From the Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Atran Laboratories, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461
Received for publication, October 2, 2000, and in revised form, December 20, 2000
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ABSTRACT |
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Atypical protein kinase C isoforms (aPKCs)
transmit regulatory signals to effector proteins located in the
cytoplasm, nucleus, cytoskeleton, and membranes. Mechanisms by which
aPKCs encounter and control effector proteins in various
microenvironments are poorly understood. By using a protein interaction
screen, we discovered two novel proteins that adapt a
Caenorhabditis elegans aPKC (PKC3) for specialized
(localized) functions; protein kinase C adapter 1 (CKA1, 593 amino
acids) and CKA1S (549 amino acids) are derived from a unique mRNA
by alternative utilization of two translation initiation codons. CKA1S
and CKA1 are routed to the cell periphery by exceptionally basic
N-terminal regions that include classical phosphorylation site domains
(PSDs). Tethering of PKC3 is mediated by a segment of CKA1 that
constitutes a phosphotyrosine binding (PTB) domain. Two aromatic amino
acids (Phe175 and Phe221) are indispensable for
creation of a PKC3-binding surface and/or stabilization of CKA1·aPKC
complexes. Patterns of CKA1 gene promoter activity and
CKA1/CKA1S protein localization in vivo overlap with patterns established for PKC3 expression and distribution. Transfection experiments demonstrated that CKA1/CKA1S sequesters PKC3 in intact cells. Structural information in CKA1/CKA1S enables delivery of adapters to the lateral plasma membrane surface (near tight junctions) in polarized epithelial cells. Thus, a PTB domain and PSDs collaborate in a novel fashion in CKA1/CKA1S to enable tethering and targeting of
PKC3. Avid ligation of a PKC isoform is a previously unappreciated function for a PTB module.
Many hormones and growth factors elicit activation of
phospholipases that produce diacylglycerol
(DAG)1 (1, 2). Protein kinase
C (PKC) isoenzymes disseminate signals carried by DAG. Amplification
and routing of signals are achieved because classical ( Atypical PKCs (aPKCs), which include vertebrate PKC Mechanisms by which aPKCs are activated and targeted to specific
microenvironments are poorly understood. All PKCs have C-terminal catalytic domains and N-terminal pseudosubstrate sites and Cys-rich regions (C1 domains) (1, 2, 4); phosphatidylserine stimulates catalytic
activity of all PKCs. However, aPKCs do not bind Ca2+, DAG,
or phorbol esters (which mimic DAG) and are not activated or
translocated by these molecules (19-21). aPKCs also lack transmembrane domains, cytoskeleton attachment sites, and organelle targeting motifs.
Unlike other PKC isoforms, aPKCs escape endosome-mediated degradation
when cells are incubated chronically with hormones, DAG analogs, or
phorbol esters (19-21). Thus, the paradigm of DAG-mediated membrane
translocation/activation and subsequent degradation cannot explain
targeting and regulation of aPKCs.
Recent evidence suggests a "recruitment model" for incorporation of
aPKCs into signaling pathways. aPKCs exhibit substantial levels of
basal activity and are only modestly activated (~1.5-2-fold) by
hormones and growth factors (16, 22). Coimmunoprecipitation experiments
reveal that aPKCs associate (directly or indirectly) with critical
signaling enzymes, including p70S6 kinase, Akt/PKB, and PDK-1 (22-24).
In addition, several nonenzymic proteins (ZIP, PAR-4, LIP) bind aPKCs
and modulate phosphotransferase activity (25-27). Further clues
emerged from our investigations on C. elegans PKC3
(10). C. elegans physiology is controlled by signaling molecules and mechanisms that are operative in mammals (28, 29). PKC3
is (a) the sole aPKC encoded in the C. elegans
genome (8), (b) is activated by phosphatidylserine, and
(c) possesses catalytic, pseudosubstrate, and C1 domains
that share >55% sequence identity with corresponding regions of PKCs
PKC3 is tightly associated with particulate fractions derived from
post-embryonic (larvae and adult) C. elegans. The kinase accumulates at inner apical surfaces of intestinal and pharyngeal cells2 and along the cortical
cytoskeleton/plasma membrane border of other cells (8). Cells of larval
and adult C. elegans that exhibit polarized enrichment of
PKC3 are highly differentiated, nonmitotic, and not destined for
apoptosis. Thus, anchored PKC3 in larvae and adult animals evidently
subserves functions that differ from those mediated by PKC3 in rapidly
dividing embryonic cells. The distinctive DAG independence and
constitutive activity of aPKCs, the propensity of aPKCs to engage in
protein-protein interactions, and the asymmetric localization of aPKCs
in cells in vivo suggest that these kinases are adapted for
multiple functions by binding with docking proteins. To verify this
concept, it is essential to (a) characterize adapter
proteins that avidly bind aPKCs; (b) demonstrate that
candidate adapters ligate aPKCs in intact cells and target the bound
kinase to a specific location; (c) map domains and
individual amino acids in the adapter and cognate aPKCs that govern
complex formation; and (d) establish the structural basis
for attachment of adapter-bound aPKCs to membranes or cytoskeleton. We
now report the discovery and characterization of novel PKC3-docking
proteins named C kinase adapter-1 (CKA1) and CKA1S that satisfy
criteria elaborated above. We also demonstrate a new role for a
conserved, PTB domain in CKA1, ligation of a PKC isoform.
Isolation of cDNA Encoding C. elegans CKA1, a PKC3-binding
Protein--
A cDNA encoding C. elegans PKC3 was cloned
as described previously (8). Complementary DNA encoding amino acids
1-233 in PKC3 (8) was synthesized via the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and cloned into the yeast "bait" plasmid pAS1-CYH2. The fusion gene encodes a protein in which the yeast GAL4 DNA-binding domain is linked to the N terminus of the PKC3 regulatory region. A
C. elegans cDNA library in the yeast expression plasmid
pACT (provided by R. Barstead, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation) was screened via the two-hybrid interaction assay (30). Growth of
auxotrophic yeast on medium lacking Trp, His, and Leu and
DNA Sequencing and Analysis--
cDNA inserts, including
full-length CKA1 cDNA, were sequenced as described previously (31).
Analysis of sequence data, sequence comparisons, and data base searches
were performed using programs provided by the NCBI Server at the
National Institutes of Health and the SMART website (32-34).
Isolation of mRNA and Northern Blot
Analysis--
Poly(A)+ RNA was isolated, size-fractionated
in a denaturing gel, and transferred to a Nytran membrane as described
previously (35). A 32P-labeled cDNA probe was generated
by random priming, using the 1.9-kbp CKA cDNA (excised from pCKA)
as a template. CKA1 mRNA·32P-cDNA hybrids were
detected by autoradiography on XAR-5 x-ray film (Eastman Kodak Co.) at
Characterization of the 5' End and Overall Size of CKA1
cDNA--
Complementary DNA was synthesized by reverse transcriptase
(RT), using 2 µg of C. elegans poly(A)+ RNA as
a template (35). PCR amplification was performed with a 5' primer
(5'-GAATCTAGAGGTTTAATTACCCAAGTTTGAG- 3') that contained the spliced
leader 1 (SL1) sequence (see "Results") downstream from an
XbaI restriction site. A series of nested 3' primers
corresponded to a variety of proximal and distal portions of the
cDNA sequence for the insert in pCKA1. Nucleotides 5-10 of the 3'
primers constituted an XhoI recognition sequence. PCR
products were digested with XbaI and XhoI, cloned
into the plasmid pBluescript SKII, and sequenced. The same RT-PCR
methodology and strategy were employed to synthesize full-length CKA1 cDNA.
In Vitro Transcription and Translation of
CKA1--
35S-Labeled CKA1 and CKA1S were generated by the
TNTTM-coupled reticulocyte lysate system (Promega Corp.) as
described previously (8).
Production and Affinity Purification of Anti-CKA1 IgGs--
A
segment of cDNA encoding amino acids 232-368 of CKA1 was
synthesized via PCR and cloned into the expression plasmid pGEX-KG as
described previously (36-38). This placed cDNA encoding the partial CKA1 polypeptide downstream from and in-frame with the 3'
terminus of an inducible glutathione S-transferase (GST)
gene in the vector. GST-CKA1 fusion polypeptide was produced when
Escherichia coli DH5 Protein Determination--
Protein concentrations were measured
by using the Coomassie Plus Protein Assay Reagent (Pierce). Albumin was
used as a standard.
