From the Canadian Institutes for Health Research Group in Membrane Biology, Department of Medicine and Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
Received for publication, January 16, 2000, and in revised form, February 6, 2001
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ABSTRACT |
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Defining the residues involved in the
binding of a substrate provides insight into how the human multidrug
resistance P-glycoprotein (P-gp) can transport a wide range of
structurally diverse compounds out of the cell. Because verapamil is
the most potent stimulator of P-gp ATPase activity, we synthesized a
thiol-reactive analog of verapamil (MTS-verapamil) and used it with
cysteine-scanning mutagenesis to identify the reactive residues within
the drug-binding domain of P-gp. MTS-verapamil stimulated the ATPase
activity of Cys-less P-gp and had a Km value (25 µM) that was similar to that of verapamil. 252 P-gp
mutants containing a single cysteine within the predicted transmembrane
(TM) segments were expressed in HEK 293 cells and purified by
nickel-chelate chromatography and assayed for inhibition by
MTS-verapamil. The activities of 15 mutants, Y118C (TM2), V125C (TM2),
S222C (TM4), L339C (TM6), A342C (TM6), A729C (TM7), A841C (TM9),
N842C (TM9), I868C (TM10), A871C (TM10), F942C (TM11), T945C (TM11),
V982C (TM12), G984C (TM12), and A985C (TM12), were inhibited by
MTS-verapamil. Four mutants, S222C (TM4), L339C (TM6), A342C (TM6), and
G984C (TM12), were significantly protected from inhibition by
MTS-verapamil by pretreatment with verapamil. Less protection was
observed in mutants I868C (TM10), F942C (TM11) and T945C (TM11). These
results indicate that residues in TMs 4, 6, 10, 11, and 12 must
contribute to the binding of verapamil.
The human multidrug resistance P-glycoprotein
(P-gp)1 uses ATP to pump a
wide variety of cytotoxic compounds out of the cell (1, 2).
Overexpression of P-gp contributes to the phenomenon of multidrug
resistance during cancer and AIDS chemotherapy, because many of the
therapeutic compounds are also substrates of P-gp (3-5).
Although P-gp is normally expressed in many tissues, its
physiological function is unknown. The pattern of P-gp expression in
tissues and studies on P-gp "knock-out" mice indicate that it may
protect the organism from toxic compounds in our diet (6-8).
P-gp is a member of the ABC (ATP-binding cassette) family of
transporters (9, 10). Its 1280 amino acids are organized as two
repeating units of 610 amino acids that are joined by a linker region
of about 60 amino acids (11). There are six transmembrane (TM) segments
and a hydrophilic domain containing an ATP-binding site in each repeat
(12, 13).
The exact mechanism of how P-gp functions is unknown, but P-gp has been
studied quite extensively and serves as a model for understanding the
mechanism of other ABC transporters. It is known, however, that both
halves of P-gp are essential for activity (14) and that both
nucleotide-binding domains can bind and hydrolyze ATP and are essential
for function (14-18).
In understanding the mechanism of P-gp, it is important to determine
the location of residues that contribute to the drug-binding domain.
Important clues that the transmembrane domains may be important for
drug binding were obtained from mutational studies and from labeling
studies with photoactive substrate analogs (19-26). It was later shown
that the TM domains alone were sufficient for drug binding, because a
deletion mutant lacking both nucleotide-binding domains could still
bind drug substrates (27).
Initial attempts to identify the residues that line the drug-binding
pocket within the TM domains involved the use of cysteine-scanning mutagenesis and reactivity with a thiol reactive substrate,
dibromobimane (dBBn). Several residues in TMs 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, and 12 reacted with dBBn, suggesting that these TMs contribute to the binding of substrate (28-30).
It is not known if P-gp has many distinct or overlapping binding
sites (31-35). One step toward understanding this problem is to test
whether other substrates of P-gp react with the same residues in the
predicted drug-binding domain. Verapamil is a particularly important
substrate used in studying P-gp. The advantage of using verapamil is
that it shows the greatest ability to stimulate the ATPase activity of
P-gp. Development of a thiol-reactive derivative of verapamil would be
a useful tool for characterizing the drug-binding domain of P-gp,
because reactive cysteines can be specifically protected with
verapamil. In this study, a thiol-reactive methanethiosulfonate analog
of verapamil (MTS-verapamil) was synthesized and used to identify
residues in the drug-binding domain of P-gp.
