From the Departments of Medicine and of Molecular Biology and Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
Received for publication, September 15, 2000, and in revised form, March 20, 2001
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ABSTRACT |
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Renal mesangial cells regulate their
expression of the pro-inflammatory gene cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)
through mechanisms involving gene transcription and
post-transcriptional events. Post-transcriptional regulation of COX-2
is dependent, in part, on sequences within the 3'-untranslated region
(3'-UTR) of the COX-2 mRNA. Insertion of the entire 3'-UTR of COX-2
into the 3'-UTR of luciferase resulted in a 70% decrease in luciferase
enzymatic activity. Measurement of steady-state reporter gene mRNA
levels suggested that the loss of activity was due to decreased
translational efficiency. Deletion analysis identified the first 60 nucleotides of the 3'-UTR of COX-2 as a major translational control
element. This region of the 3'-UTR of COX-2 is highly conserved across
species; is AU-rich; and contains multiple repeats of the regulatory
sequence AUUUA, reported to confer post-transcriptional control. In
addition, we identified regions of the 3'-UTR of COX-2 outside of the
first 60 nucleotides that altered message stability. Some of these
regions contained AUUUA consensus sequences, whereas others did not,
and represent novel control elements. These results suggest that
expression of COX-2 in mesangial cells depends on the complex
integration of multiple signals derived from the 3'-UTR of the message.
Cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2)1 catalyzes the
conversion of arachidonate to prostaglandin H, the rate-limiting step
in prostaglandin biosynthesis. COX-2 was identified as an
immediate-early response gene whose synthesis is rapidly increased in
response to various cytokines and mitogenic factors (1-3).
Transcription of COX-2 can be activated by a variety of extracellular
ligands (4-12). Signal transduction occurs through many different
signaling pathways, most of which require activation of protein kinase
cascades. Studies using pharmacological inhibitors of MAPKs or their
upstream protein kinase activators and dominant-negative mutant forms
of protein kinases demonstrated the role of ERK, JNK, and p38 MAPK in
transcriptional activation of COX-2 (5, 9, 13-18).
Recently, it has been reported that MAPK signaling pathways
are involved in regulating gene expression at the
post-transcriptional level (19-24). In the majority of these
investigations, activation of one or more MAPKs resulted in
stabilization of the target mRNA, which was dependent on regulatory
elements contained within the 3'-UTR of the message.
Post-transcriptional regulation is not limited to changes in message
stability. Sequences within the 3'-UTR of mRNAs have also been
shown to be important for enhancing message translation as well as for
translational silencing (25-33).
In renal mesangial cells, the induction of COX-2 is important for
modulation of glomerular inflammation. COX-2 is rapidly induced in
response to IL-1 Other investigators have shown the importance of AREs in COX-2 gene
expression (35-39). The majority of the AREs of COX-2 reside within
the first 100 nucleotides of the 3'-UTR. This region of the 3'-UTR was
shown to regulate message stability and translational efficiency of
hybrid reporter genes. The entire 3'-UTR of COX-2 encompasses >2000
bases, and it seems likely that regions of the 3'-UTR outside of the
AREs may also play a role in regulating COX-2 expression. To determine
whether additional regions of the 3'-UTR of COX-2 regulate gene
expression in mesangial cells, we constructed a series of reporter gene
expression vectors containing various regions of the 3'-UTR of COX-2.
Based on the results of reporter gene expression, we determined that
the 3'-UTR of COX-2 contains multiple control elements that regulate
message stability and message translation, many of which represent
novel control elements that lie outside of the first 100 nucleotides of
the 3'-UTR. Thus, the level of expression for COX-2 in renal mesangial cells is determined in part by integration of multiple signals regulating post-transcriptional events that are dependent on sequences that reside in the 3'-UTR of the message.
Reagents--
Unless indicated, all reagents used for
biochemical methods were purchased from Sigma, VWR, or Fisher.
Restriction enzymes were obtained from New England Biolabs Inc.
(Beverly, MA) and Promega (Madison, WI). The plasmid pGL3-control,
which encodes firefly luciferase, was purchased from Promega. Cell
culture medium and fetal bovine serum were from Life Technologies, Inc.