Growth and Extraction of C. elegans--
The Bristol
N2 strain of C. elegans was grown randomly or
synchronously at 20 °C as described previously (38). Particulate and
cytosolic fractions were isolated from L1-L4 larvae and young adult
C. elegans as described by Hu and Rubin (38).
Cell Culture and Transfection--
A cell line (AV-12) derived
from a hamster subcutaneous tumor and LLC-PK1 kidney epithelial cells
were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection. MDCKII cells
were provided by Dr. M. Lisanti, Department of Molecular Pharmacology,
Albert Einstein College of Medicine. Cells were grown in Dulbecco's
modified Eagle's medium containing 10% fetal calf serum in an
atmosphere of 8% CO2 and 92% air. Full-length CKA1
cDNA was cloned into the mammalian expression vector pRc/CMV
(Invitrogen). This placed the CKA1 cDNA downstream from a strong,
constitutively active CMV promoter and upstream from a polyadenylation
signal. Cells were transfected with recombinant pRc/CMV plasmid via
calcium phosphate precipitation, as described previously (39, 40).
Immunoprecipitation Assays--
Cells were harvested 24 h
after transfection and homogenized in buffer containing 0.5% (v/v)
Triton X-100 as previously reported (40). Lysates were centrifuged at
12,000 × g for 30 min, and samples of the supernatant
solution (0.3 mg of protein) were incubated with either 10 µl of
affinity purified IgG directed against CKA1 or PKC3 (1:5 relative to
serum) or 2 µl of preimmune serum for 16 h at 4 °C.
Subsequently, 25 µl of protein A-Sepharose 4B beads (Zymed
Laboratories Inc.) was added, and the incubation was continued at
4 °C for 60 min. Beads were collected and washed five times (1 ml
per wash) with phosphate-buffered saline (10 mM sodium
phosphate, pH 7.4, 0.15 M NaCl) containing 0.1% (w/v)
Tween 20.
Electrophoresis of Proteins and Western Immunoblot
Assays--
Proteins (40 µg) from C. elegans, fractions
from transfected cells, or immunoprecipitates were denatured in gel
loading buffer and subjected to electrophoresis in 10% polyacrylamide
gels containing 0.1% SDS as described previously (37).
BenchMarkerTM prestained proteins (9-182 kDa) (Life
Technologies, Inc.) were used as standards for estimation of molecular
weight values. Western blots, prepared on Immobilon P membranes
(Millipore Corp.), were blocked, incubated with IgGs directed against
CKA1 (1:4000) or PKC3 (1:2000) (8), and washed as described previously
(40). Antigen-IgG complexes were visualized by an indirect
chemiluminescence procedure (40). Signals were recorded on x-ray film.
Preparation of Transgenic C. elegans--
Transgenic nematodes
were created to investigate in vivo activity of the
CKA1 gene promoter. A segment of genomic DNA, which includes
1.4 kbp of contiguous 5'-flanking DNA, exon I, intron I, and 51 codons
of exon II from the CKA1 structural gene, was synthesized
via PCR, using cosmid T03D8 as a template. This 2-kbp genomic DNA
insert was cloned into the C. elegans expression vector pPD95.67 (provided by Dr. A. Z. Fire, Carnegie Institute,
Baltimore, MD). CKA1 exon II was fused in-frame with DNA encoding a
nuclear localization signal and the green fluorescent protein (GFP)
reporter gene. C. elegans were transformed by
microinjection, selected, fixed, and stained as reported previously
(41). Accumulation of GFP in nuclei was monitored by capturing
fluorescence signals using a Nikon Eclipse E400 microscope equipped
with Nikon 40× NA 1.4 planapo optics and an FITC filter.
Deletion and Site-directed Mutagenesis--
Deletion mutagenesis
was performed on CKA1 cDNA via PCR, as described previously (31,
42). For C-terminal deletions, each 5' primer contained an
EcoRI restriction site followed by nts 175-194 of CKA1
cDNA. Each 3' primer contained a 3'-terminal XhoI site
and created a stop codon after the desired C-terminal residue of the
truncated protein. The remaining 21 nts in the 3' primer complement the
last 7 codons of the truncated protein. For N-terminal deletions, the
5' primer had an EcoRI restriction site that preceded 20 nts
that encoded residues at the desired N terminus of CKA1. The 3' primer
consisted of the inverse complement of nts 689-707 of CKA1 cDNA
preceded by an XhoI restriction site. Product DNA was
digested with EcoRI and XhoI and cloned into the
yeast vector pACT II that was cleaved with same enzymes. The same
strategy was used to generate deleted CKA1 cDNAs that were cloned
in the mammalian expression vector pRc/CMV. These mutants encoded CKA1 proteins that contained amino acids 45-593, 59-593, or 74-593 (see
Fig. 1C below). Amino acid substitutions were introduced into the PTB domain by a PCR-based, site-directed mutagenesis protocol
(QuickChangeTM kit, Stratagene) using CKA1S/pACT II and
CKA1S/pRcCMV as templates. Mutagenesis reactions were carried out
according to the manufacturer's instructions. All CKA1 mutants were
verified by DNA sequencing.
Immunofluorescence Analysis of the Cellular and Intracellular
Distribution of CKA1 in Vivo--
C. elegans embryos were
fixed, permeabilized, washed, and incubated sequentially with affinity
purified anti-CKA1 IgGs (1:100), and FITC-tagged goat IgGs directed
against rabbit immunoglobulin as described previously (8). Fluorescence
signals corresponding to CKA1·IgG complexes were obtained with a
Bio-Rad MRC 600 laser scanning confocal microscope (Image Analysis
Facility, Albert Einstein College of Medicine) as described previously
(35).
Immunofluorescence Analysis of Transfected Cells--
AV-12 or
LLC cells that were transiently transfected with CKA1 and/or PKC3
transgenes, were grown on 20-mm glass coverslips. Cells were fixed,
washed, and incubated sequentially with affinity-purified anti-CKA1 or
anti-PKC3 IgGs (1:100 dilution) and 10 µg/ml FITC-conjugated goat
IgGs directed against rabbit immunoglobulins, as described by Li
et al. (39). Fluorescence signals corresponding to CKA1-IgG or PKC3·IgG complexes were obtained with the confocal microscope as
described above.
Characterization of cDNA That Encodes a Novel PKC3 Adapter
Protein, CKA1--
A C. elegans cDNA library in the
yeast plasmid, pACT, was screened for expression of PKC3-binding
proteins via the two-hybrid protein interaction assay. A recombinant
pACT plasmid, which produced the strongest signal in
To characterize the 5' end of adapter protein cDNA, we used RT-PCR
methodology and also extracted critical information from C. elegans EST and genomic data bases (43). Alignment of pCKA cDNA with EST sequences identified an overlapping partial cDNA (GenBankTM accession number C09238) that contained a 159-bp
extension at the 5' end. Adjacent downstream sequence was identical
with nts 1-509 in pCKA cDNA. Further insights were obtained by
comparing the PKC3 adapter cDNA sequence with predicted exons in
the C. elegans genome data base (43). The sequence of an
exon in cosmid TO3D8 (GenBankTM accession number Z92838)
confirmed that the 159-bp 5' cDNA extension was linked with the
pCKA cDNA-derived sequence to yield an extended open reading frame.
In an upstream exon, a consensus initiator ATG and four additional
codons preceded genomic sequence that is identical with the 5'-terminal
region established by analysis of cDNA clones. Furthermore, a
consensus acceptor site (TTTGTTTCAG) for the trans-splicing
machinery of C. elegans precedes the putative initiator ATG
codon. The 5' termini of most (~ 70%) C. elegans mRNAs are modified by incorporation of a 22-nt, nontranslated "leader" sequence that is donated by a distinct 100-nucleotide spliced leader 1 RNA transcript (44). The leader RNA fragment (SL1) is
inserted downstream from the acceptor site in a reaction that results
in excision of the original 5' end of the transcript. trans-Splicing generates a short 5'-untranslated region and
introduces an essential trimethylguanosine cap at the 5' terminus
of the mRNA (44, 45). Thus, organization of genomic DNA suggested that nucleotides
The highly sensitive RT-PCR methodology was used to verify the size of
adapter protein mRNA and assess possible heterogeneity among
transcripts. A single band corresponding to a 2.1-kbp cDNA was
observed when PCR was performed with primers designed according to
sequences at the extreme 5' and 3' ends of CKA1 transcripts (Fig.
