From the Division of Biological Sciences, Sections of Microbiology and of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, California 95616
Received for publication, July 24, 2000, and in revised form, September 28, 2000
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ABSTRACT |
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We demonstrate that RecQ helicase from
Escherichia coli is a catalytic helicase whose activity
depends on the concentration of ATP, free magnesium ion, and
single-stranded DNA-binding (SSB) protein. Helicase activity is
cooperative in ATP concentration, with an apparent S0.5
value for ATP of 200 µM and a Hill coefficient of
3.3 ± 0.3. Therefore, RecQ helicase utilizes multiple,
interacting ATP-binding sites to mediate double-stranded DNA (dsDNA)
unwinding, implicating a multimer of at least three subunits as the
active unwinding species. Unwinding activity is independent of dsDNA ends, indicating that RecQ helicase can unwind from both internal regions and ends of dsDNA. The KM for dsDNA is
0.5-0.9 µM base pairs; the kcat
for DNA unwinding is 2.3-2.7 base pairs/s/monomer of RecQ helicase;
and unexpectedly, helicase activity is optimal at a free magnesium ion
concentration of 0.05 mM. Omitting Escherichia coli SSB protein lowers the rate and extent of dsDNA unwinding, suggesting that RecQ helicase associates with the single-stranded DNA
(ssDNA) product. In agreement, the ssDNA-dependent ATPase activity is reduced in proportion to the SSB protein concentration; in
its absence, ATPase activity saturates at six nucleotides/RecQ helicase
monomer and yields a kcat of 24 s DNA helicases are the motor proteins responsible for separating
the individual strands of
dsDNA1 to provide ssDNA for
key cellular processes such as DNA repair, recombination, and
replication (for reviews see Refs. 1 and 2). An important group of DNA
helicases is the RecQ helicase family (for review see Ref. 3); members
of this group span a wide cross-section of organisms, including
bacteria (4), yeast (5-7), fungi (8), fly (9), frog (10), and humans (11-14). The proteins in this family share extensive amino acid homology within seven characteristic helicase motifs (15) and display
common biochemical attributes (16-19). In the yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, loss of Sgs1 helicase, a RecQ
helicase homologue, leads to premature aging due to genetic instability
at the rDNA locus (20, 21). In humans, there are five homologues of
RecQ helicase, and mutations in two of these, the WRN and BLM
helicases, are responsible for Werner and Bloom syndromes, respectively
(12, 17). A third human homologue, RECQ4, has recently been implicated in a subset of cases of Rothmund-Thompson syndrome (14, 22). A common
phenotype exhibited by these diseases is pronounced genomic instability. Thus, RecQ helicase-like proteins in eukaryotes appear to
be important in maintaining genomic stability (for review see Ref.
23).
The role in DNA metabolism played by the majority of the RecQ helicase
family members remains to be determined; however, the function of the
RecQ helicase from Escherichia coli, the founding member of
this family, is now becoming clear. The gene that encodes RecQ
helicase, recQ, was originally identified in E. coli as a thymineless death-resistant mutant in thyA
cells (24). The same recQ null mutation also reduced
conjugal and plasmid recombination by up to 100-fold in a
recB(C)sbcCD background (24). In addition, loss of
recQ function in the same genetic background rendered E. coli cells highly sensitive to UV irradiation and other
DNA-damaging agents (25, 26). These results were consistent with the
product of this gene being needed for homologous recombination mediated by the RecF recombination pathway (27). Furthermore, recQ
function is required to suppress illegitimate recombination; E. coli cells lacking an intact copy of the recQ gene
display 30-300-fold higher levels of non-homologous recombination
between The recombination functions of RecQ helicase have been examined
in vitro using purified components (29). RecQ helicase was found to unwind a dsDNA substrate to provide a suitable ssDNA substrate
for binding by RecA protein. These findings were interpreted as a clear
indication that RecQ helicase acts to initiate homologous recombination
mediated by the RecF recombination pathway. RecQ helicase was also
capable of disrupting homologous pairing intermediates formed by RecA
protein, in addition to unwinding a broad spectrum of other DNA
substrates. These results suggested that RecQ helicase may antagonize
illegitimate recombination by unwinding aberrantly paired DNA molecules
formed at regions of limited homology. Thus, RecQ helicase is a
multifunctional protein in DNA recombination, which appears to be
responsible for both promoting homologous recombination and
discouraging illegitimate recombination.
An alternative means by which RecQ helicase may suppress illegitimate
recombination events is through its functional interaction with
E. coli topoisomerase III (Topo III). Together these two proteins display a strong DNA strand passage activity in
vitro, which is both absent from the individual proteins and
requires ATP. Fully catenated dsDNA molecules are produced by these two proteins when RecQ helicase unwinds a covalently closed dsDNA substrate
to provide a preferential substrate for Topo III. A similar activity is
observed with RecQ helicase and yeast Topo III from S. cerevisiae. This is consistent with the finding that yeast Topo
III and SGS1 helicase interact both genetically and physically (5). A
physical interaction between the BLM helicase and human Topo III has
also been reported (30). In both yeast and human cells, the cognate
RecQ helicase homologues are needed to suppress recombination events
(5, 12). Based on the similarities between the prokaryotic and
eukaryotic systems, it stands to reason that in E. coli the
combined activities of RecQ helicase and Topo III are also important
for suppressing recombination events.
Earlier characterizations of RecQ helicase had assayed its helicase
activity using agarose gel electrophoresis and employing DNA substrates
that generally consisted of an ssDNA fragment (between 70 and 350 bp in
length) annealed to either a full-length circular M13 ssDNA molecule to
generate a partially dsDNA substrate or a homologous partner of the
same length to make a fully dsDNA substrate (16, 31). In these
experiments, RecQ helicase was found to translocate 3' Here we describe experiments that examine the effects on RecQ
helicase activity of buffer components, DNA concentration and composition, enzyme concentration, and SSB protein concentration. We
find that RecQ helicase is capable of fully unwinding the plasmids pUC19 and pBSKM, which are 2.7 and 2.9 kbp in length, respectively. As
expected, unwinding by RecQ helicase is dependent on a hydrolyzable nucleotide cofactor and is stimulated by E. coli SSB
protein. Unexpectedly, the helicase activity of RecQ helicase is
sensitive to the concentration of both ATP and free magnesium ion. We
also provide the first evidence that RecQ helicase functions as a
multimer: the helicase activity of RecQ helicase displays a cooperative dependence on ATP concentration, which yields an apparent
S0.5 value of 200 µM and a Hill coefficient
of 3.3 (±0.3). A Hill coefficient of 3 or greater suggests that at
least three interacting ATP-binding sites are utilized by the enzyme to
mediate unwinding. RecQ helicase does not display a preference for
initiating unwinding from dsDNA ends compared with internal regions of
dsDNA: the kinetic parameters for DNA unwinding are similar when the
helicase was provided with three separate DNA substrates that differed
in the ratio of the total number of base pairs to dsDNA ends. Finally,
we find that SSB protein is needed not only to trap the displaced ssDNA
strands produced by RecQ helicase-mediated unwinding but is also
important to prevent the formation of abortive RecQ helicase-ssDNA complexes.
Reagents--
Chemicals were reagent grade, and all solutions
were prepared using Barnstead NanoPure water. P-enolpyruvate and
dATP were purchased from Sigma, and ATP was from Amersham Pharmacia
Biotech. ATP Proteins--
RecQ helicase was purified, and its concentration
was determined as described previously (29). The specific activity of the RecQ helicase preparation used here was 2 × 105
ATPase units/mg as defined by Umezu et al. (16) and 1 × 106 helicase units/mg as defined by Roman and
Kowalczykowski (33). SSB protein was purified from E. coli
strain RLM727 as described (34), and its monomer concentration was
determined spectrophotometrically using an extinction coefficient at
280 nm of 3.0 × 104
M DNA--
pUC19 scDNA was purified using alkaline lysis
followed by CsCl-ethidium bromide equilibrium centrifugation (36).
Linear pUC19 dsDNA was produced by incubating pUC19 scDNA with
either HindIII or BanI for 1 h at 37 °C
under the conditions recommended by the vendor. The DNA was recovered
by ethanol precipitation following phenol extraction. pBSKM nicked
dsDNA, produced by digestion of pBSKM scDNA with the M13 gene2
protein, was the kind gift of Dr. Eugene Zaitzev (University of
California, Davis). The concentration of dsDNA was determined using an
extinction coefficient at 260 nm of 6500 M
(bp) Helicase Assays--
RecQ helicase-mediated unwinding was
monitored using a continuous fluorescent dye-displacement assay (32).