Human recombinant IL-1 Mesangial Cell Culture--
Rat primary mesangial cell cultures
were prepared from male Harlan Sprague-Dawley rats as previously
described (40). Cells were grown in RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with
10% (v/v) heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum, 0.6% (v/v) insulin,
100 units/ml penicillin, 100 µg/ml streptomycin, 250 µg/ml
amphotericin B, and 15 mM HEPES. Where indicated, mesangial
cells were stimulated with IL-1
Mouse immortalized mesangial cells were purchased from American Type
Culture Collection (ATCC CRL-1927). Cells were grown in a 3:1 mixture
of Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium and Ham's F-12 medium
supplemented with 15 mM HEPES, 5% (v/v) heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum, 100 units/ml penicillin, and 100 µg/ml
streptomycin. Transient transfections were performed using cells at
70-80% confluency.
Reporter Gene Construction--
Bluescript SK Transient Transfections--
Mesangial cells were transiently
transfected using SuperFect transfection reagent (QIAGEN Inc.,
Valencia, CA). Cells were plated in six-well cluster plates at a
density of 2 × 105 cells/well and incubated
overnight. Mixtures of 2.5 µg of reporter gene plasmid DNA in 75 µl
of serum-free medium and 15 µl of SuperFect reagent were incubated
for 5-10 min at room temperature, followed by dilution to 0.5 ml with
complete medium. The DNA·SuperFect complex was layered onto mesangial
cells (2.5 µg of DNA/well); after a 2-3-h incubation, the medium was
changed, and cells were incubated overnight for gene expression.
Luciferase Assay--
Luciferase activity was determined using a
luciferase assay system (Promega) following the manufacturer's
protocol. Briefly, cell monolayers in six-well clusters were removed by
scraping into 100 µl of reporter lysis buffer. Cells were lysed by
freeze-thawing, and cellular debris was removed by centrifugation for
30 s at 12,000 × g. Luciferase activity was
measured using a Lumat LB 9507 luminometer (EG&G Wallac, Gaithersburg,
MD). Assays were performed by injecting 100 µl of luciferase assay
reagent into 20 µl of supernatant diluted 1:10. Light output was
measured over a 10-s time period. Activity is expressed as relative
light units and was normalized to cell protein. In some instances,
cells were cotransfected with a Renilla luciferase reporter
gene (pRL-TK, Promega), and firefly luciferase activity was normalized
to Renilla luciferase activity (data not shown). Results
were equivalent to those obtained by normalization to protein content,
and only data normalized to protein levels are reported.
Quantitative Reverse Transcriptase-PCR--
Total RNA was
isolated from cells by a modified single-step acid/guanidine
thiocyanate/phenol/chloroform method using RNA STAT-60 reagent
(Tel-Test, Inc., Friendswood, TX). Total RNA was treated with DNase I
(10 units, 37 °C, 30 min), followed by re-isolation of RNA with RNA
STAT-60 reagent. DNase I treatment was repeated twice to eliminate
amplification of reporter plasmid DNA and genomic DNA. RNA (0.5 µg)
was reverse-transcribed with avian myeloblastosis virus reverse
transcriptase (Promega) using random hexamer primers.
After first-strand synthesis, the cDNA was quantified by TaqMan
real-time PCR using gene-specific primers and the double-stranded DNA-binding dye SYBR green I. Fluorescence was detected with an ABI
Prism 7700 sequence detection system (PE Biosystems, Foster City, CA).
Luciferase amplification primers were GCCTGAAGTCTCTGATTAAGT for the
forward primer and ACACCTGCGTCGAAGATGT for the reverse primer.
Amplification primers for glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAPDH) were
TGGCAAAGTGGAGATTGTTGCC for the forward primer and AAGATGGTGATGGGCTTCCCG for the reverse primer. The amplicon was designed to be <150 base pairs and to have a melting temperature of 78-84 °C. Primer pairs were tested to ensure a robust amplification signal of the expected size with no additional bands. Melting curves were generated to determine the temperature that maximized fluorescence from SYBR green I
binding to the amplicon and that minimized fluorescence due to primer
dimers. The amount of luciferase message in each RNA sample was
quantified and normalized to GAPDH content. Relative amounts of
luciferase cDNA were calculated by the comparative CT
method (49) and are expressed as a percentage of luciferase cDNA
measured in cells transfected with pGL3-control.
Reporter Gene mRNA Decay--
Mesangial cells
were transiently transfected and incubated for 24 h for luciferase
gene expression. Transcription was inhibited at this point by adding
actinomycin D (10 µg/ml) to the cell culture medium. Total RNA was
isolated at various times after actinomycin D addition, and luciferase
mRNA content was determined by quantitative reverse
transcriptase-PCR as described above. Luciferase mRNA levels were
normalized to GAPDH mRNA content and are expressed as a percentage
of the mRNA level at the 0-h time point.