1B). No major or minor splice variants were detected. The preceding results enabled assembly of a contiguous sequence of 2,127 nucleotides that constitutes the complete cDNA for the PKC3 adapter
protein. This cDNA sequence is deposited in the
GenBankTM data bank and is identified by accession numbers
AF286205 and AF286206. The cDNA sequence encodes a predicted PKC3
tethering protein (593 amino acids) that was named C
kinase adapter 1 (CKA1). The amino
acid sequence for CKA1 is presented in Fig. 1C.
Structural Properties of CKA1--
CKA1 is a 66-kDa basic protein
(pI ~9.9) that carries a (predicted) net charge of +17 at pH 7.4. Computer-mediated comparison with amino acid sequences compiled in
protein data bases revealed a tripartite structural organization for
CKA1. Two conserved structural modules are embedded within a segment of
CKA1 that spans residues 1-231 (Fig. 1C). In contrast,
central and C-terminal regions of CKA1 (residues 232-593), which
contribute
Although all PTB domains fold in a similar manner, their amino acid
sequences can vary substantially (48, 49). Moreover, side chains of
nonconserved residues may affect binding specificity. The high degree
of sequence similarity between a segment of CKA1 (residues 90-231)
and Numb PTB domains is a unique relationship. No other PTB domains
collected in mammalian, Drosophila, or C. elegans data bases are closely related (typical sequence identity ~26%) to the CKA1 sequence presented in Fig. 2A. Thus,
residues 90-231 in CKA1 evidently constitute a specialized PTB domain
that subserves functions characteristic of the Numb protein family (one
Drosophila and four mammalian Numb isoforms). Numb
proteins mediate asymmetric localization of several regulatory
proteins in vivo (52, 53). Determination of a solution
structure for a peptide·PTB domain complex and peptide binding
studies indicate that the prototypic Drosophila Numb PTB
module interacts with multiple target proteins by providing a unitary
but flexible binding surface (50, 51). This surface accommodates
several classes of structurally diverse peptides that are presented
in either type I
The N-terminal region of CKA1 (amino acids 1-77, Fig. 1C)
is unusually basic. Arg and Lys account for 25% of the N-terminal amino acids, and the predicted pI for this domain is 12.4. The basic
residues are not randomly distributed in this region. Instead, they are
highly enriched in short clusters that correspond to residues 11-25
and residues 61-77 (Fig. 2C) in the CKA1 sequence (Fig.
1C). In the clusters, Arg and Lys are intermingled with Ser
and large hydrophobic amino acids (Leu and Ile). This arrangement and
composition of amino acids generates sequences that resemble the
"phosphorylation site domains" (PSDs) of the ubiquitous MARCKS protein and MARCKS-related proteins (54, 55). The MARCKS PSD constitutes a major, highly specific target site for PKC-catalyzed phosphorylation in many types of mammalian cells. Cycles of PSD phosphorylation/dephosphorylation are associated with dynamic changes
in cytoskeleton and reversible targeting of MARCKS to membranes. In
nonphosphorylated MARCKS, the high local level of net positive charge
in the PSD domain promotes association with membranes by electrostatic
interaction with head groups of anionic phospholipids (54-56). By
analogy, CKA1 segments that include amino acids 11-25 and/or 61-77
(Fig. 2C) are candidate substrates for PKC3 (or other PKCs).
They may also be involved in targeting CKA1·PKC3 complexes to
specific intracellular locations.
Examination of the N-terminal portion of dNumb revealed that the fly
protein, like CKA1, contains two PSD-like regions (residues 32-41 and
residues 44-58, Fig. 2C). In contrast, the short sequence (only 24 amino acids) that precedes the mNumb65 PTB domain accommodates only one PSD-like site (residues 3-12, Fig. 2C). The basic
clusters in CKA1, dNumb, and mNumb65 cannot be aligned to yield high
levels of sequence identity. However, these protein segments share the composition and charge characteristics that are hallmarks of previously characterized, functionally homologous PSD domains (see Ref. 57 for
detailed discussion of this point).
Central and C-terminal portions of CKA1 (residues 232-593) share only
one property with corresponding regions in the Numb homologs, the
inclusion of five or more PXXP sequences. The presence of
multiple copies of this consensus SH3-binding site raises the possibility of scaffolding functions. However, the physiological significance of these minimal binding sequences must be tested experimentally. Overall, the sequence of the CKA1 central and C-terminal domains diverges markedly (<15% identity) from the sequences of analogous regions of dNumb and mNumb65. When sequences for
the full-length proteins are aligned CKA1 exhibits levels of 31 and
28% identity with dNumb and mNumb, respectively. Various structural
relationships among CKA1 and the Numb homologs are summarized
diagrammatically in Fig. 2D.
Organization of the CKA1 Gene--
A search of the C. elegans genome data base with the cDNA sequence for CKA1
disclosed that cosmid T03D8 (GenBankTM accession number
Z92838) contains the gene for the docking protein. Alignment of the
cDNA and cosmid sequences disclosed that the CKA1 gene
contains 8 exons and 7 introns that span 5,174 bp of DNA (Table
I). Coding sequences for the basic,
PSD-like segments of CKA1 (Fig. 2C) are provided by exons I
and II. The conserved PTB domain sequence is derived from two exons.
Codons in exon III specify the two N-terminal Detection and Expression of Two Isoforms of
CKA1--
Properties of the PKC3 adapter protein were initially
assessed in AV-12 cells that were transiently transfected with the CKA1 transgene. Immunoglobulins in anti-CKA1 serum (see "Experimental Procedures") avidly bound epitopes in two polypeptides with apparent Mr values of 75,000 and 64,000 (Fig.
3A, lane 1). These proteins were not detected when duplicate blots were probed with preimmune serum
or anti-CKA1 IgGs that were incubated with excess GST-CKA1 fusion
protein antigen (Fig. 3A, lanes 4 and 5).
Moreover, the 64- and 75-kDa proteins were not evident among proteins
extracted from nontransfected AV-12 cells (Fig. 3A, lane 6).
Since only one species of CKA1 mRNA (2.1 kb) is expressed in
vivo (see Fig. 1B and text above), a likely explanation
for the unanticipated expression of two PKC3 adapter proteins involves
utilization of the Met1 and Met45 codons (Fig.
1C) as alternative sites for translation initiation. To test
this idea, codons 1-44 (Fig. 1C) were deleted from CKA1 cDNA. Expression of this truncated ( Expression and Localization of CKA1 and CKA1S in Vivo--
IgGs
directed against CKA1/CKA1S complexed both adapter protein isoforms in
samples of total C. elegans proteins (Fig.
4A). CKA1 and CKA1S are
expressed in vivo at each stage of C. elegans development (Fig. 4B). Both proteins are recovered in the
particulate fraction of C. elegans homogenates, indicating a
tight association with organelles and/or cytoskeletal structures. The
relative abundance of the 64- and 75-kDa CKA1 isoforms varies during
the life span of the nematode. For example, the ratio CKA1S:CKA1 is
~2-3 in embryos and L1 larvae but declines to ~0.5 in adult
animals. The predominance of CKA1S in early larvae and CKA1 in adult
C. elegans suggests that functions of these closely related
PKC3-binding proteins may differ, qualitatively or quantitatively, at
distinct developmental stages. Developmentally regulated changes in
(a) the frequency of utilization of alternative translation
initiation codons (Met1 or Met45, Fig.
1C) or (b) rates of adapter protein degradation
could account for different ratios of CKA1 and CKA1S isoforms during
progression of the life cycle.
Immunofluorescence microscopy disclosed that CKA1 isoforms concentrate
at the cell periphery in early embryos (e.g. the 4-cell embryo depicted in Fig. 5,
A-C). This matches the previously established pattern for
PKC3 localization in embryos (8). CKA1 gene transcription was monitored in individual cells of transgenic C. elegans
that carry a green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter gene under the regulation of CKA1 promoter/enhancer DNA (Fig.
5D). A targeting motif that precedes the N terminus of GFP
directs the reporter protein to the nucleus. Tightly focused
fluorescence signals in nuclei facilitate identification of individual
cells by reference to an established anatomical data base for C. elegans (58). Robust GFP fluorescence (i.e.
CKA1 promoter activity) was observed in cells comprising the
intestine. CKA1 promoter activity was also evident in
pharyngeal cells and the anal sphincter and depressor muscles (Fig.
5D). PKC3 gene promoter activity is detected in the same groups of cells (8). Thus, genes encoding adapter proteins and
the PKC3 ligand are evidently coexpressed in several tissues in
vivo.
CKA1 Isoforms Bind PKC3 in Intact Cells and Modulate the
Intracellular Distribution of the Kinase--
AV12 cells were
cotransfected with transgenes encoding PKC3 (8) and the CKA1 isoforms.
