From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular
Biology, New Jersey Medical School, University of Medicine and
Dentistry of New Jersey, Newark, New Jersey 07103, the
Department of Cell Signaling, DNAX Research Institute, Palo
Alto, California 94304-1104, and the ** Molecular Biology Program,
Sloan-Kettering Institute, New York, New York 10021
Received for publication, December 5, 2000
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ABSTRACT |
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CDK7, CDK8, and CDK9 are
cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) that phosphorylate the
C-terminal domain (CTD) of RNA polymerase II. They have distinct
functions in transcription. Because the three CDKs target only serine 5 in the heptad repeat of model CTD substrates containing various numbers
of repeats, we tested the hypothesis that the kinases differ in their
ability to phosphorylate CTD heptad arrays. Our data show that the
kinases display different preferences for phosphorylating individual
heptads in a synthetic CTD substrate containing three heptamer repeats
and specific regions of the CTD in glutathione
S-transferase fusion proteins. They also exhibit
differences in their ability to phosphorylate a synthetic CTD peptide
that contains Ser-2-PO4. This phosphorylated peptide is a
poor substrate for CDK9 complexes. CDK8 and CDK9 complexes, bound to
viral activators E1A and Tat, respectively, target only serine 5 for
phosphorylation in the CTD peptides, and binding to the viral
activators does not change the substrate preference of these kinases.
These results imply that the display of different CTD heptads during
transcription, as well as their phosphorylation state, can affect their
phosphorylation by the different transcription-associated CDKs.
The three cyclin-dependent kinases, CDK7, CDK8, and
CDK9,1 have an established
connection with transcription machinery and are regulated by
constitutively expressed cyclins. These CDKs can hyperphosphorylate the
CTD of the large subunit of RNA polymerase II (pol II) and therefore
are CTD kinases (1). The CTD of mammalian pol II consists of 52 heptad
repeats with the consensus sequence 1YSPTSPS7, which is especially well-conserved
in the first half (N-terminal) of the CTD. Of the phosphorylatable
amino acid residues, serine 5 is the most conserved, with only one
threonine replacement, indicating that it is likely to have a crucial
role in the function of the CTD. Pol II CTD is highly phosphorylated
in vivo, mostly at serine (positions 2 and 5) but also at
threonine and tyrosine (2). Hyperphosphorylated CTD is correlated with
transcription initiation and elongation, whereas the holoenzyme and
preinitiation complexes contain pol II with hypophosphorylated CTD (3).
In yeast cells, replacing either serine 2 or serine 5 with alanine in
each of this organism's 26 CTD heptad repeats causes lethality (4).
The functions of these kinases correlate with different stages of
transcription. CDK7 is a subunit of the general transcription factor
TFIIH and is the kinase that phosphorylates pol II CTD after the
preinitiation complex is formed (5). CDK7 is the catalytic member of a
three-subunit complex called CAK (CDK-activating kinase) composed of
CDK7/cyclin H and MAT-1 (6, 7). CAK is also a subassembly of TFIIH (8).
Comparison between the kinase activity of CAK and TFIIH revealed
differences in substrate specificity: CAK shows a strong preference for
CDK2, consistent with its function in the cell cycle, but cannot
hyperphosphorylate pol II; TFIIH hyperphosphorylates pol II, but CDK2
is a very poor substrate for this form of CDK7 (9, 10). TFIIH also
phosphorylates transcription factors TBP, TFIIE, and TFIIF, whereas
free CAK phosphorylates only TBP (5, 9, 10). Hence, the composition of
the complexes that contain CDK7 modulates its substrate preferences.
Human CDK8/cyclin C is found in a variety of pol II holoenzyme
complexes (11, 12), the largest of which is slightly smaller than 70 S
ribosomes (13), and also in complexes devoid of pol II such as the
mammalian SRB/Mediator complex, which contains homologues of the
yeast SRB/Mediator (14). The functions of the various CDK8-containing
complexes are not fully understood. E1A and VP16 target the human
SrB/Mediator and stimulate transcription in vitro (14, 15).
CDK8 complexes containing E1A and VP16 activation domains can
phosphorylate the CTD (16), implying that they may activate
transcription by increasing the processivity of pol II. On the
contrary, NAT (negative regulator of activated transcription) is
probably a subcomplex of pol II holoenzyme and can interact with pol II
to repress activated transcription by phosphorylating pol II (17).