In Vitro Translation--
Total RNA was translated in
vitro using the wheat germ translation kit according to the
manufacturer's protocol. Translation reactions contained 24 µl of
wheat germ extract, 1.2 µl each of Master Mix Statistical Analysis--
All experiments were performed at
least three times, each in duplicate. Data are expressed as the
means ± S.E. Comparison of means was performed using Student's
t test.
The 3'-UTR of COX-2 Decreases Expression of the
Luciferase Reporter Gene--
To determine the effect of the 3'-UTR of
COX-2 on gene expression, reporter gene constructs were created by
inserting DNA encoding various regions of the 3'-UTR of murine COX-2
message into the 3'-UTR of the luciferase gene (Fig.
1). Each construct contained the
luciferase coding sequence under the control of the SV40 promoter and
enhancer elements, followed by the 3'-UTR of luciferase and the SV40
late poly(A) signal. The reporter constructs differed only in the
regions of the 3'-UTR of COX-2 that were inserted into the luciferase
3'-UTR. Regions of the 3'-UTR of COX-2 included the full-length 3'-UTR
(nucleotides 1-2232), serial deletions from the distal and
proximal ends of the 3'-UTR, and two internal regions of the 3'-UTR.
Since all reporter constructs contained identical promoter elements,
differences in luciferase activity reflect differences in regulation as
a result of post-transcriptional events.
We used a mouse immortalized mesangial cell line as a model system to
study regulation of COX-2 in renal mesangial cells. Reporter gene
constructs were transiently transfected into this cell line, incubated
overnight, and assayed for luciferase activity. Luciferase activity
measured in cells transfected with the pGL3-control vector lacking
3'-UTR sequences of COX-2 was designated as 100%. Inserting the entire
3'-UTR (nucleotides 1-2232) of COX-2 into the 3'-UTR of luciferase
resulted in a 70% decrease in luciferase activity (Fig.
2), suggesting the presence of negative
regulatory element(s) within the 3'-UTR of the COX-2 message. Compared
with the full-length 3'-UTR, truncation of the distal region of the 3'-UTR of COX-2 to nucleotide 1558 or 1384 had no additional effect on
luciferase activity (Fig. 2A). Removal of nucleotides 792 to 1384 caused a significant increase in luciferase activity
(p < 0.05) to 66% of the control. This increase
suggests the presence of a negative element between nucleotides 792 and
1384. In support of this conclusion, insertion of only nucleotides
792-1384 alone lowered luciferase activity to 24% of the control
(Fig. 2B). Further truncation from nucleotide 792 to 373 resulted in a significant decrease in luciferase activity
(p < 0.001) to a level of activity that was 12% of
the control (Fig. 2A). This result suggested the presence of
a positive element between nucleotides 792 and 373. Surprisingly,
inclusion of nucleotides 373-792 not only failed to increase
luciferase activity, but rather decreased luciferase activity (Fig.
2B). Thus, this region appears to modulate regulation of
gene expression in a positive manner through interaction with the first
373 nucleotides of the 3'-UTR, but cannot increase gene expression by
itself. Inclusion of only the first 60 nucleotides of the 3'-UTR of
COX-2 decreased reporter gene activity to 10% of the control (Fig.
2A). This region of the 3'-UTR contains 7 of the 12 AUUUA
consensus sequences, suggesting that the AREs in the 3'-UTR of COX-2
negatively regulate gene expression.
Truncation from the proximal region of the 3'-UTR of COX-2 revealed the
presence of an additional negative element. Removal of the first 60 nucleotides resulted in an increase in luciferase activity to 70% of
the control. This region contains seven AUUUA consensus sequences,
suggesting that they account for the decreased luciferase activity
measured with the construct containing the full-length 3'UTR. However,
truncation to nucleotide 373 or 792 reduced luciferase activity to a
level equivalent to that of the full-length 3'-UTR, and inclusion of
only the terminal 674 nucleotides of the 3'-UTR of COX-2 (nucleotides
1558-2232) caused a significant decrease in luciferase activity to
nearly 5% of the control (Fig. 2B). These results indicate
that additional negative elements are present within the 3'-UTR that
are affected by the "context" in which they are presented. The
terminal region contains three AUUUA consensus sequences, further
supporting a negative role for AREs in the 3'-UTR of COX-2.