Antibodies directed against PKC3 efficiently coprecipitated the kinase
(Fig. 6, lane 4) and both the
CKA1 and CKA1S adapters (Fig. 6, lane 1). Conversely,
affinity-purified anti-CKA1/CKA1S IgGs sequestered CKA1 isoforms (Fig.
6, lane 3) and adapter-bound PKC3 (Fig. 6, lane
2). Thus, CKA1 and CKA1S exhibit a fundamental property of adapter
proteins; they stably bind a specific target ligand (PKC3) in the
internal environment of intact cells.
A combination of confocal immunofluorescence microscopy and mutagenesis
was used to (a) determine the intracellular disposition of
adapter proteins and (b) map a region of CKA1 protein that mediates targeting/anchoring of tethered PKC3. In cells expressing a
wild type CKA1 transgene, most of the PKC3-docking protein accumulated at the periphery in a region corresponding to plasma membrane and/or
actin cortical cytoskeleton (Fig.
7A). Some CKA1/CKA1S was
diffusely dispersed in cytoplasm. Deletion of codons 1-58 (Fig.
1C) from the CKA1 transgene generated a truncated adapter protein (
PKC3 appears to have unrestricted access to the cytoplasm of
transfected AV-12 cells (Fig. 7D). Introduction of a CKA1
transgene into the system elicits a substantial alteration in the
intracellular distribution of PKC3. Adapter protein expression results
in enrichment of PKC3 at the cell periphery (Fig. 7E). The
level of atypical kinase in cytoplasm was simultaneously diminished by
coexpression with CKA1/CKA1S. Thus, CKA1 isoforms bind an atypical PKC
and target the adapter protein·PKC3 complex to a specific
microenvironment (docking sites) within the physiological context of
intact cells.
CKA1 Isoforms Are Differentially Routed to Lateral Junctions
between Polarized Cells--
MDCK and LLC cells form a polarized
epithelial sheet in culture (59, 60). Apical and basolateral portions
of the plasma membrane of polarized epithelial cells have different
protein and lipid compositions and subserve distinct physiological
functions (61-63). Tight junction complexes, which assemble at points
of physical contact between lateral surfaces of adjacent cells,
(a) maintain cell polarity by limiting the mixing of apical
and basolateral membrane components within the phospholipid bilayer and
(b) constitute a stringent permeability barrier between the
apical and basal environments. Functions performed by apical, basal,
and lateral (tight junctions) segments of MDCK and LLC cell membranes
are mediated and regulated by integral membrane proteins in concert with co-clustered peripheral proteins. Signaling and adapter proteins are recruited to specialized segments of the inner surface of the cell
membrane by binding with either cytoplasmic domains of transmembrane
proteins, certain phospholipids, or docking proteins in adjacent
cortical cytoskeleton. Thus, MDCK and LLC cells provide pertinent model
systems for assessing the inherent ability of PKC3 adapter proteins to
anchor differentially at a discrete target site.
Immunofluorescence microscopy was used to investigate the location of
PKC3 adapter proteins in MDCK cells that express the CKA1 transgene.
Examination of standard (X-Y) optical sections disclosed
that PKC3 adapter protein accumulates at sites of cell-cell contact
(Fig. 8A). Localization of
CKA1/CKA1S was more precisely defined by analyzing optical sections in
X-Z planes (Fig. 8, B and C). PKC3
adapter protein is largely excluded from the apical and basal portions
of the cell periphery. Instead, CKA1/CKA1S is targeted and concentrated
in a limited region of the lateral surface of MDCK cells (Fig. 8,
B and C). This region corresponds to the position
of tight junctions (61-63). Expression of the CKA1 transgene in
polarized LLC cells also resulted in enrichment of the PKC3-binding
protein at the cell surface (Fig. 8D). A Z series of optical
sections revealed that membrane-associated CKA1/CKA1S accumulates in
central segments of LLC cells (e.g. Fig. 8, E2 and E3). In contrast, adapter protein was not abundant at
the basal or apical surfaces of the cells (Fig. 8, E1 and
E4, respectively). The disposition of CKA1/CKA1S
in LLC cells indicates that the PKC3 adapter is selectively targeted to
the lateral surface of polarized plasma membrane. Thus, the amino acid
sequence (Fig. 1C) and higher order folded structure of CKA1
contain sufficient information to enable routing of adapter protein(s)
to specific intracellular docking sites. CKA1 isoforms have the ability
to bind and target an atypical PKC to a highly specialized segment of
the periphery of polarized cells.
The PTB Domain of CKA1 Isoforms Mediates the Binding of
PKC3--
N- and C-terminal boundaries for the PKC3-tethering module
in CKA1/CKA1S were mapped by using the highly sensitive yeast
two-hybrid complementation assay in combination with deletion
mutagenesis. Segments of CKA1 cDNA indicated in Fig.
9A were tagged with
EcoRI and XhoI restriction sites and amplified
via PCR methodology. Upon cloning into the yeast target vector pACT,
the CKA1 cDNAs aligned in-frame with the 3' end of vector DNA
encoding the GAL4 transcription activation domain. Cotransformation of
yeast with a recombinant target vector and a yeast bait plasmid that
directs synthesis of a GAL4 DNA binding domain-PKC3 (residues 1-233)
chimeric protein enabled detection of PKC3 binding activity via outputs from two complementation assays, growth on His
Rational site-directed mutagenesis of the CKA1 PTB domain was
undertaken to (a) characterize individual amino acids that
are essential for tethering PKC3 and (b) determine whether
the same
Crystal and solution structures for Drosophila and mammalian
PTB domains reveal that the orientations of the Conclusions, Implications, and Perspectives--
CKA1 and CKA1S
are novel, modular adapter proteins that ligate PKC3, an atypical
protein kinase C. A PKC3-binding site is generated by a segment of CKA1
that corresponds to a PTB domain. An exceptionally basic N-terminal
region of CKA1 includes two PSD-like sequences and mediates
routing/anchoring of the adapter protein to the cell periphery. A
single PSD is sufficient to direct differential accumulation of CKA1S
in proximity with plasma membrane/cortical actin cytoskeleton; deletion
of the CKA1S PSD region creates a cytoplasmic protein with an unaltered
binding affinity for PKC3.
Patterns of both CKA1 gene promoter activity and CKA1/CKA1S
protein localization (in individual cells in vivo) overlap
with previously established patterns of PKC3 expression and
intracellular distribution (8). Like PKC3, CKA1 and CKA1S are
associated with organelles and/or cytoskeleton throughout the C. elegans life cycle. Therefore, PKC3 is evidently exposed to the
PTB domain of CKA1/CKA1S in multiple cells of the nematode.
Transfection-expression experiments demonstrate that
membrane-associated CKA1 (or CKA1S) sequesters PKC3 in the internal
environment of intact cells. Thus, two classical structural modules (a
PTB domain and a PSD) collaborate in a novel fashion in the CKA1
adapter protein(s) to enable efficient tethering and targeting of PKC3.
A key physiological consequence of structure/function relationships in
CKA1/CKA1S is that the adapter proteins have an intrinsic ability to
modulate and diversify functions of an aPKC. Delivery of PKC3 to the
vicinity of the plasma membrane exposes the kinase to a large pool of
phosphatidylserine. Phosphatidylserine binds with PKC3 and promotes
high level expression of phosphotransferase activity in the absence of
other activators. However, tethering and anchoring the kinase will
focus and restrict PKC3-mediated signal transmission to
substrate-effector proteins that are co-clustered with CKA1/CKA1S at
discrete intracellular locations. In polarized epithelial cells
CKA1/CKA1S is targeted to a lateral region of the plasma membrane that
is involved in generating tight junctions. Thus, the folded structure
of the CKA1 polypeptide contains intrinsic information necessary to
guide accumulation in a discrete, highly specialized microenvironment.
The unique amino acid sequence of the central and C-terminal regions of
CKA1 (residues 232-593) accounts for 60% of the mass of the adapter
protein. Since this region of the protein contains several potential
SH3-binding sites and is devoid of motifs involved in catalysis, it is
logical to consider (in future studies) the possibility that CKA1 (or
CKA1S) is a polyvalent scaffold that organizes a multiprotein complex.
Several binding proteins that are unrelated to CKA1 can also modify the
properties of aPKCs. An 80-kDa protein named LIP binds and activates
PKC
Comparison of key features of the CKA1 binding and targeting domains
with properties of the proteins cited above yields new insights and
concepts regarding the molecular basis for the diversification of aPKC
functions and location. LIP and mammalian Par-4 are evidently aPKC
modulators, rather than adapters. These proteins bind with the
N-terminal Cys-rich regulatory region of the aPKC ligand (26, 27).
