From the Departments of Biochemistry, ¶ Cell
Biology, and
Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine,
Nashville, Tennessee 37232, the
Department
of Anatomy and Physiology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville,
Tennessee 37208, and the ** Pacific Northwest Research Institute,
Seattle, Washington 98122
Received for publication, September 19, 2000, and in revised form, November 17, 2000
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ABSTRACT |
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In cultured vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC),
the vasculotrophic factor, angiotensin II (AngII) activates three major
MAPKs via the Gq-coupled AT1 receptor.
Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation by AngII
requires Ca2+-dependent "transactivation"
of the EGF receptor that may involve a metalloprotease to stimulate
processing of an EGF receptor ligand from its precursor. Whether EGF
receptor transactivation also contributes to activation of other
members of MAPKs such as p38MAPK and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) by
AngII remains unclear. In the present study, we have examined the
effects of a synthetic metalloprotease inhibitor BB2116, and the EGF
receptor kinase inhibitor AG1478 on AngII-induced activation of MAPKs
in cultured VSMC. BB2116 markedly inhibited ERK activation induced by
AngII or the Ca2+ ionophore A23187 without affecting the
activation by EGF or PDGF. BB2116 as well as HB-EGF neutralizing
antibody inhibited the EGF receptor transactivation by AngII,
suggesting a critical role of HB-EGF in the
metalloprotease-dependent EGF receptor transactivation. In
addition to the ERK activation, activation of p38MAPK and JNK by AngII
was inhibited by an AT1 receptor antagonist, RNH6270. A23187 and EGF markedly activate p38MAPK, whereas A23187 but not EGF
markedly activates JNK, indicating the possible contribution of the EGF
receptor transactivation to the p38MAPK activation. The findings that
both BB2116 and AG1478 specifically inhibited activation of p38MAPK but
not JNK by AngII support this hypothesis. From these data, we conclude
that ERK and p38MAPK activation by AngII requires the
metalloprotease-dependent EGF receptor transactivation, whereas the JNK activation is regulated without involvement of EGF
receptor transactivation.
Angiotensin II (AngII),1
the major bioactive peptide of the renin-angiotensin system, plays a
fundamental role, not only in controlling cardiovascular and renal
homeostasis but also contributing to various cardiovascular diseases
such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, and heart failure. In addition
to the anti-hypertensive effects, both AngII-converting enzyme
inhibitors and AngII type-1 (AT1) receptor antagonists
appear to exert tissue-protective effects against these diseases.
Therefore, the growth-stimulating activity of the AT1
receptor likely contributes to the progression of cardiovascular remodeling (1-3). In vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC), AngII is
believed to transmit its growth-promoting signal through activation of
tyrosine kinases (4-7) that may involve PYK2 (8-10), c-Src (11), JAK2
(12), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)- We have reported that Ca2+-dependent
transactivation of the EGF receptor (EGFR) through the AT1
receptor is essential for the activation of downstream Ser/Thr kinases
(ERK, Akt/protein kinase B, and p70 S6 kinase), and subsequent c-Fos
induction and protein synthesis by AngII in cultured rat VSMC (14-16).
Thus, the EGFR transactivation could play a central role in
AngII-mediated vascular remodeling. This new concept of a G
protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling, originally reported in Rat1
fibroblasts (17), is now supported by a similar transactivation of the
EGFR by a variety of GPCRs in many cells (18-20). Several mechanisms
involving an upstream tyrosine kinase, reactive oxygen species, and
metalloprotease(s) have been proposed for the transactivation of EGFR
by GPCRs (7, 18-22). Although it has proven difficult to detect
GPCR-induced release of endogenous EGFR ligands (14, 22, 23), the
metalloprotease-dependent shedding of heparin-binding
EGF-like growth factor (HB-EGF) (22) is an attractive mechanism of the
EGFR transactivation in VSMC. This is because HB-EGF is a major
EGF-like growth factor synthesized in VSMC, is a potent mitogenic and
chemotactic factor for VSMC, and is implicated in the pathogenesis of
atherosclerosis and restenosis following balloon injury (24).