Decreased Expression of the Reporter Gene Occurs through Changes in
Both mRNA Stability and Message Translation--
Measurement of
luciferase activity was used to quantitate the amount of reporter
enzyme synthesized by transfected cells. Changes in luciferase activity
could be due to either alterations in message stability or rates of
mRNA translation. To distinguish between these two possibilities,
we measured the steady-state levels of luciferase mRNA using
reverse transcriptase, followed by real-time PCR analysis. In this
technique, the PCR product was measured as it accumulated, allowing for
accurate quantitation of mRNA levels without the ambiguities
associated with traditional reverse transcriptase-PCR. Luciferase
mRNA levels in cells transfected with reporter gene constructs were
normalized to GAPDH mRNA levels and are expressed as a percentage
of luciferase mRNA measured in cells transfected with the
pGL3-control vector (Fig. 3). If loss of
luciferase activity were due to decreased message stability, then we
would observe comparable changes in message levels. If decreased
luciferase were due to inhibition of translation, then we would expect
to measure no change or a disproportionate change in luciferase
mRNA levels.
Comparison of the results from luciferase activity measurements (Fig.
2) and quantitation of luciferase mRNA levels (Fig. 3) indicated
that decreased luciferase expression occurred through multiple
mechanisms. Insertion of the entire 3'-UTR of COX-2 into the 3'-UTR of
luciferase had no effect on steady-state mRNA levels (Fig.
3A, 1-2232 versus pGL3c). Likewise,
luciferase message levels using the reporter construct containing
nucleotides 1-792 were not significantly different compared with the
control. Thus, the decreased luciferase activity measured using these
reporter constructs was presumed to reflect a decreased rate of message
translation. In contrast, inclusion of nucleotides 1-60, 373-792,
792-1384, or 1558-2232 caused a significant and dramatic drop in
luciferase mRNA levels compared with the luciferase gene alone
(pGL3-control) and compared with the construct containing the entire
3'-UTR of COX-2 (nucleotides 1-2232). In most cases, the magnitude of
the decrease in luciferase mRNA levels was nearly equal to the
corresponding decrease in luciferase activity, suggesting that reporter
gene expression with these constructs is strongly dependent on message stability. Truncation of the 3'-UTR to nucleotide 60 lowered luciferase mRNA levels to 30% of the control (Fig. 3A), whereas
luciferase activity decreased further to 10% of the control (Fig.
2A), suggesting both altered message stability and
translational regulation.
To confirm that changes in steady-state luciferase mRNA levels
reflect altered message stability, we directly measured message degradation in cells transfected with three different constructs (Fig.
4). Mesangial cells were transiently
transfected, incubated for 24 h, and treated with actinomycin D to
stop transcription. Luciferase mRNA was measured at various times
after inhibition of transcription. Luciferase message without any COX-2
sequences was very stable and exhibited little or no decay over the
10-h treatment period. Adding the full-length 3'-UTR of COX-2
(nucleotides 1-2232) to the luciferase message had no significant
effect on its stability. In contrast, insertion of the proximal 60 nucleotides of the 3'-UTR of COX-2 into the 3'-UTR of luciferase
mRNA caused a dramatic decrease in message stability. These
findings are in complete agreement with steady-state mRNA
measurements.
The results presented above suggest that various regions of the 3'-UTR
of COX-2 regulate gene expression by altering message stability and/or
translational efficiency. Table I shows
the ratio of luciferase mRNA levels and luciferase activity levels in cells expressing the various reporter constructs. This quotient reflects the relative contribution of translation and message stability
to the regulation of reporter gene activity. A larger number indicates
that a greater contribution of message translation occurred, and the
closer the ratio is to 1, the greater the dependence of reporter gene
expression was on message stability. Cells expressing reporter
constructs containing regions 1-2232 and 1-60 had the highest ratio
of mRNA levels to luciferase activity, indicating a strong effect
on message translation. Reporter constructs containing regions 1-373,
60-2232, 792-2232, 1558-2232, 792-1384, and 373-792 of the 3'-UTR
of COX-2 expressed luciferase mRNA at levels that corresponded to
an equivalent change in luciferase activity. Accordingly, these
constructs had ratios nearly equal to 1, suggesting that the loss of
reporter expression is due to decreased message stability. Results from
the other constructs generated ratios that fell in between these
extremes, suggesting a mixed effect on both message stability and
message translation.