However, aPKC-binding sites in Par-4 and LIP are unique, unrelated
structures that lack sequence motifs characteristic of classical
protein-directed interaction domains (e.g. PDZ, SH3, etc.).
The putative ZIP/p62 scaffold complexes an N-terminal region of aPKCs
that includes the pseudosubstrate site (25). The novel aPKC binding
domain of ZIP/p62 is generated by 65 amino acids located near the N
terminus (25). ASIP/Par-3 binds the aPKC catalytic domain via a short
protein segment that is well separated from the three PDZ motifs (67).
This aPKC-binding sequence is not evident in other proteins. Unlike
aPKC-binding proteins cited above, CKA1/CKA1S employs a classical
protein interaction module, a PTB domain, to engage PKC3.
The intracellular location of CKA1 is governed principally by an
N-terminal protein segment (residues 1-77) that includes two PSDs.
Interspersed basic and large hydrophobic amino acids in classical PSDs
promote accumulation of MARCKS, DAKAP200, and several other proteins at
the cell periphery (54-57). The high concentration of Lys and Arg
enables electrostatic binding with anionic head groups of plasma
membrane phospholipids, whereas large hydrophobic side chains
simultaneously intercalate in the apolar core of the bilayer (56). PSDs
can also bind with F-actin at sites where cortical actin cytoskeleton
abuts the plasma membrane (54). Thus, juxtaposition of CKA1/CKA1S with
the inner surface of plasma membrane is highly consistent with the
location of established docking sites for PSDs. (Experiments presented
in our companion paper (68) directly demonstrate that PSDs govern
targeting/anchoring of CKA1). The more precise routing of CKA1/CKA1S to
lateral junctions in MDCK and LLC epithelial cells suggests that the
adapter may engage additional docking molecules. This raises the
possibility that PSDs cooperate with distal domains, elsewhere in the
adapter polypeptide, to achieve increased specificity and establish
polarity in the targeting/anchoring of bound PKC3 in some cells.
Precise physiological roles for CKA1·PKC3 complexes remain to be
determined. However, general functions are suggested by insights gained
from the molecular genetic analysis of asymmetric cell division in
C. elegans and Drosophila. Complexes containing
PKC3 and Par-3 are asymmetrically targeted to a limited segment of plasma membrane in one-cell C. elegans embryos (17, 18).
Cooperative interactions among anchored PKC3 and the Par-1,
Par-2, and Par-6 proteins are essential for creating cell polarity,
enabling asymmetric cell division (by segregating regulatory proteins),
and determining cell fates during the earliest phases of embryogenesis.
The membrane-associated asymmetrically localized Drosophila
Numb polypeptide is incorporated into a multiprotein complex (52, 53).
Regulatory proteins co-clustered with dNumb are differentially
transferred to one of two daughter cells, thereby creating two distinct
lineages. Proper assembly, localization, and operation of complexes
that contain dNumb are essential for balanced generation and
positioning of neurons, glia, hair cells, socket cells, sheath cells,
and bristles within the body plan of the fly (52, 53).
Together, properties of CKA1/CKA1S proteins, the dNumb PTB domain, and
PKC3· Par-3 complexes strongly suggest a straightforward proposition;
CKA1·PKC3 complexes are likely to be involved in assembly,
maintenance, and/or regulation of protein complexes that execute
asymmetric and/or polarized cell functions. For example, anchored PKC3
might be associated with ion or metabolite transporters, tight
junctions, apically or basally disposed ion channels,
trans-membrane receptor complexes, synapse-based signaling
systems, axon guidance proteins, etc. CKA1-bound PKC3 may participate
in some asymmetrical cell divisions; however, expression of both
proteins in late larval and adult gut and pharynx further suggests that
a significant proportion of CKA1·PKC3 may influence highly
differentiated functions (see list above) in nondividing cells. A
potentially important implication of our current results is that the
PTB domain in the four mammalian Numb isoforms may tether PKC
INTRODUCTION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
,
I,
II,
) and novel (
,
,
,
, µ) PKC isoforms (cPKCs and
nPKCs, respectively) are DAG-dependent Ser/Thr phosphotransferases that translocate from cytoplasm to sites in membranes where DAG accumulates in response to hormones (1-4). Activated PKCs phosphorylate proteins that control secretion, mitogenesis, cytoskeleton organization, gene transcription, and many
other physiological processes (1-3, 5-9).
and PKC
isoforms and Caenorhabditis elegans PKC3 (1, 4, 8), also
regulate critical cell functions. PKC
and/or PKC
activate the
Ras-mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade, stimulate gene transcription, inhibit apoptosis, modulate ion channel activities, phosphorylate nucleolin in the nucleus, and mediate translocation of a
glucose transporter between internal and plasma membranes (9-16).
C. elegans PKC3 is required for polarized accumulation of
several regulatory proteins along portions of the periphery of 1-cell
embryos (17, 18). Thus, aPKCs apparently regulate effector proteins at
multiple intracellular locations.
and
(8). Ablation of PKC3 function in vivo revealed
that this kinase is essential for normal progression of embryogenesis
and viability of the organism (8, 17). In 1-cell embryos PKC3
apparently binds with the Par-3 protein at the cell periphery,
and this complex (in concert with proteins named Par-1, Par-2, and
Par-6) establishes cell polarity, controls asymmetric cell divisions,
and determines cell fates (17, 18). Mechanisms by which PKC3 influences
these processes are currently unknown.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-galactosidase assays were used to isolate cDNAs encoding
PKC3-binding proteins. A novel 1.9-kbp cDNA, which contains an open
reading frame for 535 amino acids and a translation termination codon,
was selected for detailed characterization. The cDNA insert was
excised from recombinant pACT by digestion with XhoI and was
cloned in the plasmid pBluescript SKII. This recombinant plasmid was
named pCKA. Alignment of the DNA sequence of the 1.9-kbp insert from
pCKA with sequences in the C. elegans EST Data Base (DNA
Data base of Japan and NCBI/NIH) identified an overlapping partial
cDNA (GenBankTM accession number C09238) that contained
a 159-bp extension at the 5' end. Sequences of the 159-bp extension and
the 1.9-kbp insert are joined in the DNA sequence reported for cosmid
T03D8 in the C. elegans Genome Project
(GenBankTM accession number Z92838). A cDNA (clone
yk158f8) encoding the 159-bp 5' extension was provided by Dr. Y. Kohara
(Gene Network Laboratory, National Institute of Genetics, Mishima,
Japan). Further analysis of the sequence of genomic DNA in cosmid T03D8
revealed that yk158f8 cDNA lacked an initiator ATG and 4 additional
codons that are predicted to constitute the extreme 5' end of the
CKA1 structural gene. A cDNA that encodes amino acids
1-193 in CKA1 was generated by PCR, using yk158f8 cDNA as a
template. The 5' primer contained a NotI restriction site
which preceded codons for predicted amino acids 1-5 (MSASQ) and 22 nts
that matched nts 1-22 in yk158f8 cDNA. The 3' primer sequence
corresponded to the inverse complement of nts 387-406 in pCKA (nts 546 to 565 in yk158f8 cDNA) and includes the unique PstI
site. The PCR product was cleaved with NotI and
PstI and cloned into pCKA, which was cut with the same
restriction enzymes. This resulted in assembly of a full-length
cDNA (pCKA1) that encodes a protein composed of 593 amino acids.
75 °C.
was transformed with
recombinant pGEX-KG plasmid and then induced with 0.5 mM
isopropyl-1-thio-
-D-galactopyranoside (37). Bacteria
were harvested and disrupted as previously reported (35). Soluble
GST-CKA1 (232) protein was purified to near-homogeneity by
affinity chromatography on GSH-Sepharose 4B beads (Amersham Pharmacia
Biotech) (35). Samples of CKA1-(232-368) fusion protein were injected
into rabbits (0.4-mg initial injection; 0.2 mg for each of four booster
injections) at Covance Laboratories (Vienna, VA) at 3-week intervals.
Serum was collected at 3-week intervals after the first injection.
