12,
S5, and S18 in E. coli, as well as for some recombinant
proteins (46). SCG10SLD and SCLIPSLD did not undergo this modification, although they share the same (M)ADMEV N-terminal sequence as RB3SLD, the first difference arising
only at the sixth residue (a lysine for SCG10SLD and
SCLIPSLD instead of an isoleucine for RB3SLD
and RB3'SLD). This further indicates that the determinants
for N-
-acetylation are far broader than the very first
N-terminal residues (47).
Microtubule Destabilizing Activity of Stathmin Family Proteins-- Our present observation that all stathmin-like domains of the family inhibit tubulin polymerization in vitro, in a way similar to stathmin (21, 27) and SCG10 (9), confirms their stathmin-like character at the functional level. These results demonstrate in vitro an action on microtubule assembly for all members of the family, in agreement with in vivo observations of microtubule interference of entire proteins of the family when overexpressed in HeLa cells (28). Moreover, this is the first demonstration of microtubule assembly inhibition by RB3', whose activity could not be evidenced in vivo.
Quantitative analysis of the activities of stathmin-like domains toward
tubulin polymerization reveals that the presence of any stathmin-like
domain at a concentration C inhibits the polymerization of a
concentration 2C of tubulin. In the case of stathmin, the existence of
a T2S complex (22, 23) is sufficient to account for the
stoichiometric effect of stathmin on tubulin polymerization in
vitro, if one considers that one stathmin sequesters two
/
tubulin heterodimers and prevents them from
entering polymerization (27). As we demonstrate here the existence of
complexes between tubulin and stathmin-like domains, it is likely that
all stathmin-like domains inhibit tubulin polymerization in
vitro by tubulin sequestration. Recently, the
tubulin-RB3SLD complex was actually crystallized, and x-ray
diffraction analysis revealed a three-dimensional structure compatible
with tubulin sequestration (25).
Stathmin has been shown also to increase microtubule catastrophe frequencies in some conditions (21, 30, 31). Although such an effect is expected to some extent as a consequence of tubulin sequestration, it has been proposed that it might also result from a direct interaction of stathmin with microtubule ends, which has not been observed so far. Quantitative comparison of the tubulin binding and catastrophe-promoting activities of stathmin-like domains would give clues to determine to what extent tubulin sequestration and catastrophe promotion are two independent actions of these proteins on microtubule stability.
Distinct Tubulin Interaction Properties of Stathmin-like Domains-- The interaction between stathmin-like domains and tubulin has been characterized by means of gel filtration, which informs on the complex formed and its stability, and by surface plasmon resonance, which allows us to follow the kinetics of the interaction, as done previously for stathmin (22).
Some limitations preclude the interpretation of SPR results in terms of actual kinetic rate constants. Indeed, the reaction pathway for the formation of the T2S complexes is not known and very probably involves second-order kinetics. Moreover, heterogeneities of two kinds are likely to result in additional complexity of the interaction kinetics. Brain tubulin is heterogeneous due to the existence of several genes and post-translational modifications of the gene products; a differential interaction of stathmin-like domains with the diverse tubulin isoforms might be actually of physiological significance. A more technical heterogeneity is that of the stathmin-like domains, which may be coupled to the sensorchip through one or several random lysines. In any case, the SPR technology allowed us to compare the relative interaction potencies of the various stathmin-like domains with tubulin and to reveal, at least qualitatively, a true diversity of the tubulin-SLD interactions. Indeed, the interaction of SCLIPSLD with tubulin is very close to that of stathmin: SCG10SLD associates similarly but dissociates more slowly from tubulin; RB3SLD displays both the slowest association and dissociation phases; RB3'SLD displays the fastest ones.
The SPR data can be compared with results following gel filtration, which sort the various complexes according to their stability along the column: interestingly, RB3SLD generates the most stable complex, followed by SCG10SLD, stathmin, and SCLIPSLD, and finally RB3'SLD. These results are highly consistent with the SPR results, which mutually strengthen their validity and significance. The fact that the tubulin-SLD stability differences were not revealed by following the action of stathmin-like domains on tubulin polymerization is not surprising because of the high tubulin concentrations necessarily used in this assay, thus leading to full association of low as well as high affinity stathmin-like domains with tubulin.
The predicted -helix encompassing the "core" region
(residues 42-126) (24) is essential for the interaction with
tubulin and corresponds most likely to the 91-amino acid
-helix
interacting with two
/
tubulin heterodimers in
the tubulin-RB3SLD complex (25). This
-helix is made of
two duplicated stretches (30-40% identity) of 35 residues (25, 37)
(Fig. 1B), whose spacing is consistent with that of the two
/
tubulin heterodimers in the
tubulin-RB3SLD complex (25). As the amino acid sequence of
the first stretch is significantly more conserved between all stathmin-like domains than that of the second, the two stretches might
have different contributions to the binding of the two tubulins.
The characteristic tubulin interaction differences among the various
stathmin-like domains result from their 25-35% differences in primary
sequences. The two regions (residues 29-39 and 138-149) flanking the interacting -helix are the most divergent (Fig. 1B) and could contribute to the observed tubulin interaction
differences if they were involved in stabilizing the interaction.