Construction of Mutants--
Construction of a Cys-less P-gp was
described previously (12). All seven endogenous cysteines at positions
137, 431, 717, 956, 1074, 1125, and 1227 were replaced with alanine.
The Cys-less P-gp was functional. The Cys-less P-gp cDNA was also
modified to code for ten histidine residues at the COOH end of the
molecule (Cys-less P-gp(His)10). This facilitated
purification of the Cys-less P-gp by nickel-chelate chromatography
(36). Cysteine residues were then introduced into the Cys-less
P-gp(His)10 as described previously (30). The integrity of
the mutated cDNA was confirmed by sequencing the entire cDNA
(37).
Expression and Purification of P-glycoprotein--
Expression
and purification of histidine-tagged P-gp mutants were done as
described previously (36). Briefly, 50 culture plates (10 cm diameter)
of HEK 293 cells were transfected with the mutant cDNA, and the
medium was replaced 24 h later with fresh medium containing 10 µM cyclosporin A. Cyclosporin A is a substrate of
P-gp and acts as a powerful chemical chaperone for promoting maturation
of P-gp (38). The transfected cells were then harvested 24 h
later, solubilized with 1% (w/v)
n-dodecyl- Measurement of Drug-stimulated ATPase Activity--
The
P-gp-(His)10 mutants were eluted from the nickel columns
with buffer containing 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 500 mM NaCl, 300 mM imidazole (pH 7.0), 0.1% (w/v)
n-dodecyl-
For inhibition with MTS-verapamil (synthesized by Toronto Research
Chemicals, Toronto, Ontario), the P-gp/lipid mixture was preincubated
with 0.5 mM MTS-verapamil for 10 min at 22 °C. The unreacted MTS-verapamil was then removed by gel filtration (Centri.Spin 20 columns, Princeton Separations, Inc., Adelphia, NJ). The columns were pre-equilibrated with nickel column elution buffer containing 5 mg/ml sheep brain phosphatidylethanolamine and 1 mM
verapamil. The verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity in the flowthrough
fraction was measured as described above.
In the protection experiments, the P-gp:lipid samples were treated with
2 mM verapamil for 5 min at 22 °C before addition of 50 µM MTS-verapamil. This is the saturating concentration of verapamil for stimulation of ATPase activity, whereas 50 µM is above the Km (25 µM) for stimulation by MTS-verapamil in Cys-less P-gp.
The samples were then incubated for 10 min at 22 °C, and
unreacted MTS-verapamil was removed by gel filtration (Centri.Spin 20 columns). Verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity was then measured (final
verapamil concentration, 1 mM).
Effect of MTS-verapamil on ATPase activity of the Cys-less
P-gp--
The structure of verapamil is shown in Fig.
1A. To convert verapamil to a
thiol-reactive compound, a methanethiosulfonate group was attached to
the methylamine group in verapamil by an ethyl linker arm (Fig.
1B). Alkylthiosulfonates react selectively with cysteines in
a protein resulting in a disulfide attachment of the R group and
release of a sulfinic acid byproduct (40, 41). They generally react
more rapidly with cysteines than with other thiol-specific compounds
such as maleimides or iodoacetates (40).
To test whether MTS-verapamil was still a substrate of P-gp, we assayed
for stimulation of ATPase activity. It has been shown that
substrate-stimulated ATPase activity correlates with transport activity, because the turnover numbers are quite similar (42). Measurement of MTS-verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity was done on
Cys-less P-gp in which all endogenous cysteines were changed to alanine
(16). The Cys-less P-gp retains the ability to confer drug resistance
and exhibits drug-stimulated ATPase activity (12). Wild-type P-gp could
not be used for measuring MTS-verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity
because of two highly reactive cysteine residues in the Walker A
consensus sites. These cysteine residues are readily modified by
N-ethylmaleimide resulting in an inactive enzyme (16).
Cys-less P-gp (His)10 was expressed in HEK 293 cells and
isolated by nickel-chelate chromatography. The isolated P-gp was reconstituted with lipid, and ATPase activity was measured in the
presence of varying concentrations of verapamil or MTS-verapamil. Both
compounds showed maximal stimulation of ATPase activity, which occurred
at about 600 µM, and had similar Km
values (about 25 µM) for stimulation (Fig.