Translational Regulation Occurs in Vitro--
Comparison of
luciferase activity and mRNA measurements suggested that insertion
of the entire 3'-UTR of COX-2 into the 3'-UTR of luciferase altered
reporter gene expression by decreasing translational efficiency. To
directly measure changes in translational efficiency, we tested the
ability of the 3'-UTR of COX-2 to alter message expression using an
in vitro translation assay. Luciferase mRNA levels in
cells transfected with the luciferase vector alone (pGL3-control) or
with the luciferase vector containing the entire 3'-UTR of COX-2
(nucleotides 1-2232) were comparable (Fig. 3); and therefore, decreased translational efficiency would be directly correlated with
decreased luciferase activity when using equal amounts of total RNA.
Total RNA isolated from cells transfected with these two constructs was
translated using a wheat germ lysate and assayed for luciferase
activity. Luciferase activity measured following in vitro
translation of RNA isolated from cells transfected with the reporter
construct containing the full-length 3'-UTR was 27% of that measured
with RNA from control cells (Fig. 5).
This was similar to the luciferase activity measured in cell lysates
(32%) and corroborated the indirect measurement of translational
regulation in cultured cells. The fact that alterations in translation
were observed in an in vitro system suggests that the
ability to decrease message translational efficiency is inherent to the
structure of the 3'-UTR of COX-2.
IL-1
Expression of the reporter gene in rat primary mesangial cells was
similar to the results obtained with the murine cell line (Fig.
6). Insertion of the entire 3'-UTR of
COX-2 into the 3'-UTR of luciferase resulted in a decrease in
luciferase activity to 25% of the control. Luciferase activity
decreased to 16 and 15% using constructs containing 3'-UTR regions
bounded by nucleotides 1-373 and 1-60, respectively (Fig. 6). These
results are in good agreement with the results obtained using murine
mesangial cells. However, treatment with IL-1 Conserved ARE sequences have been identified within the 3'-UTR of
many short-lived messages that provide signals that regulate message
stability (41-47). The 3'-UTR of COX-2 is AU-rich and contains multiple copies of an AUUUA consensus sequence that are implicated in
regulating post-transcriptional events. Several investigators have
shown that insertion of the 3'-UTR of COX-2 within the 3'-UTR of a
reporter gene alters its expression and that the ARE-containing region
is crucial for this response (35-37, 39). The majority of the AREs are
located in the proximal portion of the 3'-UTR of COX-2. This region is
highly conserved in mammalian species and contains a cluster of six or
seven AUUUA sequences. The data presented here show that in addition to
these conserved AREs, the 3'-UTR of COX-2 contains novel regulatory
elements that are important for the expression of a chimeric reporter gene.
The ability of distinct regions of the 3'-UTR of COX-2 to alter
reporter gene expression through both message stability and translational efficiency is summarized in Fig.
7. Regions of the 3'-UTR that caused a
decrease in steady-state luciferase mRNA levels imply the presence
of elements that alter message stability. Comparison of steady-state
mRNA levels and rates of message decay for representative reporter
constructs corroborated this implication. Regions that cause changes in
luciferase activity, not accompanied by a similar decrease in message
levels, reflect regulatory elements that alter translational
efficiency. Although this constitutes an indirect measurement of
translational rates, this interpretation was supported by the fact that
the full-length 3'-UTR (nucleotides 1-2232) caused a comparable
decrease in translational efficiency measured in vitro.
INTRODUCTION
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
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DISCUSSION
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and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (16-18, 34).
The cellular mechanism of IL-1
signaling in renal mesangial cells,
although not yet fully defined, includes activation of both JNK and p38
MAPK signaling pathways (18). Blocking either of these pathways
attenuates the IL-1
-induced expression of COX-2 protein and reduces
COX-2 mRNA levels. It is believed that increased COX-2 expression
is due to regulation of both transcriptional and post-transcriptional
events. We have previously shown that IL-1
increases the half-life
of COX-2 mRNA and is associated with the induction of RNA-binding
proteins that interact with sequences in the 3'-UTR of COX-2 (34).
These binding proteins interact with the first 150 nucleotides of the
3'-UTR, which contains highly conserved adenosine- and uridine-rich
elements (AREs). The results support a critical role for the AREs of
COX-2 in IL-1
-dependent gene expression in mesangial
cells. Thus, it appears that a common mechanism for control of gene
expression by MAPK signaling pathways is through post-transcriptional
gene regulation, which requires the 3'-UTR of the target gene.
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
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and DNase I were purchased from Roche
Molecular Biochemicals. The wheat germ in vitro translation
kit was from Ambion Inc. (Austin, TX).