However, as these regions are also phylogenetically variable, this
would not be the case if the characteristic interaction properties of the various members of the stathmin family with tubulin were, as
expected, conserved through evolution. It is thus likely that more
subtle sequence differences within the more conserved regions of the
various stathmin-like domains are responsible for the observed tubulin
interaction differences.
The two splice variants RB3SLD and RB3'SLD have opposite tubulin interaction properties, although their sequences are identical up to residue 124, but are totally divergent on their C termini. This suggests that either the C-terminal part of RB3SLD (which is absent from RB3'SLD) is very important to stabilize the interaction or the C-terminal part of RB3'SLD has a strong destabilizing effect. It is interesting that differential splicing can direct the expression of the rb3 gene toward proteins forming a highly stable or unstable complex with tubulin, which might be of physiological importance regarding the regulation of microtubule dynamics in the corresponding cells.
Biological Significance-- Microtubule dynamics are regulated by many stabilizing and destabilizing factors, such as microtubule-associated proteins or Kin1, whose opposite activities establish a finely tuned balance between microtubule polymerization and depolymerization. The diversity of stathmin family proteins, together with the diversity of MAPs in the nervous system, might enhance the flexibility of this regulation, each protein contributing to it differently with specific tubulin interacting properties and microtubule destabilizing activity. In particular, different tubulin interaction kinetics and complex stability might result in different contributions to microtubule assembly dynamics, allowing a fine-tuning of its regulation according to the local tubulin/microtubule status within the cell, as well as to specific needs in various cells and cell compartments within the nervous system. Moreover, the different intracellular distribution of stathmin family proteins might allow the local regulation of the microtubule network. Indeed, stathmin is cytosolic whereas stathmin family proteins are membrane-bound, with a punctate localization at the level of the Golgi apparatus, neuronal processes, and growth cones (6, 34). The concentration of stathmin-related proteins on some membrane compartments may thus create a local change in microtubule dynamics, which could be important for process elongation or organelle transport. This could explain why most membrane-bound members of the family are expressed in neural cells where stathmin itself is abundant. Furthermore, the activity of stathmin family proteins toward microtubules might be regulated by their local release from the membrane compartment, as it has been suggested in the case of SCG10 (35), this release being possibly controlled differently for the various proteins of the family. It is also possible that the various stathmin family proteins interact differently with the various tubulin isoforms, thus modifying the microtubule composition and stability.
An additional complexity in the regulation of the neural microtubule network might come from the differential phosphorylation of stathmin family proteins. Indeed, stathmin is known to integrate intracellular signaling pathways through combinatorial phosphorylation, and phosphorylation has been shown to regulate the microtubule destabilizing activity of stathmin and SCG10 (35, 48). As several but not all the stathmin phosphorylation sites are present in the various stathmin-like domains, their phosphorylation may occur under different conditions; each protein would thus be able to modulate the microtubule network differently, possibly locally, according to its phosphorylation state. The presence of other additional domains A' and A" in the RB3 proteins may further broaden the diversity of stathmin family functions, in part through alternative splicing.
Altogether, we show that in addition to their overall structural and
functional stathmin-like properties, the various stathmin-like domains
display specific molecular and tubulin binding properties most likely
of physiological relevance. The stathmin family phosphoproteins thus
form a set of microtubule regulators with diverse properties, which may
participate in cytoskeleton reorganization in the developing and the
mature nervous system. For a better understanding of the role of these
proteins, it will be important to continue assessing their diversity,
particularly by investigating the role of their N-terminal domains,
their phosphorylation, and also their differential expression and
localization in tissues and cells. All these properties may participate
in defining the specific physiological role of each stathmin family protein.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
---|
We thank M. F. Carlier and P. Amayed (LEBS, Gif-sur-Yvette, France) for help in preparing bovine brain tubulin. We are grateful to J. M. Camadro and B. Gontero-Meunier (Institut Jacques Monod, Paris, France) for technical help with the BIAcore experiments and stimulating discussions; to J. P. Le Caer and V. Labas (ESPCI, Paris, France) for N-terminal sequencing; and to O. Gavet, V. Marthiens, A. Maucuer, and R. M. Mège for discussions and critical reading of the manuscript.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported by INSERM, ARC, and AFM.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Present address: CNRS FRE2371, 9 quai Saint Bernard,75005, Paris, France.
¶ To whom correspondence should be addressed: INSERM U440, Institut du Fer à Moulin, 17 Rue du Fer à Moulin, 75005 Paris, France. Tel.: 33 1 45 87 61 30; Fax: 33 1 45 87 61 32; E-mail: sobel@ifm.inserm.fr.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, February 15, 2001, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M010637200
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ABBREVIATIONS |
---|
The abbreviations used are: SLD, stathmin-like domain; MALDI-TOF MS, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry; SPR, surface plasmon resonance; Mes, 4-morpholineethanesulfonic acid; Pipes, 1,4-piperazinediethanesulfonic acid; FPLC, fast protein liquid chromatography.
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