The standard reaction buffer consisted of 25 mM Tris
acetate (pH 7.5), 300 nM H33258 dye, 0.1 mM
DTT, and an ATP regeneration system composed of 1 mM
P-enolpyruvate and 25 units ml
Reactions that were analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis were
carried out as above, including the presence of 300 nM
H33258, except that aliquots of the reaction were taken at the
indicated times, and the reaction was stopped with 1% SDS and 50 mM EDTA. These samples were then loaded onto a 1% agarose
gel and run in 1× TAE buffer at 1.5 V/cm for 12 h. Gels were
stained with 0.5 µg/ml ethidium bromide in water for 1 h
followed by extensive (>2 h) de-staining with water. The amount of DNA
in each band was determined using ImageQuant software.
PAGE Bandshift Assays--
Binding of RecQ helicase to the
synthetic DNA substrates was analyzed using non-denaturing PAGE
bandshift assays as described previously (29). The sequences of the
oligonucleotide substrates were as follows: oligo 1, 5'-TCCTTTTGATAAGAGGTCATTTTTGCGGATGGCTTAGAGCTTAATTGC-3'; and oligo 2, 5'-GCAATTAAGCTCTAAGCCATCCGCAAAAATGACCTCTTATCAAAAGGA-3'. The ssDNA substrate was oligo 1, and the 48-bp dsDNA substrate was oligo 2 annealed to oligo 1 as described previously (29). Reactions
contained RecQ helicase from 1 nM to 1.0 µM,
and either the ssDNA substrate or the dsDNA substrate at a
concentration of 960 nM (nts) or 960 nM (bp),
respectively. Complexes were formed by incubation at 37 °C for 4 min
in binding buffer (25 mM Tris acetate (pH 7.5), 1.2 mM magnesium acetate, 28 mM NaCl, 0.1 mM DTT, 1 mM ATP ATP Hydrolysis Assays--
The hydrolysis of ATP by RecQ
helicase was monitored spectrophotometrically as described previously
(37). The standard reaction buffer consisted of 25 mM Tris
acetate (pH 7.5), 1 mM magnesium acetate, 0.1 mM DTT, 1 mM P-enolpyruvate, 25 units
ml RecQ Helicase Unwinds Plasmid-length dsDNA
Substrates--
Unwinding by RecQ helicase was monitored using a
continuous fluorescent dye-displacement assay (32), previously used to monitor the unwinding of oligonucleotide-derived substrates by RecQ
helicase (29). This assay is based on the observation that the binding
of certain fluorescent dyes, such as H33258 dye, to dsDNA results in a
large increase in fluorescent signal relative to that for the dye in
the presence of ssDNA (Fig.
1A). Helicase-mediated unwinding of this highly fluorescent dsDNA-H33258 dye complex results
in a decrease in the fluorescent signal that is proportional to the
amount of ssDNA produced (32). Therefore, the rate and extent of
helicase-mediated unwinding can be determined from the change in
fluorescence that accompanies unwinding of the dsDNA-H33258 dye
complex.
The initial dsDNA substrate used here was the plasmid pUC19 digested
with HindIII to yield a single 2.7-kbp fragment with nearly
blunt dsDNA ends. The standard H33258 dye concentration of 300 nM was empirically determined by analyzing the effect of dye concentration on the unwinding activity of RecQ helicase (data not
shown); this concentration of H33258 dye was chosen because the
unwinding activity of RecQ helicase, as measured by DNA strand separation in agarose gel electrophoresis assays, was unaffected by the
presence of the dye, and this amount of dye was sufficient to determine
accurately the initial rate of unwinding (32). Typical time courses for
RecQ helicase-mediated unwinding of this DNA substrate (in the presence
of 1 µM SSB protein) appear in Fig. 1B.
Addition of RecQ helicase to the linear pUC19 dsDNA-H33258 dye complex
and subsequent unwinding results in a rapid decrease in the fluorescent
signal. An incremental increase in the RecQ helicase concentration from
10 to 100 nM resulted in a higher rate of DNA unwinding
(Table I). Note that the observed extent of unwinding calculated for 10 nM RecQ helicase is likely
to underestimate the true extent of unwinding because the fluorescent
signal at 10 nM RecQ helicase continued to decrease slowly
beyond the end of the 10-min time course presented in Fig.
1B. A time-dependent inactivation of RecQ
helicase was uniformly observed whenever RecQ helicase was present at
low concentrations (
To confirm that the loss of fluorescent signal observed in this assay
was due to dsDNA unwinding by RecQ helicase and was not simply due to
dsDNA binding, similar to that observed for RecA protein (38), the
effect of nucleotide cofactor on dye displacement was determined.
Previously, studies have shown that RecQ helicase requires ATP to
mediate unwinding (16). In addition, RecQ helicase must hydrolyze ATP
to promote unwinding; ATP
The lack of helicase activity in the presence of ATP
Strand separation by RecQ helicase was confirmed in separate reactions
by agarose gel electrophoresis (Fig. 1C). As expected, electrophoresis demonstrated that 100% of the HindIII-cut
pUC19 linear dsDNA was unwound in 10 min by RecQ helicase at a
concentration of 100 nM (Fig. 1C and Table I).
Unwinding was also apparent in the gel assay at RecQ helicase
concentrations of 10 and 25 nM, except that the observed
extents of unwinding were found to be lower at 25 and 50%,
respectively (Fig. 1C and Table I). The discrepancy between
the extents of unwinding measured by the dye-displacement assay and by
the agarose gel method is likely due to differences intrinsic to the
assays. The gel assay is only an approximate measurement of unwinding
at the DNA molecule level because removal of proteins prior to agarose
gel electrophoresis may allow DNA molecules that are only partially
unwound to reanneal, producing the original substrate. Thus, many DNA
molecules that are partially unwound will go undetected with this
technique. Because of these limitations, the gel assay is more likely
to under-estimate the actual extent of unwinding, especially under
conditions where unwinding is incomplete. On the other hand, the
fluorescent dye assay is highly sensitive because it measures unwinding
at the base pair level. With this assay, the change in fluorescence
brought on by unwinding is directly proportional to the number of base pairs unwound by the helicase (32). For this reason, this assay provides a more accurate measurement of the extent and rate of dsDNA
unwinding. In addition, the dye-displacement method monitors the
unwinding reaction in real time, so it is not subject to artifacts introduced by deproteinizing of the DNA prior to analysis.
In the absence of E. coli SSB protein, the extent of
unwinding for RecQ helicase on short dsDNA fragments was found to be significantly reduced (31). To confirm these findings for the longer
dsDNA substrates and to determine the effect of SSB protein on the
initial rate of unwinding, RecQ helicase-mediated unwinding was
examined in the absence of SSB protein (Table I). As expected, the
extent of unwinding was significantly reduced when SSB protein was
omitted. In addition, the rate of unwinding without SSB protein was
approximately 40% that with 1 µM SSB protein present.
Thus, SSB protein is a stimulatory factor that increases both the
initial rate and extent of unwinding by RecQ helicase. The mechanism by which SSB protein stimulates RecQ helicase is explored further below.
The Helicase Activity of RecQ Helicase Is
Uncharacteristically Sensitive to the Concentrations of ATP and Free
Magnesium Ion--
To determine the optimal conditions for DNA
unwinding by RecQ helicase, the initial rate and extent of unwinding
were measured over a range of magnesium ion concentrations (Fig.
2). Curiously, the helicase activity of
RecQ helicase displays an optimum in the magnesium ion concentration
profile. In the presence of 1 mM ATP, the initial rate of
RecQ helicase-mediated unwinding displayed a sharp magnesium ion
concentration optimum, with maximal activity occurring at 0.8 mM magnesium (Fig. 2A, filled circles); the
extent of unwinding displayed a similar optimum but with a broader peak extending from 0.5-1.0 mM magnesium (open
circles). It is important to note that the extent of unwinding
obtained at each magnesium acetate concentration represents the final
maximal degree of dsDNA unwinding, since the fluorescent time traces
for each determination reached a stable plateau value (data not shown).
Clearly, helicase activity (i.e. both initial rate and
extent) is reduced when the magnesium ion concentration is low. The
decrease in activity beyond the maximum implies that excess magnesium
ion concentration is also inhibitory.