(100 units/ml). All experiments were
performed with confluent cells and used at passages 3-6.
containing DNA that encodes the 3'-UTR of murine COX-2 was generated as
previously described (34). Various regions of the DNA were amplified by
PCR using primers terminating in an XbaI recognition
sequence. PCR products were ligated into the TOPO TA cloning vector
(Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) and subsequently excised with
XbaI. DNA fragments were purified by agarose gel electrophoresis and extracted using a Geneclean III kit (BIO 101, Inc.,
Vista, CA). DNA inserts were ligated into the unique XbaI site of the pGL3-control vector, located in the 3'-UTR of the firefly
luciferase gene.
Leu and Master
Mix
Met (a mixture of all the amino acids except the one indicated),
100 mM potassium acetate, and 4-8 µg of total RNA in
total volume of 50 µl. Reactions were incubated for 60 min at
30 °C and stopped by placing tubes on ice. Duplicate samples
containing 20 µl of the translation reaction were assayed for
luciferase activity using the luciferase assay described above. The
amount of translated protein is expressed as luciferase activity normalized to total RNA content.
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Fig. 1.
Structure of reporter gene constructs.
Various regions of the 3'-UTR of COX-2 were inserted between the
luciferase gene coding region and the SV40 late poly(A) signal. The
luciferase gene is indicated by the shaded bars, and the
region of the 3'-UTR is represented by the black bars. The
numbers on the left indicate the nucleotides of the 3'-UTR
included in the chimeric message. Numbering starts at the first
nucleotide beyond the stop codon for COX-2. Transcription was under the
control of the SV40 promoter (not shown). The locations of AUUUA
sequences is indicated by asterisks.
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Fig. 2.
Inclusion of sequences from the 3'-UTR of
COX-2 in the chimeric reporter message causes a decrease in luciferase
activity. Mouse mesangial cells were transiently transfected with
reporter gene constructs, incubated for 24 h, and assayed for
luciferase activity. A, luciferase activity results using
constructs containing serial deletions from the distal end of the
3'-UTR; B, luciferase activity results using constructs
containing serial deletions from the proximal end of the 3'-UTR and
constructs containing internal regions of the 3'-UTR of COX-2.
Luciferase activity was normalized to total cell protein and is
expressed as a percentage of activity measured in cells transfected
with the luciferase gene without COX-2 3'-UTR sequences (pGL3-control
(pGL3c)). Results are the means ± S.E. for 5-23
independent experiments, each measured in duplicate. a = significantly different from pGL3-control, p < 0.001; b = significantly different from pGL3-control,
p < 0.05; c = significantly different
from construct 1-2232, p < 0.001; d = significantly different from construct 1-2232, p < 0.01.
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Fig. 3.
Various sequences from the 3'-UTR of COX-2
cause a decrease in chimeric reporter gene message levels. Mouse
mesangial cells were transiently transfected with reporter gene
constructs and incubated for 24 h, and total RNA was extracted.
RNA was reverse-transcribed and assayed for luciferase and GAPDH
cDNAs using TaqMan real-time quantitative PCR. Luciferase message
levels were normalized to GAPDH mRNA and are expressed as a
percentage of the message level measured in cells transfected with
luciferase gene without COX-2 sequences (pGL3-control
(pGL3c)). A, luciferase mRNA levels using
constructs containing serial deletions from the distal end of the
3'-UTR; B, luciferase message levels using constructs
containing serial deletions from the proximal end of the 3'-UTR and
constructs containing internal regions of the 3'-UTR of COX-2. Results
are the means ± S.E. for three to six independent experiments,
each measured in duplicate. a = significantly different
from pGL3-control, p < 0.001; b = significantly different from pGL3-control, p < 0.01;
c = significantly different from pGL3-control,
p < 0.05; d = significantly different
from construct 1-2232, p < 0.005; e = significantly different from construct 1-2232, p < 0.05.
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Fig. 4.
Decrease in steady-state mRNA levels is
due to altered rates of message degradation. Mouse mesangial cells
were transiently transfected with reporter gene constructs and
incubated for 24 h. At this point (time = 0 h), cells
were treated with actinomycin D (10 µg/ml of culture medium), and the
incubation was resumed. Total RNA was extracted after various times of
treatment. RNA was reverse-transcribed and assayed for luciferase and
GAPDH cDNAs using TaqMan real-time quantitative PCR. Luciferase
message levels were normalized to GAPDH mRNA and are expressed as a
percentage of levels measured at the 0-h time point. Data points with
error bars represent the means ± S.E. for five
independent experiments.
Comparison of message and enzymatic activity levels of chimeric
reporter gene constructs
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Fig. 5.