CDK9 was cloned as cdc2-related kinase called PITALRE (18), and
together with its cyclin partners, cyclins T1, T2a, and T2b, was
identified as part of human P-TEFb (positive transcription elongation
factor b) (19-22). P-TEFb is crucial for activation of transcription
by HIV-1 Tat (trans-activator of transcription) in vitro and
is essential for HIV-1 replication (22, 23). The Tat-bound P-TEFb
complex that contains only cyclin T1 is also referred to as TAK
(Tat-associated kinase). It is well established that P-TEFb is
necessary for the transition of pol II into productive elongation in
both human and Drosophila systems (24). Tat enhances the
function of P-TEFb by further increasing pol II CTD phosphorylation (25, 26). Preinitiation complexes formed on the HIV-1 promoter contain
CDK9 (as well as CDK7), which stays with pol II throughout the
elongation process (25-27). The role of CDK9 in the preinitiation complex is not yet understood, however. Tat does not increase phosphorylation of the CTD by CDK7 in the initiation complex (25, 26).
Moreover, CDK7 is dispensable for Tat transactivation of the HIV long
terminal repeat (28).
Despite these differences in function, we and others have shown that
CDK7, -8, and -9 all recognize the same amino acid target in various
model CTD heptad repeat substrates, namely serine 5 (5, 29-33).
Biochemical differences among the three kinases have been reported (25,
31), but the basis for their distinct roles in transcription remains
unclear. To elucidate the specificity of the CTD kinases, we compared
the activity of natural complexes of each kinase with different CTD
substrates. Although they phosphorylate purified pol II similarly, we
observed differences in the phosphorylation pattern of various GST-CTD
substrates. Most striking is their display of heptad preference when
phosphorylating a model peptide, CTD3, containing three heptads. CDK8
is the most indiscriminate whereas CDK7 and CDK9 show preferences
toward different heptads. An important distinction was revealed using a
phosphorylated CTD peptide substrate. Serine 2-phosphorylated CTD4 is a
poor substrate for CDK9 whereas CDK7 and CDK8 are equally active with
CTD4 and CTD4-2P. The natural CDK complexes, as well as CDK8 and CDK9
complexes bound to viral activators E1A and Tat, respectively, target
only serine 5 for phosphorylation. Binding to the viral activators did
not change the substrate preference of these kinases. These results
suggest that the differential functions of the three CTD kinase
complexes reflects distinct modes of recognition of pol II as a substrate.
Preparation of Cell Extracts--
Nuclear extracts and
cytoplasmic S-100 were prepared from 293 and HeLa cells
essentially as described (34) except that the dialysis step was omitted
for the cytoplasmic extract and glycerol was added to a final
concentration of 10%. The nuclear extracts were dialyzed against
buffer D (20 mM Hepes (pH 7.9), 100 mM KCl, 0.2 mM EDTA, 0.5 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride,
0.5 mM dithiothreitol, and 20% glycerol) and centrifuged
for 30 min at 100,000 × g in a Beckman SW 50.1 rotor.
CTD Substrates--
CTD3 peptides were synthesized in the
Molecular Resource Facility of the University of Medicine and Dentistry
of New Jersey-New Jersey Medical School with an ABI automated peptide
synthesizer. The peptides were purified on an analytical scale by
reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography on a Vydac C18
column (25 × 0.46 cm) developed with a linear acetonitrile
gradient of 0-60% in 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid. The peak
UV-absorbing fractions were lyophilized, and the lyophilized peptides
were dissolved in distilled water and stored in Kinase Assays--
Immunoprecipitations were done essentially as
described previously (32) except that radioimmune precipitation buffer
(150 mM NaCl, 10 mM Tris (pH 8.0), 1% Nonidet
P-40, 1% Triton, 1% sodium deoxycholate, 0.1% SDS, 1 mM
phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride) was used to wash the immunoprecipitated
complexes. Protein A beads were used for binding antibodies (Santa Cruz
Biotechnology, Inc.) to CDK7 (0.2 µg/10-µl beads) or CDK9 (0.4 µg/10-µl beads) and protein G beads for binding antibodies to CDK8
(1 µg/10-µl beads). Except where noted, we used the amount of 293 NE (0.5-8 mg of protein/reaction) that gave similar levels of
phosphorylation of pol IIA by the three CDKs complexes. Kinase assays
were performed essentially as described in a previous study (19). In
reactions containing GST-CTD proteins as substrate, an additional step
of substrate pull-down was performed. At the end of the kinase reaction 100 µl of EBCD (50 mM Tris at pH 8.0, 120 mM
NaCl, 0.5% Nonidet P-40, 5 mM dithiothreitol) was added to
each tube, tubes were incubated for additional 10 min at 25 °C, and
the supernatant was added to 10-µl glutathione-Sepharose beads. After
incubation for 30 min at 4 °C, the beads were washed twice with EBCD
(0.03% SDS) buffer and resuspended in 50 µl of the same buffer. All
reactions were stopped by boiling in Laemmli sample buffer and resolved by electrophoresis in 12%, 15%, or 18% polyacrylamide/bis-acrylamide (30%:0.15%) denaturing gels. The gels were dried, quantified on Packard Instant Imager, and exposed to x-ray film. TAK activity assay
is described in a previous study (19). GST-E1A plasmid, containing WT
E1A-conserved regions 2 and 3, and the mutant GST-E1A (C174S) (37) were
a gift from C. Herrmann and A. Rice. GST-E1A proteins and their binding
to glutathione-Sepharose beads were performed as described for GST-Tat
proteins (19). After the binding of HeLa nuclear extract to GST-E1A
bound beads, the complexes were washed with radioimmune precipitation
buffer, and kinase assays were performed as described above.