Since ATP chelates magnesium ion, it was not clear whether the reduced
activity at the lower magnesium ion concentrations was due to a low
total concentration or a low free-magnesium ion concentration. To
discriminate between these possibilities, the magnesium ion
concentration-dependence was re-examined at a higher ATP concentration
(3 mM rather than 1 mM). At 3 mM
ATP, the unwinding activity of RecQ helicase also displays a pronounced
magnesium ion optimum (Fig. 2A), with 2.2 mM
magnesium representing the peak of activity (filled
squares). The extent of unwinding displays an equivalent
sensitivity to the magnesium ion concentration, with the maximal extent
of unwinding reaching 100% at magnesium ion concentrations ranging
from 2 to 2.6 mM (open squares). Interestingly, the rate profile obtained at 3 mM ATP is similar to that
obtained at 1 mM ATP when the data are replotted
versus the ratio of magnesium ion and ATP
concentrations; under both conditions, the maximal initial rate of
unwinding corresponds to conditions where the Mg2+:ATP
ratio is slightly less than 1.0 (Fig. 2B). These data
clearly demonstrate that RecQ helicase is sensitive to the ratio of the magnesium ion to ATP concentration, with maximal activity exhibited at
approximately equimolar concentrations of magnesium ion and ATP. Thus,
the concentration of free magnesium ion appears to affect the activity
of RecQ helicase.
To confirm that the unwinding activity of RecQ helicase is
influenced by free magnesium ion, the concentration of free magnesium ion for each data point in Fig. 2B was calculated using the
CHELATOR software package. The initial rates of unwinding at each ATP
condition (i.e. either 1 mM or 3 mM
ATP) were the replotted as a function of free magnesium ion
concentration (Fig. 2C). At both ATP concentrations, the
helicase activity increased with increasing free magnesium ion
concentration up to its peak at a concentration of approximately 0.05 mM. Beyond this optimum, the rate steadily declined with increasing free magnesium ion concentration. A comparable effect of
free magnesium ion concentration on the rate of unwinding was observed
when the magnesium acetate concentration was held to 1 mM
and the ATP concentration varied from 0.25 to 3.0 mM (data not shown). Thus, the helicase activity of RecQ helicase is quite sensitive to the concentration of free magnesium ion. Interestingly, the initial rates of unwinding at 3 mM ATP reach only 60%
of those observed at 1 mM ATP (Fig. 2C,
compare squares to circles), even when the
equivalent free magnesium ion concentrations are compared. Therefore,
RecQ helicase is also sensitive to the ATP concentration, and this
influence is separate from the effect of free magnesium ion.
RecQ Helicase May Function as a Multimer, Composed Minimally of
Three Interacting Monomers--
To obtain an estimate of the affinity
that RecQ helicase has for ATP, the initial rates of RecQ
helicase-mediated unwinding were determined over a range of ATP
concentrations. Since RecQ helicase is inhibited by free magnesium ion,
the Mg2+:ATP ratio was maintained at 0.8 for these
experiments. The initial rates of unwinding obtained from this analysis
were then plotted as a function of ATP concentration (Fig.
3). The resultant curve is sigmoid, which
is consistent with RecQ helicase utilizing multiple ATP-binding sites
to mediate dsDNA unwinding (39). To determine both the apparent
S0.5 for ATP and the minimum number of ATP-binding sites
involved in the unwinding reaction, the data were fit to the Hill
equation (Fig. 3). The apparent S0.5 for ATP derived from
this analysis was 200 µM ATP. In addition, the slope of
the resultant line, or Hill coefficient, provides an estimate of the minimum number of interacting ATP-binding sites involved in the unwinding reaction (39). In this case the slope is 3.3 ± 0.3, which is consistent with RecQ helicase utilizing at least three interacting ATP-binding sites in the course DNA unwinding. Since each
RecQ helicase monomer contains a single ATP binding/hydrolysis site
(4), these data suggest that the minimal functional oligomer of RecQ
helicase is composed of at least three monomers.
Effect of Enzyme Concentration on RecQ Helicase Unwinding
Activity--
To determine the optimal amount of RecQ helicase
required to unwind dsDNA, its concentration was varied in the presence
of 0.5 µM (bp) pUC19 linear dsDNA (Fig.
4A, closed squares). The DNA
concentration is presented in units of µM (bp) because,
as we will show later, RecQ helicase is not limited to DNA ends as sites from which to initiate unwinding. The initial rate of unwinding saturated at a rate of 24 nM (bp)/s, and at a RecQ helicase
concentration of 19 nM, which yields an apparent
stoichiometry of approximately 25 bp/RecQ helicase monomer (Table
II). Similar stoichiometries were also
obtained at DNA concentrations of 2.5 and 5.0 µM (bp) (Table II). Based on these data, the apparent dsDNA binding
stoichiometry for RecQ helicase is, on average, 30 bp/RecQ helicase
monomer, and this parameter is independent of the DNA concentration. At almost all of the RecQ helicase concentrations tested, the extent of
unwinding was 100% (Fig. 4A). However, at 1 nM
RecQ helicase, the apparent extent of unwinding was approximately 45%,
due to nonspecific loss of enzyme activity at this low
concentration.
Effect of DNA Concentration on the Unwinding Activity of RecQ
Helicase--
The concentration of the pUC19 linear dsDNA substrate
was varied to establish values for both the apparent
KM for dsDNA and the apparent
kcat (i.e. turnover number) for the
DNA helicase activity of RecQ helicase (Fig.
5A). The apparent
KM and kcat values were
calculated by fitting the data to the Michaelis-Menten equation, as
indicated in Table III. The apparent
KM value for this linear dsDNA substrate was 767 nM (bp), and the apparent kcat was
2.3 s RecQ Helicase Is Capable of Initiating Unwinding from Both the Ends
and the Internal Regions of dsDNA--
An interesting characteristic
of RecQ helicase is that, unlike many DNA helicases, it lacks a rigid
specificity for a particular DNA substrate (29). Moreover, RecQ
helicase is capable of unwinding covalently closed dsDNA molecules
(40). Even though RecQ helicase does not necessarily require a dsDNA
end to initiate unwinding, we were interested in determining the
relative importance of dsDNA ends as sites for initiation of unwinding
by RecQ helicase. A simple means of assessing the importance of dsDNA
ends was to obtain the apparent dsDNA binding stoichiometry for DNA
substrates that differ in the ratio dsDNA ends to the total number of
base pairs. If dsDNA ends are a preferred initiation site for RecQ helicase, then the amount of protein needed to saturate the DNA should
be related to the number of dsDNA ends. For example, the helicase
activity of RecBCD enzyme, which is limited to initiating unwinding
from dsDNA ends (41), saturates at a functional protein concentration
that is equivalent to the concentration of dsDNA ends (33).
The additional DNA substrates used for these experiments are as
follows: 1) pUC19 dsDNA digested with the restriction enzyme BanI (BanI-cut pUC19 dsDNA) to produce four
different linear DNA fragments (see legend of Fig. 4) and, therefore,
has 4-fold more dsDNA ends per total number of base pairs relative to
the standard HindIII-cut pUC19 linear dsDNA substrate; and
2) the 2.9-kbp plasmid pBSKM with a single site-specific nick
("nicked pBSKM" dsDNA), which is a nicked, circular molecule that
lacks dsDNA ends. The initial rate of unwinding was determined for
these two DNA substrates at the indicated RecQ helicase concentrations
(Fig. 4B), and the apparent dsDNA binding stoichiometry for
each was calculated as above for HindIII-cut pUC19 dsDNA
(Table II).
For the BanI-cut pUC19 dsDNA substrate, the initial rates of
unwinding at all RecQ helicase concentrations were approximately 40%
greater than with HindIII-cut dsDNA (Fig. 4B, closed
circles). The magnitude of this difference, however, was
significantly less than the 4-fold increase expected if RecQ helicase
acted strictly from dsDNA ends. More importantly, the apparent dsDNA
binding stoichiometry obtained at 0.5 µM (bp)
BanI-cut pUC19 DNA was identical to that observed for
HindIII-cut pUC19 linear dsDNA (i.e. 25 bp/RecQ helicase monomer; Table II). In addition, a comparable apparent dsDNA
binding stoichiometry was observed when RecQ helicase was titrated
against a 5-fold higher concentration of this DNA substrate (Table II);
thus, this apparent dsDNA binding stoichiometry, like that for
HindIII-cut pUC19 linear dsDNA, was independent of DNA concentration. Therefore, a 4-fold increase in dsDNA ends does not
significantly alter the apparent dsDNA binding stoichiometry of RecQ
helicase. As for the HindIII-cut pUC19 linear dsDNA
substrate, 100% of the BanI-cut pUC19 dsDNA substrate was
unwound at every RecQ helicase concentration, with the exception of the
lowest concentration tested.