2). MTS-verapamil, however, showed lower
maximal stimulation of ATPase activity than verapamil (9.6- and
13.3-fold for MTS-verapamil and verapamil, respectively). This
indicated that Cys-less P-gp had a similar affinity for verapamil and
MTS-verapamil and that they may bind at the same binding site.
Inhibition of Activity of Single Cys P-gp Mutants by
MTS-verapamil--
A cysteine residue was introduced at each position
in the predicted TM segments of Cys-less P-gp (His)10. A
total of 252 single-cysteine mutants were constructed (28-30). Each
mutant was expressed in HEK 293 cells, and the mutant protein was
isolated by nickel-chelate chromatography.
Each Cys mutant was reacted with MTS-verapamil for 10 min at 22 °C,
followed by removal of unreacted MTS-verapamil and sulfinic acid
byproduct by passage through a Centri.Spin 20 column. The verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity of the MTS-verapamil-treated sample was then measured and compared with that of a mock-treated sample. The results are shown in Fig.
3.
In TM1 (Fig. 3A), three mutants, V52C, G54C, and G62C, were
not assayed because of very low yield of P-gp protein. The remaining 18 mutants showed little or no inhibition by MTS-verapamil, because they
all retained >80% of their activity relative to the mock-treated sample.
In TM2, one mutant, G122C, was not tested because of low expression. In
this TM segment, two mutants, Y118C and V125C, were inhibited more than
50% by MTS-verapamil (Fig. 3B). The concentrations of
MTS-verapamil required to inhibit 50% of the ATPase activity (I50) for mutants Y118C and V125C were 40 and 63 µM, respectively.
The TM3 Cys mutants were relatively insensitive to inhibition by
MTS-verapamil. All of these mutants retained more than 75% of the
activity of the mock-treated sample (Fig. 3C).
One mutant in TM4, S222C, was inhibited by 78% by MTS-verapamil (Fig.
3D). This mutant had an I50 of 40 µM for MTS-verapamil. By contrast, the ATPase activity of
mutant S228C was inhibited by 43%, whereas the remaining mutants
retained more than 75% of their activity.
Mutants within predicted TM5 showed little inhibition by MTS-verapamil
(Fig. 3E). All of these mutants retained more than 75% of
their activity after treatment with MTS-verapamil. The verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity of mutant II306C, however, was
stimulated 2.3-fold after reaction with MTS-verapamil. This is
consistent with a previous observation that I306C was stimulated when
reacted with dBBn (30).
The ATPase activity of two mutants, L339C and A342C, in TM6 were quite
sensitive to inhibition by MTS-verapamil (Fig. 3F). Mutants
L339C and A342C retained 13 and 10% of the activity of the
mock-treated samples and had I50 values of 29 and 14 µM, respectively. Inhibition of ATPase activity by
MTS-verapamil of three mutants, G341C, S344C, and G346C, could not be
measured because of very low expression levels or low
verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity. Full-length P-gp is not seen in
mutant G341C, because it is cleaved by proteases within the first
extracellular loop (43). Mutant S344C is difficult to express in large
quantities because of low expression levels (28). Mutant G346C was
expressed at levels comparable to the Cys-less P-gp but possessed very
low verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity (10% of the Cys-less
activity). The remaining mutants were relatively insensitive to
inhibition by MTS-verapamil.
In TM7 (Fig. 3G), mutant A729C showed less than 50%
activity after treatment with MTS-verapamil (I50 = 73 µM). Two mutants, P726C and I731C, showed lower levels of
inhibition (39 and 35%, respectively). The remaining mutant
retained more than 75% of their activity after reaction with
MTS-verapamil.
The mutants in TM8 were relatively insensitive to inhibition by
MTS-verapamil, because none of the mutants were inhibited by more than
25% (Fig. 3H). Mutant G763C could not be tested for inhibition by MTS-verapamil, because it had very low
verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity (11% of Cys-less P-gp) (30).
The ATPase activities of mutants A841C and N842C in TM9 were inhibited
about 60% by MTS-verapamil and had I50 values of 61 and
100 µM, respectively. The remaining mutants retained more than 75% of their activity after treatment with MTS-verapamil (Fig.
3I).
There were several mutants in TMs 10, 11, and 12 that were very
sensitive to inhibition by MTS-verapamil. In TM10, the ATPase activities of mutants I868C and A871C were inhibited by 70-75% by
MTS-verapamil (Fig. 3J). These mutants had I50
values for MTS-verapamil of 25 and 14 µM,
respectively. Inhibition of the ATPase activity of mutant P866C
by MTS-verapamil could not be tested because of very low
verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity. We had previously reported
that mutations to P866 caused large changes in substrate specificity of the transporter (25) but had very low
verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity (6% of Cys-less P-gp) (30).