Phosphoamino acid analysis was performed as described in a previous
study (32).
Western Blot Analysis--
Western blot analysis was done as
described previously (32). Because goat IgG and CDK8 exhibit similar
electrophoretic mobility, in our gels we used different antibodies to
CDK8 for immunoprecipitations and Western blots (WB). CDK8 was
immunoprecipitated with anti-CDK8 C-terminal goat IgG (Santa Cruz
Biotechnology, Inc.), and rabbit anti-CDK8 N-terminal antibodies
(Calbiochem) were used for WB. Secondary antibodies against rabbit IgG
do not recognize denatured goat IgG (see Fig. 1A). For
detection of pol II, anti-pol II antibodies from three different
sources were used. pol II antibodies from Santa Cruz Biotechnology,
Inc., which recognize only the IIa form, human autoantibodies against
pol II (from patients diagnosed with systemic lupus erythematosus),
which recognize both IIa and IIo (a gift from W. Reeves and M. Satoh)
(38), and monoclonal antibodies against different phosphorylated forms
of pol IIo (BAbCO-Berkely Antibody Company H5 and H14). Secondary
antibodies were from Roche Molecular Biochemicals for human anti-pol II
and Kirkegaard and Perry Laboratories for the monoclonals.
Phosphorylation of pol II and GST-CTD Substrates--
CDK7, -8, and -9 are present in nuclear extracts (NE) prepared from several human
cell types (32, 39-41). Previous studies of these CDKs were performed
with kinases isolated from various sources and by different methods,
namely with complexes isolated from cellular extracts by chromatography
and/or immunoprecipitation, or with recombinant kinase complexes. To
allow systematic comparison of the kinases in natural complexes, we
used 293 cell NE as the source of in vivo formed complexes
of each CDK and assayed their activities on different substrates. Each
kinase complex was immunoprecipitated with antibody directed toward its
C-terminal peptide and washed in buffer-containing detergent. Only
tightly bound proteins are expected to withstand the washing
conditions. Immunoblotting assays verified that the complexes contained
only the expected kinase (Fig.
1A). When the CDK7, -8, and -9 immunocomplexes were probed for the presence of CDK7
(lanes1-4), CDK8 (lanes 5-8), or CDK9 (lanes 9-12), only the cognate kinase was detected in each
case. Thus, the three CDKs are not found in the same complex or in
tightly associated complexes. We also confirmed by immunoblotting that each CDK immunocomplex contained its associated cyclin partner, H, C,
and T1 or T2, respectively (data not shown). No pol II was detected by
probing the complexes with three different antibodies (data not
shown).
CDKs 7, 8, and 9 can phosphorylate the CTD of the large subunit of pol
II (19, 32, 41, 42). Our CDK complexes all phosphorylated purified
human RNA pol IIA (devoid of the IIo subunit), giving similar patterns
of phosphorylation (Fig. 1B). In kinase reactions without
added pol IIA, we detected weakly phosphorylated bands, presumably due
to the presence of traces of pol II that were undetectable by
immunoblotting. The slower-migrating hyperphosphorylated form of pol II
CTD, IIo, was detected only after phosphorylation as expected (Fig.
1B, lanes 14-16) (1). Because the three CDKs were active with regard to their natural substrate and showed no
obvious differences in phosphorylating pol IIA, we examined their
ability to phosphorylate other substrates that contain CTD heptamer
repeats. The following experiments used amounts of the CDKs giving
similar levels of pol II phosphorylation.
Recombinant GST-CTD, containing all 52 heptads of the mammalian CTD, is
widely used as a substrate in CTD kinase assays (10, 31, 43, 44).
Full-length GST-CTD (CTD53) was phosphorylated by all three
CDKs, but the mobility shifts elicited by each kinase were notably
different (Fig. 1C, lanes 1-3). Phosphorylation
by CDK7 gave rise to IIa and IIo forms with a smear of shifted
molecules in between; CDK8 complexes preferentially hypophosphorylated
GST-CTD, and CDK9 complexes gave rise to both IIa and IIo forms with
fewer intermediate forms. To examine this further, recombinant
GST-CTD-(1-29) and GST-CTD-(30-53), containing the 29 N-terminal and 24 C-terminal repeats respectively, were used as
substrates. Although the three kinases phosphorylated the N-terminal
part of the CTD to comparable extents, the C-terminal part was a
considerably better substrate for CDK7 than for CDK8 or CDK9. The only
kinase that gave rise to the two phosphorylated forms with
GST-CTD-(1-29) was CDK7. CDK8 produced mostly the hypophosphorylated
form, and the products of phosphorylation by CDK9 were IIa with some
additional shifted molecules, few of which extended all the way to the
IIo position (Fig. 1C, lanes 4-6).