RecQ helicase unwound the nicked pBSKM dsDNA nearly as well as the two
linear dsDNA substrates (Fig. 4B, closed triangles). With
the nicked DNA, the initial rates of unwinding were reduced, on
average, by 15%, relative to initial rates for HindIII-cut pUC19 dsDNA. The dsDNA binding stoichiometry for the nicked DNA substrate was 17 bp/RecQ helicase monomer, which is nearly half of the
value obtained for the linear DNA substrates. The nick was not
necessary for unwinding by RecQ helicase; a dsDNA binding stoichiometry
of 22 bp/RecQ helicase was obtained for relaxed pUC19 dsDNA
(i.e. a covalently-closed DNA substrate) at a concentration of 2.5 µM (bp), when the initial rates of RecQ
helicases-mediated unwinding were determined in the presence of wheat
germ topoisomerase I (data not shown). The topoisomerase was present to
remove supercoils introduced into the DNA by RecQ helicase-promoted
unwinding. These results are in agreement with our previous
observations that RecQ helicase unwinds covalently closed dsDNA (40);
therefore, this helicase does not require a dsDNA end to initiate
unwinding. Furthermore, and more importantly, the data from both the
nicked and linear dsDNA substrates indicate that RecQ helicase is
almost equally capable of initiating unwinding from an internal region
of dsDNA as it is from a dsDNA end. In contrast, RecBCD enzyme is
unable to initiate unwinding from the internal regions of a dsDNA
substrate (41).
RecQ Helicase Displays Similar Affinities for the Ends and Internal
Sites of dsDNA--
To determine quantitatively the relative affinity
of RecQ helicase for dsDNA ends versus the internal regions
of dsDNA, the apparent KM value for both the
BanI-cut pUC19 and the pBSKM dsDNA was determined by varying
the DNA concentration. The data for both of these DNA substrates appear
in Fig. 5B, and the apparent KM values
calculated from each data set are presented in Table III. The apparent
KM value of 465 nM (bp) for the
BanI-cut pUC19 DNA was only 1.6-fold lower than that determined for HindIII-cut pUC19 DNA, even though the former
substrate possessed 4-fold more dsDNA ends. Additionally, the apparent
KM value for the substrate without dsDNA ends,
nicked pBSKM DNA, was 869 nM (bp), which was only slightly
higher than that for HindIII-cut pUC19 DNA. If the apparent
KM is assumed to be a rough estimate of the relative
dsDNA binding affinity of RecQ helicase, then these data indicate that
RecQ helicase does not have a substantially higher affinity for dsDNA
ends relative to its affinity for the internal base pairs of dsDNA, at
least with regard to its DNA unwinding activity. By comparison, the affinity of RecBCD enzyme for dsDNA ends is more than 1 × 106-fold greater than its affinity for internal dsDNA sites
(33).
Further evidence of this unusual property of RecQ helicase is provided
by the apparent kcat values calculated from the
data in Fig. 5B (Table III). The apparent
kcat of 2.3 s Greater Than Stoichiometric Concentrations of SSB Protein Are
Needed to Fully Stimulate Unwinding by RecQ
Helicase--
Previous work demonstrates that SSB protein stimulated
the extent of RecQ helicase-promoted unwinding by trapping the
individual strands of the ssDNA product to prevent their reannealing
(31). Under the assay conditions used here, SSB protein had a similar stimulatory effect on the helicase activity of RecQ helicase (Table I).
To determine the concentration of SSB protein needed for maximal
stimulation, both the initial rate and the final extent of unwinding
were determined at concentrations of SSB protein that ranged from
sub-saturating to excess with respect to the total concentration of DNA
in nucleotides (i.e. potential ssDNA produced). Under the
conditions used here, the DNA binding stoichiometry for SSB protein is
13.5 nt/SSB protein monomer (data not shown); consequently, 0.37 µM SSB protein would be sufficient to saturate completely
the 2.5 µM of DNA in its fully unwound state.
At every protein concentration tested, SSB protein positively
influenced both unwinding parameters for RecQ helicase (Fig. 6). In the absence of SSB protein, 100 nM RecQ helicase unwound approximately 30% of the
substrate at an initial rate of 33 nM (bp)/s; subsequent
addition of SSB protein to this reaction allowed complete unwinding by
RecQ helicase (data not shown). On the other hand, RecQ helicase
unwound 100% of the DNA at a 2-fold higher rate when 1 µM SSB protein was present (i.e. standard
conditions). Increasing the SSB protein concentration up to 0.75 µM SSB protein led to a proportional increase in both the
initial rate and the extent of unwinding by RecQ helicase. Above 0.75 µM SSB protein, a plateau level was achieved at which
further increases in SSB protein concentration had little effect on
unwinding. Thus, twice the saturating amount of SSB protein was
required to achieve maximal unwinding by RecQ helicase. This phenomenon
is likely to be a reflection of the competition between RecQ helicase
and SSB protein for ssDNA-binding sites (see below).
SSB Protein Stimulates RecQ Helicase-promoted Unwinding by
Preventing the Formation of Non-productive Complexes of RecQ Helicase
and ssDNA--
In addition to its capacity to bind to dsDNA, RecQ
helicase can also bind ssDNA (16). In fact, using PAGE bandshift
assays, we established that RecQ helicase (in the absence of SSB
protein) displays a 10-fold higher affinity for a single-stranded
oligonucleotide over a fully duplex DNA of the same length (Fig.
7A). The apparent DNA binding
affinities for a 48-nucleotide ssDNA substrate and a 48-bp dsDNA
substrate are 3.3 × 107 and 3.2 × 106 M
As might be expected, the ssDNA-dependent ATP hydrolysis
activity of RecQ helicase is as much as 10-fold greater than its dsDNA-dependent activity (16); this behavior is similar to
that of other DNA helicases such as helicase II (42), helicase IV (43),
and Rep helicase (44). Furthermore, the unwinding activity of RecQ
helicase is inhibited by ssDNA: the initial rate of unwinding for 100 nM RecQ helicase (in the absence of SSB protein) was
reduced by 90% when the enzyme was provided with a equimolar mixture
of HindIII-cut pUC19 linear dsDNA (2.5 µM
(bp)) and poly(dT) (5.0 µM (nt)) (Fig. 7B).
This reduction is in close agreement with the 10-fold difference in
apparent binding affinity that RecQ helicase displays for ssDNA
relative to dsDNA. Even when present at one-fifth the dsDNA
concentration, poly(dT) inhibited the rate of unwinding by
approximately 2-fold. In addition, the extent of unwinding displayed a
comparable sensitivity to the presence of poly(dT) competitor (Fig.
7B). Thus, ssDNA is inhibitory to the helicase activity of
RecQ helicase, presumably because RecQ helicase is sequestered by the
ssDNA.
Since RecQ helicase shares the capacity to bind ssDNA with SSB protein,
it is possible that these two proteins compete for binding to the ssDNA
produced by unwinding. To determine whether these two proteins compete
for ssDNA-binding sites, the effect of SSB protein on the ssDNA binding
activity of RecQ helicase was examined. In these experiments, the
binding of RecQ helicase to HindIII-cut pUC19 linear ssDNA
(produced by heat denaturation) was monitored indirectly by assaying
the ssDNA-dependent ATP hydrolysis activity of RecQ
helicase (see "Experimental Procedures"). Fig. 8A shows a time course of ATP
hydrolysis mediated by 10 nM RecQ helicase incubated with
1.0 µM (nt) ssDNA either in the absence or the presence
of 1 µM SSB protein. In these experiments, the final
steady-state rate of ATP hydrolysis is reduced by 8-fold from 262 to 34 nM ATP/s when SSB protein is present. Thus, approximately 8-fold less RecQ helicase binds to the ssDNA substrate in the presence
of SSB protein. Furthermore, SSB protein (1 µM) inhibits ssDNA-dependent ATP hydrolysis 3-fold, with a half-time of
approximately 20 s, upon addition of the protein to complexes of
RecQ helicase (20 nM) and HindIII-cut pUC19
linear ssDNA (1 µM (nt)) (data not shown). Hence, SSB
protein also competes with RecQ helicase that is already bound to
ssDNA.
To determine the concentration of SSB protein needed for maximal
inhibition of RecQ helicase, the ssDNA-dependent ATP
hydrolysis activity of RecQ helicase was surveyed over a range of SSB
protein concentrations (Fig. 8B). At each concentration of
SSB protein, ATP hydrolysis activity was reduced, with the largest
reduction being approximately 8-fold. In these experiments, saturation
of the ssDNA should have occurred at approximately 75 nM
SSB protein, based on a DNA binding stoichiometry of 13.5 nt/SSB
monomer (see above) However, full inhibition of the ATPase activity
occurred at more than 120 nM SSB protein or a >1.5-fold
excess of SSB protein. Thus, the full inhibitory effect of SSB protein
required greater than saturating concentrations of SSB protein,
relative to the total concentration of DNA nucleotides. These data are
in agreement with previous studies showing that the ATP hydrolysis
activity of RecQ helicase is fully inhibited only in the presence of
excess SSB protein (31).