The activities of two mutants, F942C and T945C, in TM11 were inhibited
by 76 and 87% by MTS-verapamil and had I50 values of 20 and 8 µM, respectively (Fig. 3K). Moderate
inhibition by MTS-verapamil was observed in mutants M948C (52%) and
F957C (57%). In a previous study, we reported that the mutant F957C
(TM11) was susceptible to proteolytic degradation (29). We have found
that enough mutant enzyme could be isolated for measurement of activity
when the transfected cells were grown for longer periods (2 days) in
the presence of cyclosporin A.
Three mutants in TM12 (V982C, G984C, and A985C) were inhibited by more
than 80% by treatment with MTS-verapamil (Fig. 3L). These
mutants had I50 values of 12, 17, and 38 µM
for MTS-verapamil, respectively. One mutant, G989C, could not be tested
for inhibition because of very low verapamil-stimulated ATPase
activity. Although this mutant was expressed at levels comparable to
the Cys-less parent, the verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity remained
very low (10% of Cys-less P-gp) (28).
Protection from Inhibition by Verapamil--
Although
MTS-verapamil can modify cysteines within the drug-binding domain of
P-gp, the highly reactive nature of the MTS group can allow it to react
with any accessible cysteine in other parts of the molecule. To be able
to differentiate cysteines that are within or close to the drug-binding
site from those that are not, we relied on verapamil protection assays.
The rationale is that because verapamil and MTS-verapamil had similar
Km values for Cys-less P-gp (Fig. 2), then
preincubation of mutants with verapamil should protect the mutant from
inactivation by MTS-verapamil if the reactive cysteine is within or
close to the binding site.
The mutants Y118C (TM2), V125C (TM2), S222C (TM4), L339C (TM6),
A342C (TM6), A729C (TM7), A841C (TM9), N842C (TM9), I868C (TM10), A871C
(TM10), F942C (TM11), T945C (TM11), V982C (TM12), G984C (TM12), and
A985C (TM12) showed at least 50% inhibition by MTS-verapamil and were
selected for verapamil protection studies. The mutant P-gp was
preincubated with or without 2 mM verapamil for 5 min at
22 °C,and then treated with MTS-verapamil for 10 min at 22 °C.
The sample was passed through a mini-gel filtration column to remove
MTS-verapamil and then assayed for verapamil-stimulated ATPase
activity. The results are shown in Fig.
4. Evidence for significant protection
(greater than 2-fold increase in activity) by verapamil was observed in
four mutants, S222C (TM4), L339C (TM6), A342C (TM6), and G984C (TM12).
Mutant S222C (TM 4) was protected the most from inhibition by
MTS-verapamil by preincubation with verapamil. This mutant was
inhibited 70% by MTS-verapamil in the absence of verapamil but
retained more than 90% of its activity when protected by verapamil.
Lower levels of protection were seen in mutants I868C (TM10), F942C
(TM11), and T945C (TM11). No detectable protection by verapamil was
observed in mutants Y118C (TM2), V125C (TM2), A729C (TM7), A841C (TM9),
N842C (TM9), A871C (TM10), V982C (TM12), and A985C (TM 12).
Cysteine-scanning mutagenesis and modification with
sulfhydryl-specific agents was first used to probe the acetylcholine
receptor channel (44). Modifications of this method have since been
used to study the structure and function of many membrane proteins (reviewed in Ref. 45). This technique has been extensively used in the
study of the bacterial lac permease protein (46). P-gp has been
a very good eukaryotic protein for cysteine-scanning mutagenesis
studies, because the Cys-less P-gp remains functional (reviewed in Ref.
47). Experiments that provide insight into the structure and mechanism
of P-gp are possible because of the ability to synthesize
thiol-reactive analogs of P-gp substrates such as MTS-verapamil.