GST-CTD-(30-53) was a weaker substrate for all three kinases, and even
CDK7, which was the most active CTD kinase with these substrates, did
not produce a discrete shift as seen with the other two substrates
(Fig. 1C, lanes 7-9). These results suggest that
the IIo-phosphorylated form in pol II as well as in GST-CTD is the
result of hyperphosphorylation of the first half of its CTD.
CDK7, -8, and -9 Differ in Phosphorylation of Phospho-CTD
Substrate--
The phosphorylation site specificity of the three CDKs
has been tested previously for the mammalian CDKs as well as yeast CDKs, mostly by using serine
We examined the ability of the three CDK complexes to phosphorylate
mutated CTD3 peptides, depicted in Fig.
2A, in which all of the
serines at position 2, 5, or 7 were changed to alanine. The
substitution of serine 5 in each heptad to alanine (S5A) abolished phosphorylation of the substrate by CDK7 and CDK8 (Fig. 2A).
Similar results were obtained with CDK9 complexes (data not shown) and TAK complexes (32). Thus, within a heptad, the amino acid site specificity for the three complexes is indistinguishable. Furthermore, the substitution of all serine 2 and serine 7 residues with alanine did
not affect the ability of the kinases to phosphorylate CTD3 (data not
shown). Phosphoamino acid analysis confirmed that only serine residues
were phosphorylated by the three CDKs (data not shown).
The CTD of pol II is a phosphorylation target for many CTD kinases,
some of which phosphorylate serine 2 in the CTD heptad (CDK1 and
DNA-PK) (1, 29, 30). It is plausible that, in the cell, each of the
CDKs interacts with a CTD that is already phosphorylated at serine 2. Therefore we tested the ability of a CTD peptide, which is
phosphorylated at serine 2 in each heptad, CTD4-2P, to serve as a
substrate for the three CDKs (Fig. 2B). Wild-type (WT) CTD4,
which has four heptad repeats, was recognized and phosphorylated by the
three CDKs, as was CTD4-2P. However, CDK9 complexes recognized serine
2-phosphorylated CTD4 as a poor substrate, phosphorylating it ~5-fold
less efficiently than CTD4 WT (Fig. 2B, lanes 7 and 8). CDK7 displayed a slight preference for
unphosphorylated CTD4, and CDK8 displayed a slight preference for the
phosphorylated form, but in both cases the differences were less than
2-fold. Thus, CDK9 complexes discriminate strongly against the serine
2-phosphorylated CTD peptide, whereas CDK7 and 8 do not. As expected
from the results obtained with the CTD3 S5A peptide (see Fig.
2A), CTD4-5P was not phosphorylated by any of the CDKs
(Fig. 2B).
The viral activators Tat-1 and Tat-2 target complexes containing CDK9,
whereas E1A and VP16 target complexes containing CDK8. E1A and VP16
activation domains recruit CDK8 complexes that can phosphorylate
GST-CTD (16). Recently, these complexes were identified as the
SrB/Mediator complex that contains, in addition to CDK8, SUR2 (renamed
TRAP 150) (14, 46), which binds E1A directly, and TRAP 80, which binds
to VP16 activation domain. (15). We wanted to determine whether the
binding of the viral activators Tat-1 and E1A to CDK9 and CDK8,
respectively, would change their substrate specificity. Fig.
2B shows that TAK complexes, like CDK9 complexes, recognized
CTD4-2P as a poor substrate and phosphorylated it ~8-fold less
efficiently than CTD4 WT (lanes 7 with 8). TAK complexes did not phosphorylate the serine 5-phosphorylated CTD4 (data
not shown). These results indicate that the interaction of CDK9 with
the CTD peptide does not change when it is complexed with cyclin T1
only (in TAK complexes), instead of with both cyclins T1 and T2 (in CDK
immunocomplexes), and the binding of the complex to Tat does not
influence its substrate preference.
Similarly, we tested CDK8 complexed with the E1A transactivator. Fig.
2C shows that CDK8 was pulled down from HeLa NE by a GST-E1A
fusion protein carrying the intact E1A activation domain but not by a
mutated activation domain. The binding of CDK8 to GST-E1A did not
change its preference for CTD4 or its phosphorylated forms; it
recognized CTD4 WT and CTD4-2P to about the same extents (Fig.
2D, lanes 3 and 5) and did not
phosphorylate CTD4-5P (Fig. 2D, lane 7).
CDK8-containing complexes bound to E1A show the same target specificity
as CDK8 immunocomplexes (Fig. 2A); they phosphorylated serine 5 only when S2A and S7A were used as substrates (data not shown).