The full-length 3'-UTR of COX-2 inhibits
message translation in vitro. RNA isolated from
mesangial cells transfected with reporter constructs containing
luciferase alone (pGL3-control) or luciferase fused to the full-length
3'-UTR of COX-2 (nucleotides 1-2232) were translated in
vitro using a wheat germ lysate. The translation product was
determined by assaying luciferase activity. Results are expressed as a
percentage of activity measured in cells transfected with pGL3-control
and are shown in comparison with luciferase activity measured in cell
lysates (in vivo translation). Results are the means ± S.E. for three independent experiments, each measured in
duplicate.
Fails to Regulate Luciferase Expression--
We have
previously shown that rat primary mesangial cells express COX-2 at high
levels in response to IL-1
(16-18, 34). Cytoplasmic extracts
derived from these treated cells exhibit an
IL-1
-dependent RNA gel shift using the 3'-UTR of murine
COX-2 as the target sequence (34). It has been suggested that IL-1
induces phosphorylation of cytosolic proteins that bind to the 3'-UTR
of COX-2 and stabilize the message (34). We wanted to determine whether
IL-1
regulates expression of the reporter gene constructs described
above. If the 3'-UTR of COX-2 were sufficient for post-transcriptional
regulation, then we would expect IL-1
to reverse the decrease in
message stability and translational efficiency, resulting in an
increase in measured luciferase activity.
for 24 h failed
to reverse the negative regulation of reporter gene expression due to
sequences within the 3'-UTR of COX-2 (Fig. 6), such that luciferase
activity was indistinguishable from that measured in untreated cells.
The inability to measure regulation of reporter gene expression by
IL-1
under our conditions may be due to the fact that additional
message sequences are required to fully restore IL-1
regulation.
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Fig. 6.
The 3'-UTR of COX-2 fails to confer
IL-1 -dependent regulation in rat
mesangial cells. Rat primary mesangial cells were transfected with
the indicated reporter gene constructs, treated with (hatched
bars) and without (black bars) IL-1
(100 units/ml) for 24 h, and assayed for luciferase activity.
Luciferase activity was normalized to cell protein and is expressed as
a percentage of activity measured in cells transfected with luciferase
alone (pGL3-control (pGL3c)). Results are the means ± S.E. for four independent experiments, each measured in
duplicate.
DISCUSSION
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
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Fig. 7.
Multiple control elements are found in the
3'-UTR of COX-2. Regions of the 3'-UTR of COX-2 that decreased
reporter gene mRNA levels to at least 30% of the control are
indicated as stability control elements. The region bounded by
nucleotides 1-60 caused a decrease in luciferase activity that was
3-fold greater than the decrease in luciferase mRNA and is
designated as a translational control element. All other constructs
exhibiting translational control of reporter gene expression contain
this region, except for the construct containing nucleotides 373-2232.
Truncation of this construct to nucleotides 792-2232 abolished the
translational regulation, suggesting a second translational control
element between nucleotides 373 and 792. Accordingly, this region is
indicated to contain both a translational and stability control
element.
Other investigators have shown that the 3'-UTR of COX-2 can regulate gene expression. However, depending on the system and species of study, the sequences required for reporter gene regulation and the ability of extracellular signals to modify reporter gene expression were highly variable. In our hands, insertion of the entire 3'-UTR of COX-2 into the reporter gene 3'-UTR had no effect on either message degradation or steady-state mRNA levels. We found that the decay of luciferase reporter mRNA was very slow, similar to that reported by Balmer et al. (48). The inability of the full-length 3'-UTR of COX-2 to confer instability to a transiently transfected reporter gene was also reported by Dixon et al. (37). Interestingly, this same group was able to demonstrate destabilization of a luciferase reporter gene by the 3'-UTR of COX-2 when using stably transfected cell lines. Similarly, Xu et al. (38) were able to demonstrate that sequences from the 3'-UTR of COX-2 cause a change in the half-life of luciferase message expressed in stably transfected rat smooth muscle cells. These apparently contradictory results may be due to cell-specific differences in message degradation or may reflect the inability of the cell to degrade higher levels of reporter message in transiently transfected cells compared with stably transfected cells.