After antiserum was passed over a column of GST-Sepharose 4B, anti-CKA1
IgGs were affinity-purified on a column of
GST-CKA1-(232-368)-Sepharose 4B as described in previous papers (35,
36).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-galactosidase
reporter assays and exhibited robust growth in selective medium, was
characterized. The cDNA insert was excised from recombinant pACT
and subcloned into the plasmid pBluescript SKII. The resulting
recombinant plasmid was named pCKA. Sequence analysis disclosed that
the novel 1.9-kbp cDNA insert contained an open reading frame for
535 amino acids, a translation termination codon, 3'-untranslated
sequence (317 nts), and a polyadenylate tail. However, the 5' terminus
of pCKA cDNA lacked untranslated nucleotides and an initiator ATG
codon. Moreover, the 1.9-kbp cDNA hybridized with a 2.1-kbp
transcript on a Northern blot of C. elegans mRNAs.
22 to +15 in Fig.
1A constitute the 5' end of PKC3 adapter protein cDNA. This idea was tested experimentally. Single-stranded cDNA was synthesized by RT using C. elegans mRNA as a template. cDNA transcripts were
amplified via PCR, using the SL1 cDNA sequence for the 5' primer
and series of nested 3' primers corresponding to either proximal or
distal portions of the 1.9-kbp pCKA cDNA sequence. Sequencing of
PCR products revealed that all adapter protein cDNAs begin with the
sequence shown in Fig. 1A, include the entire predicted
159-bp extension, and terminate with cDNA sequence determined for
the original 1.9-kbp insert in the recombinant pACT plasmid.
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Fig. 1.
Determination of the size, 5' end sequence
and protein product of CKA1 transcripts. A,
extreme 5' end fragments of CKA1 cDNA were synthesized
and amplified via RT-PCR, cloned, and sequenced as described under
"Experimental Procedures." The 5'-terminal sequence of a
representative cDNA product is presented. Sequences determined for
5' ends of other amplified CKA1 cDNAs were identical with the
sequence in A. When the 5' SL1 primer was replaced with
primers containing the genomic DNA sequence that precedes dA at +1, no
PCR products were produced. Thus, all CKA1 mRNAs were modified by
post-transcriptional trans-splicing. The solid
underline indicates nucleotides that correspond to the 5' end of
the cDNA insert in pCKA. Nucleotides marked with the dashed
underline correspond to the 5' extension obtained from the
cDNA clone named yk158f8. Asterisks denote nucleotides
that correspond to an initiator ATG and four other codons in exon 1 of
the CKA1 gene. The SL1 DNA (nts 22 to
1,
lowercase), is derived from a distinct gene and is appended
to CKA1 transcripts in a trans-splicing reaction. The
sequence in A overlaps with the sequence of the pCKA insert
to generate a 2,127-nt full-length cDNA for CKA1
(GenBankTM accession numbers AF286205 and AF286206).
B, full-length CKA1 cDNA was synthesized by RT-PCR
("Experimental Procedures") and characterized by electrophoresis in
a 0.8% agarose gel (left lane). The gel was calibrated by
separating a series of marker DNA fragments (size range = 0.5 to
10 kbp) in parallel (right lane). DNAs were visualized by
staining with ethidium bromide. Positions of the 6-, 4-, 2-, and 1-kbp
markers are labeled as a-d, respectively (right
lane). C presents the amino acid sequence of CKA1.
Utilization of an alternative translation initiation codon
(Met45) generates CKA1S, which lacks the
underlined amino acids.
-strands in a "sandwich" structure that is capped by a
C-terminal
-helix (48-51). Some PTB domains also contain one or two
-helices that precede
-strand 1 at the N terminus. PTB domains
are incorporated into a structurally diverse group of proteins that
perform distinct functions. Initial characterizations suggested that
the
-sandwich structure specifically docked with short, contiguous
segments (~8-15 amino acids) of target proteins that contained
phospho-Tyr within an NPXpY motif (where X = any amino acid and pY is phospho-Tyr) (48, 49). However, further
analysis disclosed that this conclusion only applies to a subset of PTB
domains. More than 50% of currently characterized PTB modules bind
target sequences that either (a) have a critical but
nonphosphorylated NPXY motif or (b) lack Tyr altogether (48-51).
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Fig. 2.
CKA1 is a modular protein that contains a PTB
domain and two candidate PSDs. A, amino acids 90-231
from CKA1 are aligned with sequences of the PTB domains of dNumb
(residues 65-205, Ref. 46) and mNumb65 (residues 21-161, Ref. 47).
Residues conserved in all three proteins are marked with
asterisks; amino acids conserved between CKA1 and one of the
two Numb proteins are indicated with dots. A predicted
secondary structure for the CKA1 PTB domain is presented in B. C shows sequences of N-terminal segments of CKA1, dNumb, and
mNumb. The clustering of basic, large hydrophobic (Leu, Ile, Phe) and
Ser residues is a characteristic feature of classical PSDs (54-57).
Amino acids are numbered according to Fig. 1C and Refs. 46
and 47. A diagram comparing overall organization of structural domains
in CKA1 and Numb proteins is presented in D. Amino acid
sequences of the three PTB domains are >70% identical; sequences of
central and C-terminal regions are divergent. Boundaries of the
exceptionally basic N-terminal regions are marked with diagonal
lines. Positions of the PSDs are also indicated
(+).
-turn or
-helical turn conformations (50, 51).
Analogies between Numb and CKA1 PTB domains strongly suggest that the
cited binding properties will be evident in the PKC3-docking protein. The sequence of the C. elegans CKA1 PTB region can be
resolved into probable
-strands and
-helices (as depicted in Fig.
2B) by comparison with the established folding patterns of
the corresponding portions of the dNumb domain.
-helices and the 7
-strands of the peptide-binding module (Fig. 2B); exon IV
encodes the critical
3-helix that caps the "PTB fold" (Fig.
2B) and includes crucial amino acid residues that are
directly involved in ligand binding (see below). The gene for CKA1 is
located at the far right end of chromosome V (at + 25.2), near the
grd-1 and gcy-22 genes.
Organization of the CKA1 gene
44) transgene in AV-12 cells resulted in the loss of the 75-kDa antigen and exclusive accumulation of the 64-kDa isoform of the PKC3 adapter (Fig. 3A, compare
lanes 1 and 2). Exclusion of codons 1-58 (Fig.
2) from the CKA1 transgene forced utilization of Met59 as
the translation start site. The
58 transgene directed synthesis of a
protein with an apparent Mr of 62,000 (Fig.
3A, lane 3). Since this protein is not expressed in cells
transfected with either wild type or
44 transgenes, it appears that
(a) only Met codons 1 and 45 are in an appropriate sequence
context to engage the translation initiation complex of ribosomes, and
(b) both Met1 and Met45 are used for
translation initiation in intact cells. To exclude alternative
processing of adapter protein transcripts in the AV-12 cell system,
full-length (2.1 kb) CKA1 cDNA was used as a template for in
vitro synthesis of CKA1. Translation of the homogeneous 2.1-kb
mRNA in a reticulocyte lysate yielded substantial amounts of both
the 64- and 75-kDa isoforms of CKA1 (Fig. 3B, lane 2). Thus,
a single CKA1 transcript encodes two related proteins; CKA1 is composed
of 593 amino acids (Fig. 1C) (pI = 9.9) and has a calculated Mr of 65,500; CKA1S (named as
C kinase adapter 1
short isoform) contains 549 amino acids (residues 45-593
in Fig. 1C) (pI = 9.4) and has a calculated
Mr of 60,700. Only one PSD-like domain precedes
the PTB domain in CKA1S. Both CKA1 (apparent Mr = 75,000) and CKA1S (apparent Mr = 64,000)
migrate atypically slowly in denaturing gel electrophoresis, yielding
overestimates of their sizes. This property is observed in many basic
proteins.
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Fig. 3.
Detection and origin of two adapter protein
isoforms, CKA1 (75 kDa) and CKA1S (64 kDa). A, samples
of proteins (40 µg) isolated from AV-12 cells transfected with a
full-length CKA1 transgene (lanes 1, 4, and 5) or
truncated CKA1 transgenes lacking codons 1-44 (lane 2) or
codons 1-58 (lane 3) were size-fractionated by SDS-PAGE
(10% polyacrylamide gel) and transferred to an Immobilon P membrane.
An aliquot of proteins (40 µg) extracted from nontransfected AV-12
cells was processed in the same manner (lane 6). Lanes
1-3 and 6 were probed with affinity-purified IgGs
directed against CKA1 (1:4000 relative to serum); lane 5 was
incubated with the same concentration of purified antibodies in the
presence of 3 µg of GST-partial CKA1 antigen; and lane 4 was incubated with preimmune serum (1:2000). After incubation with
secondary antibodies coupled to peroxidase, adapter protein·IgG
complexes were detected by an enhanced chemiluminescence procedure.