To further characterize ssDNA binding by RecQ helicase and the effect
of SSB protein on this activity, the apparent ssDNA binding
stoichiometry of RecQ helicase was determined with and without 1 µM SSB protein (Fig. 8C). In the absence of
SSB protein, the ATP hydrolysis activity of RecQ helicase saturated at
an enzyme concentration of 165 nM and at a maximal rate of
4000 nM ATP/s (Fig. 8C) or an apparent
kcat value for ATP hydrolysis of 24.2 s
In similar reactions having SSB protein, 1.7-fold more enzyme, or 280 nM RecQ helicase, was needed to saturate the linear ssDNA
substrate (Fig. 8C). As a result, the apparent ssDNA binding stoichiometry of RecQ helicase in the presence of SSB protein was
reduced to 3.5 nucleotides/RecQ helicase monomer. In addition to
affecting the observed ssDNA binding stoichiometry of RecQ helicase,
SSB protein also inhibited the maximal rate of ATP hydrolysis achieved
by RecQ helicase; saturating concentrations of RecQ helicase yielded a
rate of 2200 nM ATP/s, which is approximately 60% of the
value observed in the absence of SSB protein.
These results also reveal that RecQ helicase competes less effectively
with SSB protein as enzyme concentration decreases. For example, at 100 nM RecQ helicase, ATP hydrolysis (i.e. the amount of enzyme bound to the ssDNA) was reduced by 4-fold when SSB
protein was present (Fig. 8C, inset); at 50 nM
RecQ helicase SSB protein reduces ATP hydrolysis by 5-fold, whereas at
5 nM RecQ helicase the reduction is the greatest at
12-fold. These data indicate that as the RecQ helicase concentration is
reduced, SSB protein more effectively blocks the binding of RecQ
helicase to ssDNA.
To test whether SSB protein stimulates the helicase activity of RecQ
helicase by blocking formation of inactive RecQ helicase-ssDNA complexes, the effect of SSB protein on RecQ helicase-promoted unwinding was determined at two different concentrations of RecQ helicase, 50 and 100 nM. The prediction was that the
relative stimulation of unwinding by SSB protein would be greater at 50 nM RecQ helicase than at 100 nM enzyme, because
RecQ helicase at the lower concentration will compete less effectively
with SSB protein for binding to the ssDNA product of unwinding. As anticipated, stimulation by SSB protein at the lower RecQ helicase concentration was 1.5-fold greater than at the higher enzyme
concentration (Fig. 9). Thus, the
stimulatory effects of SSB protein on RecQ helicase-mediated unwinding
are inversely proportional to the helicase concentration. These data,
taken together with those demonstrating that RecQ helicase and SSB
protein compete for ssDNA-binding sites, are consistent with a model in
which SSB protein stimulates the helicase activity of RecQ helicase by
acting to antagonize the ssDNA binding of the helicase. In this view,
SSB protein increases the effective concentration of RecQ helicase in
solution by blocking sequestration of the enzyme by ssDNA.
We have extensively characterized the helicase activity of RecQ
helicase using plasmid-length dsDNA substrates (pUC19 and pBSKM, which
are 2.7 and 2.9 kbp in length, respectively). RecQ helicase fully
unwinds these substrates in a reaction that is dependent on a
hydrolyzable nucleotide cofactor and is stimulated by E. coli SSB protein. The helicase activity of RecQ helicase is
sensitive to the ratio of magnesium ion concentration to ATP concentration because the enzyme is inhibited by excess free magnesium ion. In addition, the dependence of helicase activity on ATP
concentration was sigmoidal with an apparent S0.5 value of
200 µM and a Hill coefficient of 3.3 ± 0.3. Thus,
RecQ helicase utilizes three or more interacting ATP-binding sites to
mediate unwinding; this is the first evidence that RecQ helicase
functions as an oligomer. The apparent dsDNA binding stoichiometry for
RecQ helicase is 30 bp/RecQ helicase monomer, and the ssDNA binding
stoichiometry is 6 nucleotides/RecQ helicase monomer. Significantly,
RecQ helicase does not display a preference for initiating unwinding
from dsDNA ends compared with internal regions of dsDNA. As reported
previously by Nakayama and co-workers (31), SSB protein greatly
stimulates the helicase activity of RecQ helicase. This stimulation of
unwinding by SSB protein is a consequence of both trapping the
displaced ssDNA strands and preventing the formation of non-productive
RecQ helicase-ssDNA complexes.
In Fig. 10, we present a model that
depicts the essential features of RecQ helicase-mediated dsDNA
unwinding. RecQ helicase is illustrated as a helicase that can act
catalytically but that is subject to inhibition by its ssDNA product
due to formation of non-productive RecQ helicase-ssDNA complexes. SSB
protein stimulates the helicase activity of RecQ helicase both by
maintaining the unwound DNA strands in their ssDNA state and by
abrogating the inhibition imposed by ssDNA. When provided with a dsDNA
substrate, free RecQ helicase binds with almost equal affinity to
either the dsDNA ends or the internal regions of the substrate (Fig. 10A). The active species formed by RecQ helicase upon
binding to the DNA substrate is expected to be oligomeric, since
multiple ATP-binding sites are utilized by the protein to achieve
strand separation. The unwinding complex is depicted as a hexameric
ring, since the BLM helicase, a human homologue of RecQ helicase, has been shown to adopt this structure (45). However, the higher order
structure of the RecQ helicase unwinding complex remains to be
determined. After gaining access to the substrate, RecQ helicase
proceeds to unwind the dsDNA in the 3' 1. Thus, we conclude that SSB protein
stimulates RecQ helicase-mediated unwinding by both trapping the
separated ssDNA strands after unwinding and preventing the formation of
non-productive enzyme-ssDNA complexes.
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ABSTRACT
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DISCUSSION
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Spi
phage and the E. coli
chromosome (28).
5' along the
DNA strand to which it is bound. In addition, this helicase displayed
the capacity to unwind both partial ssDNA and full-dsDNA substrates.
Unwinding by RecQ helicase was also greatly stimulated by both E. coli SSB protein and phage T4 gene 32 protein. However, agarose
gel electrophoresis assays have the limitation that unwinding is scored
only when the DNA substrate is unwound (i.e. the complete
dissociation of the dsDNA substrate) and, therefore, do not directly
provide information concerning the initial rate of dsDNA unwinding by
RecQ helicase. To characterize further the helicase activity of RecQ
helicase, with respect to both its initial rate and the final extent of unwinding, we examined the activity of RecQ helicase on plasmid-length (>2 kbp) dsDNA substrates using a continuous fluorescent
dye-displacement assay (32).
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S was from Roche Molecular Biochemicals. Nucleotides
were dissolved as concentrated stock solutions at pH 7.5, and the
concentrations were determined spectrophotometrically using an
extinction coefficient at 260 nm of 1.54 × 104
M
1 cm
1.
The fluorophore, Höechst 33258 (H33258) dye (Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR), was dissolved as a concentrated stock solution in water,
and the concentration was determined spectrophotometrically using an
extinction coefficient at 344 nm of 4.6 × 104
M
1
cm
1.
1 cm
1
(35). The restriction endonucleases HindIII and
BanI were from New England Biolabs. Pyruvate kinase and
lactate dehydrogenase were from Sigma. Wheat germ topoisomerase I was
from Promega.
1 cm
1. Poly(dT)
was purchased from Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, and its concentration
was determined using an extinction coefficient at 260 nm of 8520 M (nts)
1
cm
1.
1 pyruvate
kinase. Standard conditions were reactions (300 µl total volume)
having 1 mM magnesium-acetate, 1 mM ATP, 1 µM SSB protein, 2.5 µM (bp) linear dsDNA,
and 100 nM RecQ helicase. When the unwinding of relaxed
pUC19 dsDNA substrate was assayed, 20 units (as defined by the vendor)
of wheat germ topoisomerase I were present in the reaction. All
reactions were carried out at 37 °C with constant stirring.