Clearly, one region of the 3'-UTR that is crucial for regulating expression of COX-2 is the proximal 60-150 nucleotides. Several groups of investigators have shown that this region can decrease the message stability of a normally stable reporter gene (6, 35, 37). Additionally, Dixon et al. (37) were able to demonstrate that a 116-nucleotide region bearing the conserved AREs from human COX-2 message can regulate message translation in transiently transfected cells. What we have shown is that the 3'-UTR region contained within nucleotides 1-60 caused a significant decrease in message stability, determined by measuring both message decay and steady-state mRNA levels. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that this region of the 3'-UTR also caused a decrease in translational efficiency. This represents the first report that this region can regulate both message stability and translation in a single cell system. Deletion of this region alone resulted in a dramatic increase in activity and no increase in message levels, indicating a loss of translational silencing. Therefore, it is likely that this region accounts for the majority of the translational effects measured with the other constructs, including the reporter construct containing the full-length 3'-UTR.
In addition to the highly conserved proximal region of the 3'-UTR of COX-2, we have identified other regions of the 3'-UTR that altered gene expression. Serial deletions from the proximal end of the 3'-UTR resulted in a steady decrease in luciferase mRNA levels. The strongest destabilizing effect was measured using the construct containing nucleotides 1558-2232. Gou et al. (35) showed that insertion of the entire 3'-UTR of human COX-2 downstream of the luciferase coding region causes a strong reduction in luciferase activity when expressed in human endothelial cells. Truncation of ~600 bases from the distal end results in a chimeric message that is nearly as stable as the luciferase gene alone, indicating removal of a negative regulatory element. The area deleted completely overlaps with nucleotides 1559-2232 of the murine 3'-UTR used in our study, supporting the idea that this region is important for regulating message stability across species. A recent report evaluating the ability of the 3'-UTR of rat COX-2 to regulate chimeric message stability identified a region in the very distal portion of the 3'-UTR that significantly decreases message half-life (38). Alignment of this rat sequence and the murine sequence used in our study indicates that this regulatory region is beyond the sequences contained in our full-length 3'-UTR; and therefore, it is not known whether similar regulation occurs in the mouse mesangial cell system.
Much emphasis has been placed on the role of the AREs in the 3'-UTR of COX-2 in regulating message stability. We identified four regions of the 3'-UTR of murine COX-2 that strongly decreased message stability (Fig. 7). The distal region (nucleotides 1558-2232) caused the largest decrease in luciferase activity and an equal decrease in mRNA levels. This region also contains 3 of the 12 ARE consensus sequences that may be critical for message destabilization. The region within nucleotides 373-792 contains a single AUUUA motif, and the region containing the majority of the ARE sequences (nucleotides 1-60) caused a 70% reduction in message level, but also exhibited the strongest ability to regulate translation. The central region (nucleotides 792-1384) is unique in that it conferred a strong destabilizing effect, but contains no ARE sequence. Thus, the ability to cause message instability is not strictly associated with ARE consensus sequences, and the region between nucleotides 792 and 1384 contains a novel instability element.
The identification of specific regions of the 3'-UTR of COX-2 that
alter the expression of a chimeric message increases our understanding
of how mesangial cells regulate COX-2 expression. However, these
sequences were not sufficient to confer regulation of luciferase
expression in response to treatment with IL-1. This result suggests
that other regions of the COX-2 message are required for
IL-1
-dependent post-transcriptional regulation. Similar
results were found studying the expression of IL-2 in response to
T-cell activation (19). In this case, regions within the 3'-UTR were
able to cause a decrease in reporter gene half-life, but sequences
within the 5'-UTR and the coding region were required to confer
regulation of reporter gene expression following activation. Whether
the 5'-UTR of COX-2 plays a role in regulating gene expression is not
known and merits additional investigation.
The results presented here support the role of the 3'-UTR
of COX-2 in regulating COX-2 production, both through altered message stability and translational efficiency. Separating various regions of
the 3'-UTR and assigning unique functions to isolated sequences provide
essential tools to further understand how individual regions of a
single transcript contribute to its overall expression.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank Drs. I. Boime and L. Olson for helpful discussions and critical reading of the manuscript.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported by United States Public Health Service Awards DK 50606 and DK 09976.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
To whom correspondence should be addressed: Barnes Jewish
Hospital, 822 Yalem Research Bldg., 216 South Kingshighway, St. Louis,
MO 63110. Tel.: 314-454-8495; Fax: 314-454-8430; E-mail: Morrison@pcg.wustl.edu.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, April 9, 2001, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M008461200
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ABBREVIATIONS |
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The abbreviations used are: COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; JNK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase; 3'-UTR, 3'-untranslated region; IL, interleukin; ARE, adenosine- and uridine-rich element; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; GAPDH, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase.
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