The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK) and c-Jun N-terminal
kinase (JNK) are members of MAPKs that are preferentially stimulated by
environmental stresses and inflammatory cytokines. Like ERK, these
stress-activated MAPKs phosphorylate specific subsets of
transcriptional factors, thereby regulating cellular processes of
inflammation, proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and/or
survival (25-27). They also are likely to play critical roles in
cardiovascular disease (27, 28). Indeed, AngII has recently been shown
to activate both p38MAPK (29) and JNK (30) in cultured VSMC. The
p38MAPK may positively regulate VSMC growth induced by AngII (29),
whereas JNK was activated in a balloon-injured artery that could be
inhibited by an AT1 antagonist (31). Thus, there is
considerable interest in defining the signal transduction pathways by
which AngII activates these stress-activated MAPKs. In the present
study, we have examined the hypothesis that a
metalloprotease-dependent EGFR transactivation regulates
p38MAPK and/or JNK activation by AngII in VSMC. Here we report several
lines of evidence indicating that, in addition to ERK, AngII-induced
p38MAPK activation requires the metalloprotease-dependent
EGFR transactivation, which may involve HB-EGF processing, whereas JNK
activation is not mediated by the metalloprotease-dependent system.
Reagents and Antibodies--
AngII and phorbol 12-myristate
13-acetate (PMA) were obtained from Sigma Chemical Co. AG1478,
PD158780, A23187, and anisomycin were obtained from Calbiochem. The
metalloprotease inhibitors BB2116 and BB94 were kindly provided by Dr.
Helen Mills (British Biotech). RNH-6270 (32), the active form of a
prodrug type AT1 antagonist CS-866, was a gift from Sankyo
Co., Ltd. EGF, PDGF-BB, and antibodies to phosphotyrosine and JAK2 were
obtained from Upstate Biotechnology. The antibodies directed to
Tyr204-phosphorylated ERK1/2, ERK2, JNK2 p38MAPK, and EGFR
were obtained from Santa Cruz Biotechnology. The antibody directed to
Thr180/Tyr182-dually phosphorylated p38MAPK was
obtained from New England BioLabs. The antibody directed to
Thr183/Tyr185-dually phosphorylated JNK was
obtained from Promega Inc. The antibody directed to
Tyr1007/Tyr1008-dually phosphorylated JAK2 was
obtained from BIOSOURCE International. Anti-PYK2
antibody was obtained from BD Transduction Laboratories. A neutralizing
antibody to human HB-EGF was obtained from R & D Systems Inc. The
anti-human HB-EGF antibody for immunoblotting was kindly provided by
Dr. Judith A. Abraham (Scios Inc).
Cell Culture--
VSMC were prepared from the thoracic aorta of
Harlan Sprague-Dawley rats by the explant method and cultured in
Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium containing 10% fetal calf serum
as previously described (33). In all experiments, subcultured VSMC from
passages 3-10 were used and showed >99% positive immunostaining of
smooth muscle Immunoprecipitation--
After stimulation, cells were lysed
with ice-cold immunoprecipitation buffer (50 mM HEPES, pH
7.5, 50 mM NaCl, 1% Triton X-100, 1 mM EDTA,
10 mM sodium pyrophosphate, 1 mM
Na3VO4, 30 mM
2-(p-nitrophenyl) phosphate, 100 mM NaF, 10%
glycerol, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 1 mM
phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 10 µg/ml leupeptin, and 10 µg/ml
aprotinin). Lysates were centrifuged at 14,000 × g for
5 min, and the supernatant was immunoprecipitated with the antibody and
protein A/G-agarose for 16 h at 4 °C as described previously
(14).
Immunoblotting--
Cell lysates or immunocomplex lysates were
subjected to SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and immunoblotted
using an ECL detection kit (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) as described
previously (14).
Measurement of Intracellular Ca2+--
Fura-2 was
used to monitor changes in intracellular Ca2+ concentration
using a previously described procedure (35). After incubation in
serum-free medium for 48 h, cells were trypsinized, incubated with
4 µM fura-2 acetoxymethylester for 30 min at 37 °C in
Krebs-Ringer HEPES solution (20 mM HEPES, pH 7.4, 130 mM NaCl, 5 mM KCl, 1 mM
MgCl2, 1.5 mM CaCl2, 10 mM glucose, 0.1% bovine serum albumin), and resuspended to
2 × 106 cells/ml. Measurements of fluorescence were
made at 37 °C using a SPEX dual wavelength fluorometer (excitation
at 340 and 380 nm; emission at 510 nm).