Each CDK Exhibits a Different Pattern of CTD3
Phosphorylation--
Phosphorylation of the WT CTD3 peptide by CDK7
and CDK9 gives rise to two bands in SDS-gel electrophoresis (32), and
the same is true for CDK8. However, as seen in Fig.
3A, the pattern of
phosphorylation differs for the three kinases. CDK7 and CDK8 phosphorylation gave rise to more of the slower migrating band, (S), whereas CDK9 elicited more of the faster migrating
band, (F). The same differences in CTD3 phosphorylation
pattern were reported for recombinant CDK7·cyclin H·Mat1 and TAK
complexes (32). Even though CDK7 and CDK8 both showed a preference for the slow band, the ratios were reproducibly different: The intensity of
the fast band produced by CDK7 is two-thirds that of the slow band,
whereas for CDK8 it is half of the slow band.
Because the three CTD kinases recognize the same target (serine 5) in
the CTD consensus sequence, PXSP (47), we focused on the
differences observed in the pattern of CTD3 phosphorylation between the
kinases. One explanation for the two phosphorylation bands is that each
represents phosphorylation of only one heptad out of the three. Another
possible interpretation is that one band is multiply phosphorylated,
whereas the other band is singly (mono-) phosphorylated. We first
tested these possibilities by conducting time course and concentration
dependence experiments (Fig. 3, B and C). CTD3
phosphorylation by CDK7 revealed the typical pattern of bands at all
time points (Fig. 3B) arguing against a shift from single
phosphorylation to multiple phosphorylation. In contrast such a shift
was observed in time course phosphorylation experiments with pol II
(48), indicating multiple phosphorylation events. Time course
experiments with CDK8 and CDK9 complexes gave the same results (data
not shown). Titration experiments with CDK9 (Fig. 3C) as
well as with CDK7 and -8 (not shown) indicated that even when the
peptide concentration was lowered to 6.25 µM or increased
to 1 mM (data not shown), neither the pattern of phosphorylation nor the ratio of phosphorylation between the two bands
changed. These observations suggest that each CTD3 molecule is
phosphorylated only once by each kinase. A similar conclusion was drawn
by other investigators who used a di-hepta peptide in kinase assays
with other CTD kinases (30, 47).
We also examined the GST-E1A-bound CDK8 complexes described above (Fig.
2C) in kinase assays with WT CTD3 as substrate. These complexes demonstrated the same pattern of CTD3 phosphorylation (Fig.
3D, lane 1) as the CDK8 immunocomplexes (Fig.
3A). Hence, binding to E1A does not change the substrate
specificity of CDK8 complexes when tested with all the different
substrates described above.
CDK7, -8, and -9 Differ in Their CTD Heptad Preferences--
To
determine whether the three kinases display preferences for
phosphorylating individual heptads, we synthesized three mutated CTD3
peptides (a-c), each containing two different mutations of serine 5 to
alanine. Peptides a, b, and c retain serine 5 residues only in heptads
2, 1, and 3, respectively (Fig.
4A). All three kinases
recognized the single serine target in each peptide and phosphorylated
it, albeit to different extents; CDK7 preferred to phosphorylate
heptads 1 and 2 over heptad 3 by at least 3-fold (Fig. 4A,
lanes 1-3), CDK8 displayed no heptad preference (Fig. 4A, lanes 4-6), and CDK9 preferred to
phosphorylate heptad 1 over heptads 2 and 3 by at least 2-fold (Fig.
4A, lanes 7-9). Thus, this set of model peptides
revealed differences between the three CDKs in their CTD heptad
preference. The electrophoretic mobility of CTD3 phosphorylated on
heptad 2 or 3 is identical, whereas heptad 1 phosphorylation gives rise
to a band with faster mobility. The differences in mobility are
consistent with the pattern observed with CTD3 WT (Fig. 3A)
and support the conclusion that only one heptad is phosphorylated in
each CTD3 WT molecule under these conditions.
To confirm this interpretation we tested another set of three mutated
peptides (d-f), in which only one serine 5 (in heptad 1, 2, or 3, respectively) was substituted with alanine, leaving two phosphorylation
targets (Fig. 4B). All three kinases phosphorylated the
substituted peptides, but with notable differences. CDK8 phosphorylated these peptides to approximately equal extents, resulting in one phosphorylated band with peptide d and two bands with peptides e and f
(Fig. 4B, lanes 4-6). This is consistent with
the finding that CDK8 has no preference for one CTD heptad over another
(Fig. 4A, lanes 4-6). However, CDK7 and CDK9
showed marked heptad preferences and phosphorylated the serine in
heptad 3 very weakly, even more weakly than when this site was the only
target available (Fig. 4A, lanes 3 and
9). These findings confirm that the heptad preferences differ among the kinases: for CDK7, heptad 1 = 2 > 3; for
CDK9, 1 > 2 = 3; and for CDK8, all are approximately equal.