Fluorescent measurements were carried out on an SLM 8100C
spectrofluorometer (SLM-Aminco, Rochester, NY) with the photomultiplier tube voltage set to 800 V, a gain setting of 1, and the excitation and emission wavelengths set to 344 and 487 nm,
respectively. The bandwidths for both excitation and emission were 8 nm. The total change in fluorescent signal corresponding to 100%
unwinding (
FT) was determined for each assay by
subtracting the value for the free H33258 dye from the fluorescence obtained for the dye-dsDNA complex. This is possible since the fluorescence of the H33258 dye is not altered by ssDNA (32). The extent
of unwinding (i.e. the percentage of total DNA unwound) was
calculated by dividing the observed change in fluorescence at the
completion of unwinding (
Fobs) by
FT. The initial rate of unwinding in
nM (bp) s
1 was calculated by
multiplying the absolute value of the initial slope of the unwinding
curve by the DNA concentration in nM (bp), and then
dividing this product by
FT. Where
indicated, the concentration of free magnesium ion was determined using
the CHELATOR software package (Dr. J. M. Schoenmakers, University of
Nijmegen, The Netherlands).
S, and 14% glycerol), and
then they were immediately loaded onto a 6% polyacrylamide gel (30:1
acrylamide:bisacrylamide). Electrophoresis was carried out at 380 V for
1-1.5 h in a Tris glycine buffer (25 mM Tris, 190 mM glycine, and 0.1 mM EDTA). Gels were dried
onto DEAE paper (Whatman) and visualized using a Storm PhosphorImager
(Molecular Dynamics). The concentration of DNA in bands corresponding
to free DNA substrate was determined using ImageQuant software.
Apparent binding affinity (M
1)
was calculated as the reciprocal of the RecQ helicase concentration at
which half the available DNA substrate was bound.
1 pyruvate kinase, 25 units
ml
1 lactate dehydrogenase, 150 µM NADH, and 1 mM ATP. Reactions had the
indicated concentration of RecQ helicase, and 1.0 µM (nt) heat-denatured HindIII-cut pUC19 linear DNA. SSB protein was
present, where indicated, at a concentration of 1 µM. All
reaction components, except for SSB protein and RecQ helicase, were
incubated together at 37 °C for 2 min prior to initiation of the
reaction by the addition of a mixture of SSB protein and RecQ helicase.
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Fig. 1.
The fluorescent dye-displacement helicase
assay applied to the helicase of RecQ helicase. A,
schematic of the fluorescent dye-displacement helicase assay.
Dark stars are free H33258 dye with low fluorescence. The
open stars represent H33258 dye with high fluorescence by
virtue of its interaction with dsDNA. B, time courses of
unwinding of 2.5 µM (bp) HindIII-cut pUC19
linear dsDNA under standard conditions with the following concentration
of RecQ helicase: 10 (dotted line), 25 (dashed
line), and 100 nM (solid line).
C, unwinding of HindIII-cut pUC19 linear dsDNA
monitored by agarose gel electrophoresis under identical conditions, at
the indicated RecQ helicase concentrations. Samples were taken at the
indicated times, separated on a 1% agarose gel, and the DNA visualized
by staining with ethidium bromide.
10 nM). Nevertheless, these data
demonstrate that RecQ helicase can rapidly unwind this 2.7-kbp linear
dsDNA substrate.
Unwinding of pUC19 linear dsDNA by RecQ helicase
S, a non-hydrolyzable analogue of ATP, does
not support RecQ helicase-mediated unwinding. In agreement, we find
that RecQ helicase displays no detectable helicase activity either in
the absence of ATP or when ATP
S is provided as nucleotide cofactor
(Table I). These results clearly demonstrate that the
helicase-dependent drop in fluorescence observed in the
fluorescent dye-displacement assay is due to unwinding of the dsDNA
substrate by RecQ helicase.
S does not stem
from an inability of RecQ helicase to bind this cofactor, since the
addition of 1 mM ATP to a helicase assay initiated with 1 mM ATP
S does not allow RecQ helicase to unwind the dsDNA
(Table I). Accordingly, 1 mM ATP
S immediately inhibited
dsDNA unwinding when added to an ongoing standard reaction having 1 mM ATP present (data not shown). A comparable inhibitory
effect of ATP
S on the unwinding activity of RecQ helicase was also
observed previously (29). Thus, RecQ helicase is fully capable of
binding to ATP
S, but this non-hydrolyzable cofactor does not support
dsDNA unwinding; instead, it is an inhibitor of RecQ helicase. Helicase
activity was also supported by 1 mM dATP, but both the
initial rate and extent of unwinding were 50% that observed with ATP
(Table I). Thus, ATP appears to be a superior cofactor compared with
dATP. It remains to be determined, however, whether the differences in
helicase activity that are elicited by these two cofactors are due to
differences in the binding affinity or the intrinsic turnover rate for
each cofactor.
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Fig. 2.
The helicase activity of RecQ helicase
displays a sharp dependence on the free magnesium ion
concentration. A, initial rate (closed
symbols) and final extent (open symbols) of unwinding
as a function of magnesium acetate concentration at 1 mM
ATP (circles) and 3 mM ATP (squares).
B, initial rate of unwinding at either 1 (circles) or 3 mM (squares) ATP as a
function of the Mg2+:ATP ratio. C, the initial
rate of unwinding by RecQ helicase at 1 and 3 mM ATP as a
function of the free magnesium ion concentration. Reactions were
carried out under standard conditions, with the indicated changes. The
data are the mean of at least two determinations. Free magnesium ion
concentration was calculated as indicated under "Experimental
Procedures."
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Fig. 3.
The unwinding activity of RecQ helicase
displays a sigmoid dependence on the ATP concentration. The
helicase activity of RecQ helicase as a function of ATP concentration
at a constant Mg2+:ATP ratio of 0.8. The data are the mean
of two determinations. The line corresponds to a fit of the data to the
Hill equation (Y = (Vmax(Xn))/(KMn + Xn), where Y is the observed rate of
unwinding; X is the ATP concentration, and n is
the Hill coefficient, using Graphpad Prism 3.0. The
R2 value of fit was 0.993. The slope, or Hill
coefficient, of the resultant line was 3.3. The derived value for
S0.5 (KM) was 200 µM.
Reactions were carried out under standard conditions, with the
indicated changes.
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Fig. 4.
The DNA unwinding activity of RecQ helicase
as a function of enzyme concentration. The initial rate
(closed symbols) and extent (open symbols) of
unwinding were determined at the indicated RecQ helicase
concentrations. A, the dsDNA was HindIII-cut
pUC19 dsDNA (squares), which is a 2.7-kbp linear DNA
molecule. B, the dsDNA substrates were either
BanI-cut pUC19 linear dsDNA (circles) or nicked
pBSKM circular dsDNA (triangles). Digestion of pUC9 DNA with
BanI produces four dsDNA fragments of 142, 173, 1097, and
1274 bp. Nicked pBSKM circular dsDNA contains a single site-specific
nick and is 2.9 kbp in length. All reactions were carried out under
standard conditions, except that the DNA substrates were present at a
concentration of 0.5 µM bp. In both A and
B, the data are the mean of two determinations, and the
error bars represent the minimum and maximum values.
Saturating RecQ helicase and the apparent dsDNA binding stoichiometry
were calculated from these data as indicated in Table II. The
dashed and dotted lines indicate the tangents
drawn to the curves in each case to determine the saturating
concentration of RecQ helicase.
Apparent dsDNA binding stoichiometry for the helicase activity of
RecQ helicase
1 (Table III). Interestingly, compared
with the values obtained at 20 nM RecQ helicase, similar
experiments conducted at 100 nM RecQ helicase yielded an
apparent KM value of 2030 ± 300 nM
(bp), a Vmax value of 148 ± 5 nM (bp) s
1, and an apparent
kcat value of 1.5 ± 0.1 s
1 (data not shown); thus, the apparent
kcat at this higher concentration was lower by
35%. These data suggested that RecQ helicase was a more active
helicase at the lower concentration. As we will show below, this
behavior is a manifestation of the competition between RecQ helicase
and SSB protein for the ssDNA products of unwinding (see below). The
extent of unwinding was 100% at all the dsDNA concentrations of
2.5
µM (bp); however, above this concentration, the apparent
extent of unwinding decreased with increasing dsDNA concentration. The
reduction in the extent of unwinding above 2.5 µM (bp)
DNA is due to nonspecific binding of the protein to the walls of the
quartz cuvette. In this case, the increased time required to complete
unwinding of the DNA at the higher substrate concentrations
(approximately 20 min) presumably exacerbated protein inactivation.
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Fig. 5.
The dsDNA unwinding activity of RecQ helicase
as a function of DNA concentration. The initial rate (closed
symbols) and extent (open symbols) of unwinding were
determined at the indicated dsDNA concentrations. In all cases, the
reactions were carried out under standard conditions, except the RecQ
helicase concentration was 20 nM. A, the dsDNA
substrate was HindIII-cut pUC19 linear dsDNA
(squares). B, the dsDNA substrates were either
BanI-cut pUC19 linear dsDNA (circles, solid line)
or nicked pBSKM circular dsDNA (triangles, dashed line). See
legend of Fig. 4 for a description of the DNA substrates. In both
A and B, the data are the mean of two
determinations, and the error bars represent the minimum and
maximum values. The curves for the initial rate data were
generated by a least squares fit of the data to the Michaelis-Menten
equation (see Table III), and the R2 values for
each fit were >0.97.