Measurement of Soluble HB-EGF Generation--
After cell-surface
proteins of human VSMC were biotinylated by 1 mg/ml Sulfo-NHS-LC-biotin
(Pierce) for 30 min at 4 °C in Hanks' balanced salt solution, VSMC
were rinsed and incubated in the cultured medium for 30 min at 37 °C
and stimulated with or without AngII. Culture medium was collected and
precipitated with immobilized streptavidin-agarose (Pierce), and
immunoblotted with anti-human-HB-EGF antibody.
Reproducibility of the Results--
Unless stated otherwise,
results are representative of at least three experiments giving similar results.
Specific Inhibition of AngII-induced ERK Activation by BB2116, a
Metalloprotease Inhibitor--
A recent study indicates that the
transactivation of EGFR by several GPCR agonists requires pro-HB-EGF
processing that can be blocked by a synthetic metalloprotease
inhibitor, BB94 (22). We have shown that AngII mainly activates ERK
through the EGFR transactivation in VSMC (14). To determine whether
this cascade involves metalloprotease activation, the effect of two
hydroxamic acid-based metalloprotease inhibitors BB2116 and BB94 on
AngII-induced ERK activation was examined in cultured rat VSMC. As
shown in Fig. 1 (A and
B), BB2116 markedly and
concentration-dependently inhibited AngII-induced ERK1/2
activation as assessed by their phosphorylation. By contrast, BB2116
had no effect on ERK activation induced by EGF or PDGF-BB (Fig.
1B). BB94 also inhibited AngII-induced ERK activation in
VSMC to a similar extent as BB2116 (Fig. 1C).
The EGFR transactivation and subsequent ERK activation by AngII require
intracellular Ca2+ elevation through the
Gq-coupled AT1 receptor but not protein kinase
C (PKC) (14, 34). In agreement with our previous observations (14, 34),
ERK activation by the Ca2+ ionophore A23187 was markedly
inhibited by BB2116, whereas PMA-induced ERK activation was minimally
affected (Fig. 2A). BB2116 did
not alter AngII-induced intracellular Ca2+ elevation (Fig.
2B), indicating that the metalloprotease inhibitor had no
effect on AngII binding to the AT1 receptor or subsequent Gq activation. In addition, BB2116 had no effect on
AngII-induced nonreceptor tyrosine kinase activation as assessed by
tyrosine phosphorylation of PYK2 or JAK2 (Fig. 2C).
Involvement of HB-EGF Shedding in AngII-induced EGFR
Transactivation--
As shown in Fig.
3A, AngII-induced EGFR
transactivation was markedly inhibited by BB2116 in rat VSMC. To
determine whether HB-EGF shedding is involved in the transactivation,
the effect of a HB-EGF neutralizing antibody (human specific) was
examined. Pretreatment with the antibody almost completely inhibited
AngII-induced EGFR transactivation in cultured human VSMC (Fig.
3B). We next examined the AngII-induced release of
endogenous HB-EGF from VSMC using cell surface biotinylation assay.
However, it proved difficult to detect the release of soluble HB-EGF
from VSMC (data not shown). The inability to biochemically detect
soluble HB-EGF may be due to the low endogenous expression levels of
the ligand, and this may be further exacerbated in the presence of
functional EGFRs, which bind and internalize the ligand (36).
Alternatively, it could be due to cleaved HB-EGF remaining associated
with the heparan sulfate proteoglycan matrix, preventing the immediate
release of the mature growth factor into the conditioned medium. Taken together, these data suggest that processing of HB-EGF as a
cell-associated ligand by a BB2116-sensitive metalloprotease may be an
essential component for the EGFR transactivation and subsequent ERK
activation induced by AngII.