TAK complexes show the same heptad preference as the CDK9
immunocomplexes (Fig. 4B, lanes 10-12). TAK
complexes also gave the same pattern of phosphorylation with the
di-substituted peptides as the immunocomplexes in Fig. 3A
(data not shown). Thus, the heptad preference for CDK9 is not
influenced by its association with Tat.
We compared the substrate specificity of natural complexes of the
cyclin dependent kinases 7, 8, and 9 from human cells. Using substrates
containing different numbers of CTD heptad repeats, we uncovered
differences in substrate preference among these kinases. Specifically,
by using CTD3 peptides we showed that CDK7 prefers to phosphorylate
serine 5 in the first and second heptad over the third heptad, CDK9
prefers to phosphorylate serine 5 in the first heptad over the other
two, and CDK8 has no preference for either heptad. Moreover, although
CDKs 8 and 9 prefer to phosphorylate the highly conserved N-terminal
region of the CTD, CDK7 phosphorylates it uniformly. Finally, none of
the kinases efficiently phosphorylates serine 5-phosphorylated CTD
peptide, and CDK9 (but not CDKs 7 and 8) strongly discriminates against
serine 2-phosphorylated CTD peptide. We postulate that the three CDKs
exhibit heptad preference when they phosphorylate pol II CTD. Selective
modification of pol II CTD, before and during transcription, may serve
as a regulatory device allowing the specific interaction of various
proteins with the CTD to promote or inhibit mRNA transcription.
Differences in Substrate Specificity among the Three
Kinases--
Taking advantage of differences in gel mobility between
the singly phosphorylated specific heptads of CTD3, we demonstrated that the three kinases exhibit different heptad preferences within the
CTD. The heptad preference displayed by CDK7 (in purified TFIIH
complexes) was noted previously (30). It is possible that these
differences in heptad preference are related to differences in the
activation segments of the three kinases. The crystal structure of
CDK2-cyclin A3 shows that the activation segment is involved in binding
the substrate after phosphorylation of the conserved threonine in the T
loop (49). Although both CDK7 and CDK9 retain this threonine residue,
it is replaced by aspartic acid in CDK8, which is the most promiscuous
of these three CDKs with respect to heptad selectivity.
Kinetic experiments indicated that the initial phosphorylation event(s)
of pol II CTD by P-TEFb are slow but additional phosphates are
incorporated quickly to reach the IIo position (48). The pattern of
phosphorylation of GST-CTD by recombinant CDK9 bound to GST-cyclin T1
(50) and by CDK9 immunocomplexes (Fig. 1C) is consistent
with this observation. Hence it seems that CDK9 prefers to
phosphorylate pol II CTD that is partially phosphorylated, consistent
with its function at the elongation stage after initial phosphorylation
of pol II CTD by TFIIH. By contrast, the pattern of GST-CTD
phosphorylation by CDK7 complexes, leading to an array of
phosphorylated molecules, suggests no preference for unphosphorylated or partially phosphorylated CTD. A similar pattern of GST-CTD phosphorylation was observed with CDK7 immunoprecipitated holoenzyme (51). Phosphorylation of full-length GST-CTD by CDK8 did not give rise
to the hyperphosphorylated form, suggesting that the rest of the pol II
large subunit has an effect on the enzyme activity. This idea is
strengthened by the observation that CDK8 is tightly associated with
pol II in the holoenzyme (41).
Comparing the efficiency of the three CTD kinases for phosphorylating
the N- and C-terminal portion of the pol II CTD revealed further
differences between the enzymes in substrate specificity. The first
half of the CTD, which is essential for transcriptional activity from
many promoters (52), is a good substrate for all three kinases. On the
other hand, the C-terminal portion of the CTD, which is required for
cell survival (53), although not in transient expression assays (52),
provides discrimination among the kinases. This region is strongly
phosphorylated only by CDK7 and contains many heptads in which serine 7 is substituted with lysine, threonine, or asparagine. Studies with CTD4
mutants containing serine 7 substitutions indicated that the lysine
residues comprise the principal determinant of the preference of
recombinant CDK7·cyclin H·MAT-1 complexes for GST-CTD-(30-53)
(31). In our hands, the efficiency of phosphorylation by CDK8 and -9 was not greatly influenced by any of the CTD4 peptide substitutions
(data not shown), indicating that these position 7 differences are not sufficient to explain the kinases' ability to distinguish between the
two halves of the CTD.
Target Specificity of CDK7, -8, and -9 Complexes--
Our CTD
peptide assays reinforce the view that serine 5 in the CTD heptad is
the only target of phosphorylation by immunocomplexes of CDK7, -8, and
-9 as well E1A-bound CDK8 complexes and TAK complexes (32).