Kinetic parameters for the DNA helicase activity of RecQ helicase
1 for the
BanI-cut pUC19 DNA substrate was the same as the
kcat value for HindIII-cut pUC19
dsDNA. The nicked pBSKM DNA substrate yielded a
kcat value of 2.7 s
1,
which was essentially that observed for the linear dsDNA substrates. Clearly, the affinity that RecQ helicase has for the internal regions
of dsDNA substrates is comparable to that which it displays for dsDNA ends.
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Fig. 6.
SSB protein stimulates the DNA unwinding
activity of RecQ helicase. The initial rate (closed
squares) and extent (open squares) of unwinding as a
function of the SSB protein concentration. The concentration of SSB
protein needed to saturate the DNA in its fully unwound state is 0.37 µM. Reactions were carried out under standard conditions.
The data are the mean of two determinations. The dashed
lines indicate the tangents drawn to the curves to determine the
SSB protein concentration where stimulation was saturated.
1, respectively
(Fig. 7A).
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Fig. 7.
RecQ helicase preferentially binds to ssDNA
over dsDNA, resulting in inhibition of helicase activity.
A, the binding of RecQ helicase to either a 48-nt ssDNA
substrate (squares) or a 48-bp dsDNA substrate
(circles), determined by PAGE bandshift assays. The apparent
DNA binding affinity for each DNA substrate was calculated as the
protein concentration at which binding was 50% (indicated by the
dashed lines). The apparent DNA binding affinity values for
ssDNA and dsDNA were 3.3 × 107 and 3.2 × 106 M 1, respectively.
B, the effect of single-stranded poly(dT) on the initial
rate (closed squares) and extent of unwinding (open
squares) by RecQ helicase. The ratio of the dsDNA and ssDNA
concentrations is based on the concentrations of each DNA in
nucleotides. In both A and B, the data are the
mean of two determinations, and the error bars in
A represent the minimum and maximum values.
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Fig. 8.
SSB protein limits the ability of RecQ
helicase to bind to ssDNA. A, time course of ATP
hydrolysis by 10 nM RecQ helicase in the presence
(solid line) or absence (dashed line) of 1 µM SSB protein. The final steady-state rates of ATP
hydrolysis with and without SSB protein were 34 and 262 nM
ATP/s, respectively. B, the ATP hydrolysis activity of 10 nM RecQ helicase as a function of SSB protein. The
arrow indicates the SSB protein concentration
(i.e. 75 nM) that is saturating for the 1.0 µM (nt) concentration of ssDNA present in the reaction.
C, ssDNA-dependent ATP hydrolysis activity of
RecQ helicase as a function of enzyme concentration in the presence
(circles) or absence (squares) of 1 µM SSB protein, which is a 13.5-fold excess of SSB
protein relative to the total DNA concentration. The inset
shows the data for RecQ helicase concentrations between 0 and 100 nM. The DNA substrate was HindIII-cut pUC19
linear ssDNA, and its concentration was 1.0 µM (nt). The
dashed and dotted lines indicate the tangents
drawn to the curves to calculate the saturating
concentrations of RecQ helicase.
1. The apparent ssDNA binding stoichiometry
calculated from these data was 6 nucleotides/RecQ helicase monomer.
Identical results were obtained when the DNA substrate was M13mp7
circular ssDNA.2
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Fig. 9.
SSB protein stimulates the helicase activity
of RecQ helicase by blocking the formation of inactive RecQ
helicase-ssDNA complexes. Relative stimulation of the initial rate
of unwinding by SSB protein under standard conditions with either 50 (circles) or 100 nM (squares) RecQ
helicase. The SSB protein concentration is expressed in terms of
monomers. The data are the means of two determinations.
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ABSTRACT
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5' direction. When SSB
protein is absent (Fig. 10B), RecQ helicase catalyzes only
limited unwinding because RecQ helicase is sequestered by its ssDNA
product. The inactive RecQ helicase-ssDNA complexes are preferentially
formed because RecQ helicase has a significantly higher affinity for
ssDNA than it does for dsDNA.
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Fig. 10.
Model for dsDNA unwinding by RecQ helicase
and for stimulation of this activity by SSB protein. A,
RecQ helicase binds to and, in the presence of ATP, begins unwinding a
dsDNA substrate to produce ssDNA. RecQ helicase can initiate unwinding
both at the ends and within internal regions of the dsDNA.
B, in the absence of SSB protein, unwinding activity is
limited because the helicase forms non-productive complexes with its
ssDNA product. The presence of SSB protein alleviates this inhibition,
since SSB protein competes with RecQ helicase for ssDNA-binding sites
(B C). C, SSB protein stimulates
unwinding by RecQ helicase both by maintaining the ssDNA in its unwound
state and by displacing RecQ helicase from the ssDNA product.
RecQ helicase monomers that are capable of participating in DNA
unwinding are depicted by open circles. Although RecQ
helicase is depicted as a hexamer, the actual makeup of the unwinding
complex remains to be determined. Shaded circles represent
non-productive RecQ helicase-ssDNA complexes. SSB protein is depicted
as shaded squares.
In the presence of SSB protein (Fig. 10C), RecQ helicase displays maximal helicase activity. The data presented here confirm that SSB protein is an important stimulatory factor for the unwinding activity of RecQ helicase. In its strand-trapping role, SSB protein coats the individual DNA strands, thereby preventing their reannealing. In this capacity, SSB protein is expected to affect mainly the extent of unwinding. SSB protein also stimulates RecQ helicase by competing with it for ssDNA binding. As described above, RecQ helicase can become associated with its ssDNA product (Fig. 10B), blocking further unwinding of the dsDNA substrate. SSB protein alleviates this inhibition by sequestering the ssDNA away from RecQ helicase, thereby allowing RecQ helicase to continue unwinding the dsDNA substrate (Fig. 10, B-C). This is likely to be the means by which SSB protein stimulates the steady-state rate of unwinding. In general, SSB protein plays the role of a trapping protein to stimulate helicase-mediated unwinding by binding to the separated ssDNA strands after unwinding to prevent their reannealing (33, 31). In addition to this traditional role for SSB protein in unwinding, our data highlight a second role for SSB protein in DNA helicase function, namely SSB protein blocks the formation of helicase-ssDNA complexes that are inhibitory to the unwinding activity of the enzyme; this is the case for RecQ helicase, as we show here, and for the RecBCD helicase (46).
As expected, the helicase activity of RecQ helicase requires a
hydrolyzable nucleotide cofactor; ATPS, the essentially
non-hydrolyzable ATP analogue, is bound by the enzyme, but it does not
support dsDNA unwinding. Both the initial rate and extent of unwinding are greatest when ATP is the nucleotide cofactor, but the enzyme also
displays limited activity when provided with dATP. Thus, ATP is a
better cofactor for the helicase activity of RecQ helicase; however,
the enzymatic basis for this preference was not determined. Interestingly, RecQ helicase, provided with ssDNA, hydrolyzes dATP at
the same rate as it does ATP (16). Therefore, the
ssDNA-dependent ATP hydrolysis activity of the enzyme
appears not to be part of the rate-limiting step of DNA unwinding but
likely reflects a post-unwinding step.
We investigated the dependence of RecQ helicase activity on the concentration of both magnesium ion and ATP, and we found that, regardless of total ATP concentration, optimal activity occurred at a ratio of total magnesium ion to ATP of 0.7-0.8. Since ATP chelates magnesium ion, the free magnesium ion concentration was calculated for each condition. In each case, the peak of RecQ helicase activity corresponded to a free magnesium concentration of 0.05 mM. In addition to its sensitivity to free magnesium ions, RecQ helicase is also affected by the absolute concentration of ATP; the optimal initial rate of unwinding at 3 mM ATP is 2-fold lower than the optimal initial rate obtained at 1 mM ATP. These results demonstrate that RecQ helicase is inhibited by both excess free magnesium ion and ATP. One possible explanation for this sensitivity is that RecQ helicase requires Mg2+-ATP to be bound to the protein as a complex; and for an unknown reason, association of either of these cofactors in their free form inhibits enzyme function.