Signals recorded on x-ray film are shown. Only the relevant portion of
the blot is presented. No other immunoreactive proteins were detected.
B, an in vitro transcription-translation system
was programmed with a cDNA template encoding firefly luciferase (a
61-kDa control protein) (lane 1), full-length (2.1 kbp) CKA1
cDNA (lane 2), or buffer lacking cDNA (lane
3). The translation mixture contained 30 µCi of
[35S]Met and [35S]Cys. Radiolabeled
polypeptides were fractionated in a denaturing polyacrylamide gel
(10%) and detected by autoradiography on x-ray film. Each lane
received 5 µl of the translation reaction mixture. Only the relevant
portion of the gel is shown. No other bands were observed.
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Fig. 4.
Expression of CKA1 and CKA1S in
vivo. A, Western blot was prepared as described under
"Experimental Procedures" and Fig. 4. Each lane received 40 µg of
total proteins derived from a population of C. elegans that
included animals at all developmental stages. Lanes 1 and
4 were incubated with affinity-purified IgGs (1:4000
relative to serum) directed against CKA1. Excess purified antigen (3 µg) was present when lane 4 was probed with the purified
antibodies. Lanes 2 and 3 were incubated with
preimmune and nonimmune sera (1:2000), respectively. After application
of peroxidase-coupled secondary antibodies, chemiluminescence signals
were captured on x-ray film. Only the relevant portion of the
immunoblot is shown. No other immunoreactive proteins were observed.
B, particulate (P) and soluble cytosolic
(C) proteins were isolated from homogenous populations of
C. elegans embryos (E), L1-L4 larvae and adult
animals as indicated under "Experimental Procedures." Samples of
these proteins (30 µg) were assayed for CKA1 (75 kDa) and CKA1S (64 kDa) expression by Western immunoblot analysis as described
above.
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Fig. 5.
C kinase adapter protein accumulation and
CKA1 gene promoter activity in situ.
A, the location of CKA1/CKA1S in embryos was determined by
immunofluorescence analysis. Fluorescence signals that correspond to
CKA1/CKA1S·IgG complexes are enriched along segments of the cell
periphery that are involved in cell-cell junctions (arrows).
A 4-cell embryo is shown. B, locations of nuclei in the
embryo shown in A are revealed by staining with
diamidophenylindole, which intercalates into DNA. Chromosomes in two
nuclei are associated with the mitotic spindle apparatus. Positions of
plasma membranes in the 4-cell embryo (A) were determined by
interference microscopy and traced to generate the diagram in
C. Comparison of A and C reveals that
CKA1/CKA1S accumulate at junctions of cell 3 with cells 4, 1, and 2, and at points of contact between cells 1 and 2. A representative 4-cell
embryo is shown in A-C. Other examples of this pattern of
adapter protein accumulation were observed in independent
immunostaining experiments. D, transgenic C. elegans that carry the GFP reporter gene under the regulation of
CKA1 promoter/enhancer were fixed with paraformaldehyde.
Fluorescence signals emanating from GFP in the nucleus were observed
and recorded with a Nikon Eclipse 400 microscope. Robust
CKA1 promoter activity was evident in both the large nuclei
of (>10) intestinal (gut) cells and smaller nuclei located in anal
depressor and sphincter muscle cells and cells of the intestinal-rectal
valve. A modest level of CKA1 gene transcription was
detected in pharyngeal muscle nuclei. (The intensity of fluorescence
signals near the pharynx (bounded by the white
rectangle) was enhanced 2.5-fold so that high level
accumulation of GFP in gut nuclei and the lower abundance of GFP in
nuclei of pharyngeal cells could be visualized in a single
photomicrograph.) A representative L3 nematode is shown. Similar
patterns of CKA1 gene transcription were obtained for both
adults and larvae in several experiments.
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Fig. 6.
Formation of PKC3·CKA1/CKA1S complexes in
intact cells. AV-12 cells were cotransfected with transgenes
encoding PKC3 and CKA1/CKA1S. Cell proteins were extracted with buffer
containing 0.5% Triton X-100 24 h after transfection. Aliquots
(300 µg) of extracted soluble protein were mixed with
affinity-purified IgGs (1:5, relative to serum) directed against either
PKC3 or CKA1 and incubated for 16 h at 4 °C. Immune complexes
were isolated on protein A-Sepharose 4B beads, washed extensively, and
analyzed by Western immunoblotting as described under "Experimental
Procedures." Blots were probed with IgGs directed against PKC3
(1:2000) or CKA1 (1:4000), as indicated. Precipitated PKC3 and
CKA1/CKA1S polypeptides were detected via peroxidase-coupled secondary
antibodies and an enhanced chemiluminescence procedure. No signals were
obtained when immunoprecipitations were performed with preimmune IgGs
or immune IgGs that were saturated with purified antigen.
58 CKA1) that lacks the first of two PSD-like regions (Fig.
2). Shortening of the N-terminal region reduced, but did not eliminate,
association of the PKC3-binding protein with plasma membrane/cytoskeleton; concomitantly, the relative abundance of the
adapter protein increased in cytoplasm (Fig. 7B).
Elimination of 15 additional residues produced a CKA1 protein (lacking
amino acids 1-73) that was homogeneously distributed in cytoplasm and failed to concentrate at the cell periphery (Fig. 7C). Thus,
the positively charged N-terminal domain of CKA1, which contains two PSD-like motifs, accounts for a second critical property; it governs targeting of the PKC3 adapter to the cell surface. Removal of 73 residues from the N terminus of CKA1 generates a cytoplasmic protein
that contains an intact PTB domain and binds PKC3 (see below).
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Fig. 7.
N-terminal domains mediate targeting of CKA1
isoforms and CKA1·PKC3 complexes to the cell periphery. AV-12
cells were transfected with the wild type CKA1 transgene (593 codons,
Fig. 1C) (A) or mutant CKA1 transgenes that
contain codons 59-593 (B) or 74-593 (C). Sample
preparation and confocal immunofluorescence microscopy were performed
as described under "Experimental Procedures." Fluorescence signals
indicating intracellular locations of wild type and mutant CKA1
proteins were obtained by using anti-CKA1 IgGs and secondary antibodies
tagged with FITC. No signals were seen after blocking with excess
purified antigen or with preimmune serum. AV-12 cells were transfected
with the PKC3 transgene alone (D) or both PKC3 and CKA1
transgenes (E). Cotransfection was performed with a molar
ratio of 3:1 for CKA1 DNA:PKC3 DNA; single transgene expression was
achieved with a molar ratio of 3:1 for carrier DNA:PKC3 DNA. Signals
that disclosed the intracellular distribution of the kinase were
obtained by using affinity-purified anti-PKC3 antibodies and secondary
antibodies coupled with fluorescein isothiocyanate.
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Fig. 8.
CKA1/CKA1S is routed to the lateral surfaces
of polarized cells. MDCK and LLC cells were transfected with the
wild type CKA1 transgene, and confocal immunofluorescence microscopy
was performed as described under "Experimental Procedures."
Fluorescence signals indicating the location of the PKC3 adapter were
produced by sequential incubations with anti-CKA1 IgGs and secondary
antibodies tagged with fluorescein isothiocyanate. A shows
targeted accumulation of CKA1/CKA1S along junctions between MDCK cells.
A standard (X-Y) optical section (0.5 µm) is shown.
Optical sections (X-Z) that reveal simultaneously the basal,
lateral, and apical surfaces of MDCK cells are presented in
B and C. Nuclei appear as central, dark
structures. High intensity staining of CKA1 is evident at regions of
the lateral surface of plasma membrane that contain tight junction
complexes (arrows). D shows the distribution of
adapter protein in two LLC cells that contain the CKA1 transgene.
Enrichment of CKA1/CKA1S at the periphery is evident in this standard
optical section. E, an extensive Z series of
optical sections disclosed that CKA1/CKA1S is not abundant at the basal
(E1) and apical (E4) surfaces of LLC cells.
However, membrane-targeted PKC3 adapter is concentrated in sections
derived from the mid-portion of the cells (e.g.
E2 and E3).
medium and
expression of
-galactosidase. Results from
-galactosidase assays
are summarized in Fig. 9A; the ability of transformed yeast to grow on His-deficient plates paralleled
-galactosidase production in all cases. Deletion of residues 236-593 had no effect on the binding of a CKA1 fragment (
3, Fig. 9A) with partial PKC3
protein. Thus, the novel central and C-terminal regions of CKA1 are not involved in tethering the aPKC. Elimination of one (
3, Fig.