Corroborative data have been obtained by others using mutant CTD
peptides and GST-CTD fusion proteins (5, 29-31, 33). On the other
hand, based on an indirect assay, it has been reported that CDKs 8 and
9, but not CDK7, can phosphorylate the CTD on serine 2 (17, 26). These
conclusions were drawn from immunoblotting data obtained with two
monoclonal antibodies made against tyrosine-phosphorylated cell
proteins (54). Because the antibodies were not generated specifically
against phosphorylated serine 2 or 5, the interpretation of results
derived from use of these antibodies may not be straightforward. Strictly, the results obtained with CTD mutants show that serine 5 is
necessary for CTD phosphorylation, leaving open the possibility that
serine 2 can be phosphorylated only subsequent to serine 5 phosphorylation. Our results with serine 5-phosphorylated CTD peptides
argue against this possibility, but additional reagents and experiments
are needed to resolve the issue with certainty.
As mentioned above, pol II is found in vivo to be
phosphorylated on serine 2 in the CTD heptad as well as on serine 5. The capping of mRNA, which occurs shortly after initiation is
accomplished via the interaction of the capping enzyme with the
phosphorylated form of pol II CTD (55). The guanylyltransferase
component of the capping apparatus binds peptides that are
phosphorylated on either serine 2 and 5, but only the latter stimulates
guanylyltransferase activity (35). Similarly, our results indicate that
the fate of mRNA elongation, which is dependent on P-TEFb may be
influenced by the state of CTD phosphorylation. One possible model is
that shortly after promoter escape there is transcriptional pausing (24, 56) during which pol II CTD is preferentially dephosphorylated at
serine 2 residues, then phosphorylated at serine 5 by P-TEFb, allowing
resumption of elongation and capping. Recently, a CTD phosphatase
(FCP1) that can dephosphorylate RNA pol IIO in transcription elongation
complexes was described (57). The correlation between elongational
pausing and cap formation has been demonstrated in vivo with
Drosophila heat shock genes (58).
Significance of Distinct Activities of CDK7, -8, and -9--
CTD
phosphorylation is connected with mRNA splicing (59) and 3'-end
formation (60) as well as transcription (3) and capping (61). It has
been envisioned that the CTD acts as a platform for factors involved in
RNA synthesis and processing. These processes are regulated by the
phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of the CTD, mediated by multiple
CTD kinases as well as CTD phosphatases (57, 62-64). Only one CTD
phosphatase from human cells has been identified thus far, as well as a
yeast homologue (65). It has been suggested that CTD phosphorylation is
regulated in a temporal fashion (45). In light of our findings, it is
likely that CTD phosphorylation is also regulated on the level of
substrate specificity. Hence, the differential recognition of heptad
arrays by the CTD kinases will affect the structure and exposure of
regions of the CTD. At any given time in the dynamic process of
mRNA transcription and processing, different protein complexes are
bound to the CTD, and these will also affect its heptads' exposure and
structure. Moreover, the action of CTD phosphatases could affect heptad
recognition by the CDKs. For example, remodeling of the CTD by removing
the phosphate from serine 2 may be one way in which cells control the
capping of mRNA and productive elongation.
INTRODUCTION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
80 °C until use.
The molar concentration of each peptide was determined from the
absorbance at 274 nm using the extinction coefficient for tyrosine
(1.4 × 103 M
1).
Biotinylated CTD4 and CTD4 phosphopeptides were described previously (35). RNA pol IIA was a gift from D. Reinberg (36). GST-CTD fusion
proteins and CTD4 WT and substituted CTD4 peptides were described
previously (31).
RESULTS
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
View larger version (33K):
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Fig. 1.
Phosphorylation of RNA pol II and GST-CTD by
CDK 7, -8, and -9. A, characterization of CDK
complexes. CDK7, CDK8, and CDK9 complexes were immunoprecipitated from
293 cell nuclear extract (NE) with rabbit anti-C-terminal
peptide antibody for CDK7 (lanes 2, 5, and
9) and CDK9 (lanes 4, 8, and
11) and goat anti-CDK8 C-terminal peptide antibody
(lanes 3, 7, and 10). Immunoblot
analysis (WB) was performed using the same antibodies for
CDK7 (lanes 1-4) and CDK9 (lanes 9-12) and
rabbit anti-CDK8 antibody (lanes 5-8). Rabbit IgG band is
nonspecifically recognized, but the goat IgG band is not present in the
CDK8 panel because it is not recognized by the rabbit antibody. NE was
used as a marker for each kinase. B, phosphorylation of pol
II by CDK complexes. Kinase assays in the left panel
contained two concentrations of CDK7 (lanes 1-4), CDK8
(lanes 5-8), or CDK9 (lanes 9-12) complexes
with pol IIA (lanes 1, 2, 5,
6, 9, and 10) or without added
substrate (lanes 3, 4, 7,
8, 11, and 12). Incorporation of label
from [32P]ATP was detected by gel electrophoresis and
autoradiography. In the right panel, unphosphorylated pol
IIA (lane 13) and pol II phosphorylated by CDK7, -8, or -9 (lanes 14-16) were analyzed by WB with anti-pol II
autoimmune antibodies that recognize both pol IIa and IIo forms. NE
provided markers for both forms (lane 17). C,
phosphorylation of GST-CTD-(1-53), GST-CTD-(1-29), and
GST-CTD-(30-53), in the left, middle, and
right panels, respectively, by CDK7 (lanes 1,
4, and 7), CDK8 (lanes 2,
5, and 8), and CDK9 (lanes 3,
6, and 9) complexes. Reactions contained
[32P] -ATP and 1 µg of each GST substrate.