AngII Activates p38MAPK and JNK through the AT1
Receptor in VSMC--
Cultured rat VSMC is an interesting model where
a GPCR agonist, AngII, can activate three major MAPKs (ERK, JNK, and
p38MAPK) (29, 30, 34). We measured the activation of these MAPKs by
immunoblotting with their phospho-specific antibodies. This method
allows us to assess activation of these different MAPKs on the same
membrane. AngII stimulated p38MAPK phosphorylation starting at 5 min,
and it peaked at 10 min, which resembled its time course of ERK
activation in VSMC. AngII also activated JNK. It peaked at 30 min as
assessed by p54 JNK phosphorylation (Fig. 4A). For longer exposure of
the membrane, we observed a similar phosphorylation pattern of p46 JNK
(data not shown). These data are comparable with previous publications
in which MAPKs activation by AngII in VSMC was measured by kinase
activities (37).
VSMC normally express Gq-coupled AT1 receptors
but not AT2 receptors. As expected, AngII-induced
activation of these MAPKs is completely inhibited by the selective
AT1 receptor antagonist RNH6270 (32) (Fig. 4, B
and C), indicating that AngII activates these MAPKs solely
through the AT1 receptor in VSMC.
Agonist-selective Activation of ERK, p38MAPK, and JNK in
VSMC--
To define the signaling relay leading to p38MAPK and JNK
activation by AngII, we compared the respective time courses of their activation by AngII with those by PMA, A23187, PDGF, or EGF. PMA
preferentially activated ERK, whereas A23187 markedly activated all
three MAPKs (Fig. 5A). PDGF
and EGF markedly activated p38MAPK and ERK, whereas JNK was markedly
activated by PDGF but not by EGF (Fig. 5B). These
differences may be due to different effects of PDGF and EGF on
intracellular Ca2+ concentration, because PDGF, but not
EGF, elevated Ca2+ concentration in VSMC (Fig.
5C). These data suggest that the Ca2+-dependent EGFR transactivation by AngII
could also signal to p38MAPK as well as ERK. In contrast, JNK
activation by AngII may require a distinct Ca2+ effector
other than the EGFR.
Metalloprotease Inhibitor and EGFR Kinase Inhibitor Suppressed
p38MAPK Activation but Not JNK Activation by AngII--
To define
whether the metalloprotease-dependent EGFR transactivation
participates in AngII-induced p38MAPK activation, effects of BB2116,
BB94, and the selective EGFR kinase inhibitor AG1478 on AngII-induced
activation of p38MAPK and JNK were studied. As shown in Fig.
6 (A and B), BB2116
markedly inhibited AngII-induced p38MAPK phosphorylation, whereas it
had no effect on the JNK phosphorylation. AngII-induced p38MAPK
activation was similarly inhibited by pretreatment with BB94 (Fig.
6C). The HB-EGF neutralizing antibody also markedly inhibited AngII-induced p38MAPK activation in cultured human VSMC (Fig.
6D). Moreover, two different EGFR kinase inhibitors, AG1478 as well as PD158780, markedly inhibited both AngII- and EGF-induced p38MAPK phosphorylation, whereas they had no significant effect on the
activation by the well-known p38MAPK agonist, anisomycin (Fig.
7A). Consistent with our
previous publications (14), AngII-induced ERK activation was also
markedly inhibited by AG1478. By contrast, AngII-induced JNK activation
was not affected by the EGFR inhibitor (Fig. 7B). These data
strongly indicate that, in addition to ERK activation, the
metalloprotease-dependent EGFR transactivation involving
HB-EGF shedding mediates the p38MAPK activation by AngII in VSMC.
The major finding of the present study is that AngII-stimulated
ERK and p38MAPK activation requires
metalloprotease-dependent EGFR transactivation in cultured
VSMC, whereas JNK activation does not. In addition, studies using a
neutralizing HB-EGF antibody suggest that processing of HB-EGF by the
AngII-induced metalloprotease activation is involved in the EGFR
transactivation. These data will provide new insight into the signaling
mechanism by which AngII orchestrates several transcriptional events
that contribute to vascular remodeling as illustrated in Fig.
8.
INTRODUCTION
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
receptor (13), and the
epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor (14).
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-actin antibody. The expression of AT1 but
not AT2 was confirmed as previously described (34).