Fifteen of the 242 Cys mutants tested for inhibition by MTS-verapamil
showed significant inhibition by MTS-verapamil. In general, the
reactive mutants in TMs 4, 6, 10, 11, and 12 had lower I50 values than those in TMs 2, 7, and 9 (Table
I). This may indicate that TMs 4, 6, 10, 11, and 12 are within the drug-binding domain or that this region of
P-gp is more accessible to MTS-verapamil. Verapamil significantly
protected residues S222C (TM4), L339 (TM6), A342 (TM6), and G984 (TM12)
from inactivation by MTS-verapamil. This indicates that these residues
either line or are close to the verapamil-binding site. To picture the
potential drug-binding domain of P-gp, we constructed a model in which
the residues in each TM segments are arranged in
INTRODUCTION
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
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DISCUSSION
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-D-maltoside, and the mutant P-gp
isolated by nickel-chelate chromatography (nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid
columns, Qiagen, Inc., Mississauga, Ontario, Canada).
-D-maltoside, and 10% (v/v)
glycerol, and mixed with an equal volume of 10 mg/ml sheep brain
phosphatidylethanolamine (type II-S, Sigma-Aldrich) that was washed and
suspended in 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, and 150 mM
NaCl. The P-gp:lipid mixture was then sonicated for 45 s at 4 °C (bath-type probe, maximum setting, Branson Sonifier 450, Branson Ultrasonic, Danbury, CT). An aliquot of the sonicated P-gp:lipid mixture was assayed for drug-stimulated ATPase activity by
addition of an equal volume of buffer containing 100 mM
Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 100 mM NaCl, 20 mM
MgCl2, 10 mM ATP, and 2 mM
verapamil. The samples were incubated for 30 min at 37 °C, and the
amount of inorganic phosphate liberated was determined previously
(39).
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
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Fig. 1.
Structure of verapamil and
MTS-verapamil.
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Fig. 2.
Effect of verapamil and MTS-verapamil on
Cys-less P-gp ATPase activity. Histidine-tagged Cys-less P-gp was
expressed in HEK 293 cells and isolated by nickel-chelate
chromatography. The isolated P-gp was mixed with lipid and sonicated,
and ATPase activity was determined in the presence of various
concentrations of verapamil or MTS-verapamil.
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Fig. 3.
Inhibition of verapamil-stimulated ATPase
activity by MTS-verapamil. Histidine-tagged Cys mutants were
purified by nickel-chelate chromatography, mixed with lipid, sonicated,
and then incubated for 10 min at 22 °C with or without 0.5 mM MTS-verapamil. The unreacted MTS-verapamil was removed
by gel filtration, and verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity was
determined. The results (percentages) are expressed relative to that of
a mock-treated sample. Each value is the average of two different
purifications. Panels A-L show the activities remaining in
the Cys mutants in TMs 1-12, respectively. ND, not done
because of very low activity or low expression.
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Fig. 4.
Protection of mutants from MTS-verapamil
inhibition by verapamil. Purified histidine-tagged Cys-less and
mutant P-gps(His)10 (Y118C, V125C, S222C, L339C, A342C,
A729C, A841C, N842C, I868C, A871C, F942C, T945C, V982C, G984C, and
A985C) were mixed with lipid, sonicated, and then preincubated without
(A) or with (B) 2 mM verapamil for 5 min at 22 °C. The samples were then treated with or without 0.05 mM MTS-verapamil for 10 min at 22 °C. Unreacted
MTS-verapamil was removed by gel filtration, and verapamil-stimulated
ATPase activity was determined. The results are expressed relative to
that of a sample not treated with MTS-verapamil. Each value is the
average of four different experiments.
DISCUSSION
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-helical wheels
(Fig. 5). The arrangement of the TM
segments are based on the results of disulfide cross-linking studies
that show TM 6 is close to TMs 10, 11, and 12 and that TM12 is close
to TMs 4, 5, and 6 (48, 49). In another ABC transporter, cystic
fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator, it has been shown
that a salt bridge may exist between TM6 and TM8 (50). TMs
4, 5, 6, 10, 11, and 12 have been postulated to line the
drug-binding domain, because cross-linking between residues in these
segments is affected by the presence of drug substrates. The location
of the drug-binding domain within the TMs would be consistent with the
idea that P-gp removes substrates that are embedded in the lipid
bilayer (51, 52). It is thought that substrates diffuse into the lipid
bilayer and are then extracted from the bilayer leaflets by P-gp.
Comparing inhibition of Cys P-gp mutants by dBBn or MTS-verapamil
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Fig. 5.