alanine substituted CTD peptides or
GST-CTD. This approach revealed that the exclusive target of phosphorylation for CDK7, -8, and -9 kinases is serine 5 in the CTD
heptad (30-33, 45).
View larger version (35K):
[in a new window]
Fig. 2.
Site specificity of CDK complexes.
A, CDK7 and CDK8 complexes phosphorylate serine 5. Kinase
assays contained 100 µM of CTD3 mutants S2A, S5A, or S7A
and [32P] -ATP. The top portion depicts the
sequences of WT and mutant CTD3 peptides. Incorporation of label from
[32P]
-ATP was detected by gel electrophoresis and
autoradiography. B, phosphorylation of CTD4-WT and
phospho-CTD4 peptides by CDK7, -8, and -9 immunocomplexes and TAK.
Peptide structures are depicted in the top portion of the
panel. Kinase assays contained 1 µg of CTD4-WT (lanes 1,
4, 7, and 10), CTD4-2P (lanes
2, 5, 8, and 11) or CTD4-5P
(lanes 3, 6, and 9). Phosphorylated
products were resolved in an 18% SDS-polyacrylamide gel and
quantitated. C, WB analysis of complexes pulled down from
HeLa NE by GST-E1A activation domain (WT) or GST-E1A
activation domain mutant (M). The blot was probed with
rabbit anti-CDK8 N terminus peptide antibody. HeLa NE was used as
marker. D, E1A-bound CDK8 complexes, analyzed in panel
C, phosphorylate CTD4 peptides with the same specificity as CDK8
immunocomplexes. Kinase assays contained WT or phospho-CTD4 peptides as
in Fig. 2B. The phosphorylated products were separated in a
4-20% SDS-polyacrylamide gel.
View larger version (34K):
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Fig. 3.
CDK7, -8, and -9 phosphorylation patterns
with WT CTD3 peptide. A, the three CDKs exhibit
different patterns of phosphorylation of WT CTD3. Kinase assays
contained two concentrations of CDK complexes and 100 µM
WT CTD3. B, time course of WT CTD3 (100 µM)
phosphorylation by CDK7 complexes. C, concentration
dependence of WT CTD3 phosphorylation by CDK9 complexes. D,
CDK8 complexes bound to GST-E1A (WT), as in Fig.
2C, phosphorylate WT CTD3 similarly to CDK8 immunocomplexes.
Mutant GST-E1A (M) was used as control.
View larger version (48K):
[in a new window]
Fig. 4.
Comparison of substrate specificity of CDK
complexes using CTD3 mutant peptides. Serine 5 alanine
substitution mutants (100 µM) were tested in kinase
assays with CDK complexes. A, CTD3 peptides a-c are
substituted in two heptads. B, CTD3 peptides d-f are
substituted in one heptad. The sequences of the peptides are depicted
at the top of each panel, and the phosphorylation products are shown
below.
DISCUSSION
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
---|
We thank Dr. D. Reinberg for pol IIA, Drs. W. Reeves and M. Satoh for anti-pol II antibodies, Drs. C. Herrmann and A. Rice for GST-E1A plasmids, and Dr. R. Donnelly of the New Jersey Medical School Molecular Core Facility for CTD3 peptides.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported by National Institutes of Health Grant AI31802.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
§ Both authors contributed equally to this work.
¶ Present address: Center for Applied Genomics, New Jersey Medical School-UMDNJ, MSB A-901, 185 S. Orange Ave., Newark, NJ 07103.
To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of
Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, New Jersey Medical School,
University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Newark, NJ 07103. Tel.: 973-972-8763; Fax: 973-972-5594; E-mail:
peeryts@umdnj.edu.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, January 16, 2001, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M010975200
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ABBREVIATIONS |
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The abbreviations used are: CDK, cyclin-dependent kinase; CTD, C-terminal domain; pol II, polymerase II; CAK, CDK-activating kinase; P-TEFb, positive transcription elongation factor b; Tat, trans-activator of transcription; TAK, Tat-associated kinase; HIV-1, human immunodeficiency virus type 1; GST, glutathione S-transferase; NE, nuclear extract; WB, Western blots; WT, wild type; M, mutant.
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