Cultured human aortic VSMC were obtained from Clonetics, and
subcultured according to the manufacture's manual. Cells at ~80%
confluence in culture wells were made quiescent by serum deprivation
for 3 days prior to treatment.
RESULTS
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ABSTRACT
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
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DISCUSSION
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Fig. 1.
AngII-induced ERK activation in VSMC requires
metalloprotease. A, VSMC were pretreated with 10 µM BB2116 or its solvent dimethyl sulfoxide
(DMSO, 0.1%) for 30 min, and then stimulated with AngII
(100 nM) for indicated durations. B, after
pretreatment with or without indicated doses of BB2116 for 30 min, VSMC
were stimulated with AngII (100 nM), EGF (100 ng/ml), or
PDGF-BB (100 ng/ml) for 10 min. C, after pretreatment with
or without 10 µM BB94 for 30 min, VSMC were stimulated
with 100 nM AngII for 10 min. Immunoblotting was performed
with anti-phospho-ERK antibody (upper panels). The same
blots were stripped and reprobed with anti-ERK2 antibody showing equal
loading and confirming the specificity of the signal detected with the
phosphopeptide antibody (lower panels).
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Fig. 2.
Involvement of metalloprotease in the
Ca2+-dependent ERK activation but not in the
AngII-induced nonreceptor tyrosine kinase activation.
A, VSMC were pretreated with or without BB2116 (10 µM) for 30 min and stimulated with A23187 (10 µM) or PMA (1 µM) for 10 min. Cell lysates
were analyzed by immunoblotting with antibodies as indicated.
B, VSMC were pretreated with BB2116 (10 µM) or
its solvent dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, 0.1%) for 30 min and
stimulated with AngII (100 nM) at 100 s. Intracellular
Ca2+ concentration was determined. Results shown are
representative of three separate experiments. C, VSMC were
pretreated with or without BB2116 (10 µM) for 30 min and
stimulated with 100 nM AngII for 5 min (left
panel) or 10 min (right panel). Cell lysates were
immunoprecipitated with anti-PYK2 antibody and analyzed by
immunoblotting with antibodies as indicated (left panel).
Cell lysates were analyzed by immunoblotting with antibodies as
indicated without prior immunoprecipitation (right
panel).
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Fig. 3.
HB-EGF shedding is responsible for the EGFR
transactivation by AngII. A, rat VSMC were pretreated
with or without BB2116 (10 µM) for 30 min and stimulated
with AngII (100 nM) for 3 min. B, human VSMC
were pretreated with HB-EGF neutralizing antibody (40 µg/ml) for
1 h and stimulated with AngII (100 nM) for 3 min. Cell
lysates were immunoprecipitated with anti-EGFR antibody and analyzed by
immunoblotting with antibodies as indicated.
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Fig. 4.
AT1 receptor antagonist RNH6270
blocked activation of MAPKs (ERK, JNK, and p38MAPK) by AngII in
VSMC. A, VSMC were stimulated with AngII (100 nM) for indicated durations. B and C,
VSMC were pretreated with or without RNH6270, the active form of a
prodrug type AT1 antagonist, at 1 µM for 30 min, and stimulated with AngII (100 nM) for 10 min
(B) or 30 min (C). Cell lysates were analyzed by
immunoblotting with antibodies as indicated by repeated
reprobing.
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Fig. 5.
Distinct effect of PMA, A23187, PDGF, and EGF
on MAPKs phosphorylation. A, VSMC were stimulated with
PMA (100 nM) or A23187 (10 µM) for indicated
durations. B, VSMC were stimulated with PDGF-BB or EGF (100 ng/ml) for indicated durations. Cell lysates were analyzed by
immunoblotting with antibodies as indicated by repeated reprobing.
C, VSMC were stimulated with PDGF-BB or EGF (100 ng/ml), and
intracellular Ca2+ concentration was determined.
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Fig. 6.