The dependence of unwinding activity on the concentration of the Mg2+-ATP complex revealed that RecQ helicase may function as an oligomer, since its activity is cooperative with ATP concentration. The apparent S0.5 value for ATP calculated from these data 200 µM, which is well below the intracellular concentration of ATP (approximately 3 mM (47)). In addition, this S0.5 value for RecQ helicase is similar to the apparent KM values for ATP reported for other E. coli helicases including 110 µM for helicase II (42), 147 µM for RuvB protein (48), 50-100 µM for DnaB (49), and 85-130 µM for RecBCD enzyme (33, 50). Furthermore, a fit of the data to the Hill equation yielded a slope, or Hill coefficient, of 3.3. As the Hill coefficient describes the minimum number of interacting active sites utilized by an enzyme (39), RecQ helicase utilizes three or more ATP-binding sites in the course of unwinding a dsDNA substrate. Since each RecQ helicase monomer possesses a single ATP-binding site (4), the functional unit of RecQ helicase is minimally a trimer. However, this analysis does not rule out the possibility that the unwinding complex is a higher order multimer. Interestingly, recent work (45) on the BLM helicase demonstrates that this helicase exclusively forms hexameric rings. A similar cooperative dependence on ATP concentration is observed for the ATP hydrolysis activity of E. coli Rep helicase (51). The dTTP hydrolysis activity of bacteriophage T7 gene 4 helicase is also cooperative with nucleotide concentration (52), and this helicase is active as a hexamer (53). Interestingly, gel filtration chromatography of free RecQ helicase (i.e. in the absence of DNA) in the presence of ATP and magnesium acetate indicated that this protein exists almost exclusively as a monomer in solution.2 Consequently, the oligomeric unwinding species formed by RecQ helicase must assemble upon binding to the DNA substrate.
The apparent dsDNA binding stoichiometry for RecQ helicase obtained here (i.e. 30 bp/RecQ helicase) indicates that a relatively high concentration of RecQ helicase is needed to unwind a linear dsDNA substrate. A trivial explanation for this requirement is that the RecQ helicase preparation contains a large proportion of inactive enzyme. This possibility is unlikely, however, given that similar experiments with several different preparations of RecQ helicase yielded comparable DNA binding stoichiometries.2,3 Another possible explanation for this observation is that RecQ helicase is a helicase that acts stoichiometrically. In the strictest case of a stoichiometric helicase, each enzyme monomer catalyzes a single round of unwinding. However, the data presented here are consistent with each RecQ helicase monomer being capable of mediating multiple rounds of unwinding. For example, a direct comparison of the values obtained for the apparent dsDNA binding and the ssDNA binding stoichiometries indicates that the helicase activity of RecQ helicase saturates at 8.5-fold less enzyme than does its ssDNA-dependent ATP hydrolysis activity. Therefore, unlike a classical stoichiometric helicase, far less RecQ helicase is required to saturate a dsDNA substrate than would be needed to bind stoichiometrically to either one or both strands of the ssDNA product. In addition, a titration of RecQ helicase against a constant concentration of dsDNA substrate revealed that under conditions where the enzyme concentration was far less than saturating (relative to the apparent dsDNA binding stoichiometry), RecQ helicase fully unwound each of the dsDNA molecules. In fact, RecQ helicase at a concentration that is 20-fold less than saturation unwound nearly half of the dsDNA molecules. RecQ helicase behaved similarly in the DNA titration experiments; at all the DNA concentrations tested, the protein unwound at least 75% of the dsDNA substrate. Thus, more dsDNA is unwound by RecQ helicase than is expected based on the apparent DNA binding stoichiometry, demonstrating that each RecQ helicase monomer participates in multiple DNA unwinding events. Taken together, these data clearly indicate that RecQ helicase is a catalytic DNA helicase. Our experiments, however, do not provide a measure of the average processivity of a RecQ helicase unwinding complex. Thus, it is in unclear whether RecQ helicase achieves complete unwinding of a single dsDNA molecule following a single association event with the substrate or after multiple, successive association and dissociation events.
The requirement for high concentrations of RecQ helicase in DNA unwinding is readily explained by two of the observations made here. 1) RecQ helicase initiates unwinding from the internal regions of a dsDNA substrate with nearly the same facility as it does from dsDNA ends. 2) The rate of RecQ helicase-mediated unwinding is relatively slow. In agreement with our previous work (40), we have shown here that each base pair in a dsDNA substrate is a potential site of binding for RecQ helicase. The strongest support for this is provided by the similar apparent KM values obtained for the nicked and the two linear dsDNA substrates. If these KM values are interpreted as the relative affinity of RecQ helicase for each of the substrates, then it is clear that this helicase does not possess a significantly greater affinity for dsDNA ends relative to the internal portions of dsDNA. Similarly, the apparent kcat values for all three of the DNA substrates are comparable. Since the unwinding activity of RecQ helicase is not significantly influenced by the number of dsDNA ends present in a DNA substrate, this protein can initiate unwinding from almost any internal position along a dsDNA molecule. These findings are in contrast to what has been described for the majority of DNA helicases, which generally require a DNA end from which to initiate unwinding (for review see Ref. 2). For example, RecBCD enzyme can initiate unwinding only from the ends of a dsDNA molecule (41). This property of RecBCD enzyme arises from the fact that, unlike RecQ helicase, the affinity of RecBCD enzyme for dsDNA ends is vastly higher than its affinity for the internal sites of a dsDNA molecule (33). A direct physical consequence of this unique feature of RecQ helicase is that the amount of enzyme needed to saturate a dsDNA substrate is achieved at a stoichiometry of protein that is on the order of the total concentration of DNA base pairs.
The second contributor to the observed dsDNA binding stoichiometry is
that RecQ helicase is a relatively "slow" helicase; the apparent
kcat for dsDNA unwinding activity is on the
order of 2.5 s1. By comparison, the apparent
kcat values determined for other helicases from
E. coli are significantly higher; the
kcat for RecBCD enzyme is 250-1000
s
1 (33), that of DnaB helicase is 30-40
s
1 (54), and the turnover number for Rep
helicase is 23 s
1 (55). A predicted outcome
of a slower rate of unwinding is that each DNA substrate molecule
remains intact for a longer time. With this longer temporal window for
binding, each DNA molecule is likely to support the binding of more
RecQ helicase unwinding complexes. This is especially the case with
RecQ helicase, since this protein is not limited to binding to dsDNA
ends. The expected result is that saturation of the dsDNA substrate
occurs at an almost stoichiometric ratio of enzyme to DNA base pairs,
as seen here. Thus, the unusual apparent dsDNA binding stoichiometry
for a catalytic helicase is a direct result of the biochemical
properties of RecQ helicase.
Our finding that RecQ helicase unwinds dsDNA from both dsDNA ends and
the internal portions of a DNA substrate is consistent with the genetic
evidence indicating that the majority of the crossovers occurring at
internal regions of dsDNA are mediated by the RecF recombination
pathway (56-58). It is now clear that RecQ helicase is responsible for
initiating homologous recombination mediated by the RecF pathway (see
Introduction). As we have shown here and elsewhere (40), RecQ helicase
is fully capable of acting on the internal portions of a dsDNA
substrate. Thus, RecQ helicase has the proper biochemical flexibility
to participate in the initiation of the internal crossover events
mediated by the RecF pathway.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
---|
We are grateful to the following members of our laboratory for their critical reading of this manuscript: P. Bianco, C. Bonarth, J. Kleiman, A. Mazin, J. New, E. Seitz, M. Spies, and Y. Wu. We also thank Angela Eggleston and Nazir Rahim for their preliminary work on RecQ helicase.
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FOOTNOTES |
---|
* This work was supported by National Institutes of Health Grant GM-41347.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
§ Present address: The Scripps Research Institute, Dept. of Cellular Biology, La Jolla, CA 92037.
To whom correspondence should be addressed: Section of
Microbiology, Hutchison Hall, University of California, Davis, CA
95616. Tel.: 530-752-5938; Fax: 530-752-5939; E-mail:
sckowalczykowski@ucdavis.edu.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, October 6, 2000, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M006555200
2 F. G. Harmon and S. C. Kowalczykowski, unpublished observations.
3 A. K. Eggleston, N. A. Rahim, and S. C. Kowalczykowski, unpublished observations.
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ABBREVIATIONS |
---|
The abbreviations used are:
dsDNA, double-stranded DNA;
ssDNA, single-stranded DNA;
scDNA, covalently-closed supercoiled DNA;
bp, base pairs;
nt, nucleotides;
SSB, single-stranded DNA binding;
PAGE, polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis;
P-enolpyruvate, phosphoenolpyruvate;
DTT, dithiothreitol;
H33258, Höechst 33258;
ATPS, adenosine
5'-O-(thiotriphosphate);
kbp, kilobase pair;
Topo III, topoisomerase III..
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