Cysteine residues in the predicted TMs of
P-gp that are inhibited by MTS-verapamil and protected by
verapamil. Residues within the predicted TMs (1-12) (arranged as
-helical wheels) of P-gp are shown and viewed from the cytoplasmic
side of the membrane. Circled white residues on black
background, residues that when mutated to cysteine are inhibited
by MTS-verapamil and highly protected by verapamil. Circled
residues on stippled background, residues that when
mutated to cysteine are inhibited by MTS-verapamil and are less
protected by verapamil. Residues Y118C (TM2), V125C
(TM2), A729C (TM7), A841C (TM9), N842C
(TM9), A871C (TM10), V982C (TM12), and
A985C (TM12) are also inhibited by MTS-verapamil, when they
are changed to cysteine, but show little or no protection by
verapamil.
Studies with another thiol-reactive substrate, dBBn, also indicate that TMs 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, and 12 are close to the drug-binding domain (30). A comparison of the inhibition by dBBn and MTS-verapamil is shown in Table I. There is some overlap in the cysteine residues that can react with either dibromobimane or MTS-verapamil. For example, S222C (TM4) and L339C (TM6) are inhibited by dBBn and MTS-verapamil. Both residues were protected from inhibition by the presence of verapamil. In contrast, residues Y118C (TM2), V125C (TM2), and V982C (TM12) were inhibited by dBBn and MTS-verapamil but were less protected from inhibition by verapamil. The difference in inhibition by dBBn and MTS-verapamil may be explained if we assume that there is a single drug-binding domain in P-gp that is flexible enough to accommodate structurally diverse substrates. This "substrate-induced fit" model of substrate binding to P-gp is consistent with that proposed for the soluble BmrR transcription factor that can also bind a wide variety of compounds. The crystal structure of BmrR indicates the presence of a single drug-binding pocket (53). Indeed, disulfide-cross-linking studies have shown that regions in P-gp are quite mobile (49, 54). In some instances, cross-linking between residues in the TMs or between residues in the nucleotide-binding domains occurs at 37 °C and not at lower temperatures. The relative mobility of the TM segments could allow P-gp to bind compounds of diverse structures. A substrate could induce a conformational change in the TM segments such that different residues in the TMs would contribute to its binding. In this scenario, it is possible that different substrates could have overlapping residues contributing to its binding. This may be the case with the binding of dBBn and MTS-verapamil. Having many combinations of residues in the drug-binding domain that can contribute to binding of different substrates may explain why P-gp can bind such a wide range of structurally diverse compounds. It may also explain why P-gp has a different affinity for each substrate and may account for the reports of multiple drug-binding sites (31-35). Fig. 5 may also explain how mutations throughout the TM segments can directly or indirectly affect the affinity of P-gp for a particular substrate (23, 25, 26, 55-58). Mutations to residues in the TMs may change the faces of the helices that are exposed toward the drug-binding site such that different residues are available for drug binding, thereby changing the affinity of P-gp for a particular substrate.
MTS-verapamil should be a useful compound for future studies on the mechanism of P-gp. Many P-gp substrates and modulators can be used to test if they will prevent modification of P-gp by MTS-verapamil, and the results will reveal if there is overlap in the binding sites. It will also be interesting to test whether membrane fluidity or lipid composition affects modification of P-gp by MTS-verapamil. P-gp activity is highly sensitive to its lipid environment (59, 60).
MTS-verapamil may be useful for characterizing other proteins.
Verapamil and other phenylalkylamines are inhibitors of the L-type calcium channels (61-63) and Kv1.3 potassium
channels (64). Blocking of the ion channels by verapamil is thought to
occur by occlusion of the ion-conducting pore. Therefore, MTS-verapamil may be useful for mapping the pore region of these channel proteins.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank Dr. Randal Kaufman (Boston) for pMT21, and we thank Claire Bartlett for assistance with tissue culture.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported in part by National Institutes of Health Grant RO1 CA80900 and by grants from the Canadian Institutes for Health Research (CIHR) and the Canadian Cystic Fibrosis Foundation.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
An Investigator of the CIHR. To whom correspondence should be
addressed: Dept. of Medicine, University of Toronto, Rm. 7342, Medical
Sciences Bldg., 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8,
Canada. Tel./Fax: 416-978-1105; E-mail:
david.clarke@utoronto.ca.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, February 14, 2001, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M100407200
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ABBREVIATIONS |
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The abbreviations used are: P-gp, P-glycoprotein; TM, transmembrane; dBBn, dibromobimane; MTS, methanethiosulfonate; ABC, ATP-binding cassette.
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REFERENCES |
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