9A) or both (
11, Fig. 9A) PSD-like regions at
the N terminus did not alter PKC3 ligation. In contrast, truncations
that removed either N- or C-terminal portions of the PTB domain (
6,
7, Fig. 9A) abolished PKC3 binding activity. The minimal
CKA1 segment that retained avid PKC3 ligating activity included
residues 88-235 (
11, Fig. 9A). This corresponds to an
intact PTB domain (amino acids 90-231) that is flanked by only six
additional N- or C-terminal residues. Thus, it appears that precise
folding of seven
-strands and three
-helices of the PTB module
(Fig. 2B) into a specific three-dimensional configuration is
required to generate a PKC3-binding surface.
View larger version (20K):
[in a new window]
Fig. 9.
Mapping the PKC3-binding site in CKA1.
A, wild type CKA1 and the indicated fragments of the CKA1
polypeptide were assayed for their abilities to interact with PKC3 via
yeast two-hybrid complementation assays. (++ indicates that a strong
signal was produced by transformed yeast within 30 min of initiation of
the -galactosidase assay.) B presents typical data
obtained for site-directed mutations in individual amino acids in the
CKA1 PTB domain. Yeast was cotransformed with a wild type
PKC3 gene (bait vector) and either wild type or mutant CKA1
transgenes (library vector), as indicated. Yeast colonies were grown on
nitrocellulose filters and assayed for protein-interaction dependent
expression of
-galactosidase. Cleavage of the
5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl
-D-galactopyranoside (X-gal)
substrate generates an insoluble precipitate. Thus, positive colonies
appear as irregular black spots in photographs. Each of the yeast
colonies that expressed wild type CKA1 or the Cys176 to Ala
CKA1 mutant exhibited
-galactosidase activity in B; none
of the colonies that contained Phe221 to Leu CKA1 expressed
-galactosidase. Protein expression was verified by Western
immunoblot analysis (data not shown). C, AV-12 cells were
cotransfected with transgenes encoding one of several CKA1S mutants
(Ser174 to Ala, Phe175 to Leu, and
Phe221 to Leu) and wild type PKC3. Aliquots (300 µg of
protein) of cell extracts were incubated with either anti-CKA1 or
preimmune IgGs, and immune complexes were isolated as described in Fig.
6. Western blots of immunoprecipitated proteins were probed with IgGs
directed against PKC3. PKC3 was visualized via an enhanced
chemiluminescence procedure. Intracellular binding of PKC3 by wild type
CKA1/CKA1S is documented in Fig. 6. D, samples (300 µg) of
proteins extracted from cells expressing PKC3 and the CKA1S
Ser174 to Ala mutant were subjected to immunoprecipitation
with IgGs directed against PKC3 or preimmune IgGs. Immunoprecipitated
proteins were analyzed on a Western blot that was probed with anti-CKA1
IgGs (1:4000, relative to serum). No signals were obtained when the
same experiment was performed with samples from transfected cells that
expressed PKC3 and either CKA1S Phe175 to Leu or CKA1S
Phe221 to Leu (data not shown).
-strands and
-helices (Fig. 2B) that generate
tethering surfaces for ligands of mammalian and Drosophila
PTB domains also constitute a binding pocket for the kinase. Conserved
residues in the large CKA1 PTB domain were targeted for mutagenesis
because corresponding amino acids in Drosophila and
mammalian PTB domains are directly involved in binding the epidermal
growth factor receptor, LNX, Numb-associated kinase, JIP-1, and other
partner proteins (48, 64). PKC3 binding activity of wild type and
mutant CKA1 PTB domains was determined by yeast two-hybrid protein
interaction assays (Fig. 9B). Coimmunoprecipitation assays
were also used to detect formation of complexes between full-length
PKC3 and either wild type or mutant CKA1S adapter proteins in intact
cells (Fig. 9, C and D). Several mutations in the
2-helix (Met124 to Ala) and
5-strand
(Ser174 to Ala (Fig. 9, C and D);
Cys176 to Ala (Fig. 9B); Cys176
Ala177 to Ala Gly) that compromise partner protein binding
in other PTB domains (50, 65) failed to alter coupling of the
CKA1-binding module with PKC3. However, substitution of either
Phe175 or Phe221 with Leu abrogated ligation of
PKC3 (Fig. 9, B and C). Thus, large hydrophobic
side chains with aromatic character provide local apolar surfaces that
govern (in part) the affinity of CKA1 for PKC3 and/or stability of
adapter protein·PKC3 complexes. Mutation of corresponding Phe
residues in the dNumb and SHC PTB domains markedly reduces
(Phe175 site) or extinguishes (Phe221 site)
tethering of target ligands (51, 55). Phe175 is included in
the
5-strand, whereas Phe221 is embedded within the
3-helix (Fig. 2B). Therefore, at least two elements of
secondary structure cooperate to create a critical component of the
PKC3-tethering surface of the CKA1 PTB domain. The deletion and
site-directed mutagenesis experiments reveal that classical, conserved
features of PTB domains can accomplish a previously unappreciated task,
recruitment of an atypical protein kinase C.
5-strand and
2-
and
3-helices direct incorporation of side chains from
Met124, Ser174, Phe175,
Cys176, Ala177, and Phe221 (along
with other residues) into a large pocket that accommodates portions of
polypeptide ligands. Side chains from the listed amino acids can
interact directly with amino acids in the target ligand (50, 51). The
PKC3-binding region of the CKA1/CKA1S PTB domain contains key residues
(Phe175 and Phe221) contributed by the
5-strand and
3-helix. However, the inability of substitutions for
Met124, Ser174, Cys176, or
Ala177 to alter tethering activity suggests that PKC3
occupies a binding pocket that is partly similar to and partly distinct
from docking sites that accommodate other protein ligands within PTB domains.
in vitro and in intact cells (27). In contrast, phosphotransferase activity is markedly diminished when PKC
and PKC
couple with Par-4, a mammalian, stress-induced 35-kDa protein that facilitates apoptosis (26). A protein alternatively named ZIP or
p62 simultaneously binds PKC
and either RIP (a Ser/Thr protein
kinase involved in TNF
signal transduction) or Kv
2 (an auxiliary
subunit of the Shaker K+ channel) via distinct domains (11,
66). PKC3 binds with C. elegans Par-3 in one-cell embryos
and at several subsequent stages of early embryonic development (17,
18). Par-3 has a novel binding surface for PKC3. In addition, the Par-3
polypeptide contains three PDZ domains that are presumably used to
assemble a multiprotein complex that is involved in generating cell
polarity and mediating asymmetric cell division. ASIP, the mammalian
counterpart of Par-3, binds PKC
and PKC
and also possesses three
analogous PDZ domains (67).
and/or
PKC
and adapt these kinases for specialized functions by anchoring
at several intracellular locations. Essential prerequisites for
rigorously investigating this issue are to characterize the properties
of the PTB-binding site in PKC3 and determine the mechanism by which the N-terminal region of CKA1 mediates association with plasma membrane/cytoskeleton. These topics are addressed in the accompanying paper (68).
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT |
---|
We thank Ann Marie Malone for expert secretarial assistance.
![]() |
FOOTNOTES |
---|
* This work was supported in part by National Institutes of Health Grant GM22792 (to C. S. R.).The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
The nucleotide sequence(s) reported in this paper has been submitted to the GenBankTM/EMBL Data Bank with accession number(s) AF286205 and AF286206.
Current address: Waksman Institute, Dept. of Molecular Biology and
Biochemistry, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854.
§ To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of Molecular Pharmacology, Forch. 229, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Ave., Bronx, NY 10461. Tel.: 718-430-2505; Fax: 718-430-8922; E-mail: rubin@aecom.yu.edu.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, December 27, 2000, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M008990200
2 S. L. Wu, D. Hall, and C. S. Rubin, unpublished observations.
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ABBREVIATIONS |
---|
The abbreviations used are: DAG, diacylglycerol; PKC, protein kinase C; aPKC, atypical protein kinase C; CKA1, C kinase adapter (apparent Mr = 75,000); CKA1S, C kinase adapter (apparent Mr = 64,000); GST, glutathione S-transferase; RT-PCR, reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction; bp, base pairs; kb, kilobase; kbp, kilobase pairs; nts, nucleotides; PTB domain, phosphotyrosine binding domain; PSD, phosphorylation site domain; GFP, green fluorescent protein; dNumb, Drosophila Numb protein; mNumb, mouse Numb protein; CMV, cytomegalovirus; FITC, fluorescein isothiocyanate; MARCKS, myristoylated alanine-rich C kinase substrate; MDCK, Madin-Darby canine kidney cells.
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