AngII-induced p38MAPK activation but not JNK
activation requires metalloprotease and HB-EGF. A and
B, VSMC were pretreated with 10 µM BB2116 or
its solvent dimethyl sulfoxide (0.1%) for 30 min, and then stimulated
with AngII (100 nM) for 10 min (A) or 30 min
(B). C, VSMC were pretreated with or without 10 µM BB96 for 30 min and then stimulated with AngII (100 nM) for 10 min. D, human VSMC were pretreated
with or without HB-EGF neutralizing antibody (40 µg/ml) for 1 h
and stimulated with AngII (100 nM) for 10 min. Cell lysates
were analyzed by immunoblotting with antibodies as indicated by
repeated reprobing.
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Fig. 7.
Involvement of EGFR in AngII-induced p38MAPK
activation in VSMC. A, VSMC were pretreated with or
without AG1478 (250 nM) or PD158780 (100 nM)
for 30 min, and stimulated with AngII (100 nM), EGF (100 ng/ml), or anisomycin (20 µg/ml) for 10 min. B, VSMC were
pretreated with AG1478 (250 nM) or its solvent dimethyl
sulfoxide (DMSO, 0.1%) for 30 min and stimulated with AngII
(100 nM) for indicated durations. Cell lysates were
analyzed by immunoblotting with antibodies as indicated by repeated
reprobing.
DISCUSSION
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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Fig. 8.
Hypothetical pathways involved in the three
MAPKs activation by AngII in VSMC. According to this model,
activation of ERK and p38MAPK by AngII require Ca2+- and
metalloprotease-dependent HB-EGF shedding leading to
transactivation of the EGFR. In contrast, JNK activation by AngII
requires a different Ca2+ effector.
The transactivation of the EGFR by GPCRs is an important mechanism that may explain cell growth promotion by GPCRs (7, 18-20). Recently, the metalloprotease-dependent generation of HB-EGF has been reported to mediate the EGFR transactivation (22) and ERK activation (38) by certain GPCRs. In COS-7 cells, insulin-like growth factor 1 also induces HB-EGF-dependent EGFR transactivation through a metalloprotease activation (39). In the present study, we have shown that a synthetic metalloprotease inhibitor BB2116 as well as the HB-EGF neutralizing antibody attenuated EGFR transactivation by AngII. The metalloprotease inhibitor BB2116 as well as BB94 also inhibited ERK activation by AngII. The specificity of BB2116 as a synthetic hydroxamate metalloprotease inhibitor that can inhibit processing of membrane-anchored proteins (40-42), including EGFR ligand precursors (43, 44), has been previously published by several researchers, including ourselves. In addition, we have shown that BB2116 had no nonspecific effect on the growth factor receptor signaling (Fig. 1B), the AngII receptor-Gq coupling (Fig. 2B), or AngII-induced nonreceptor tyrosine kinase activation such as PYK2 or JAK2 (Fig. 2C) further supporting the specificity of BB2116. Taken together, we submit that the metalloprotease-dependent processing of pro-HB-EGF is a point of convergence by which several growth-promoting factors activate ERK by the transactivated EGFR from their respective receptors that cannot directly couple to the ERK cascade.
We and others have previously failed to detect the release of endogenous EGFR ligand in response to GPCR agonists (14, 22, 23). Consistent with these findings, we could not detect the release of soluble HB-EGF by AngII in the present study. In general, detection of cell surface processing of endogenous EGFR ligands has proven difficult due to their low levels of expression and the lack of sensitive assays to measure the release of soluble ligands. In the case of GPCR-induced soluble HB-EGF generation, the lack of detection may also be due to cleaved HB-EGF remaining associated with the heparan sulfate proteoglycan matrix, which prevents the immediate release of the growth factor into the conditioned medium. Additionally, AngII-induced EGFR transactivation requires the presence of functional EGFRs, which may immediately bind and internalize the soluble ligand upon its release and therefore greatly decrease the concentration of soluble ligand (36). Despite the inability to detect HB-EGF, our data together with recent findings of GPCR-induced EGFR transactivation reported by other groups (22, 38) suggest that pro-HB-EGF processing occurs in response to GPCR activation at the cell surface.
The activation mechanism and identity of the metalloprotease mediating
the cleavage of pro-HB-EGF leading to the transactivation of EGFR by
AngII remains uncertain. The ADAM (a
disintegrin and metalloprotease)
family of metalloproteases is believed to mediate proteolysis of the
EGFR ligands precursors (45, 46). Among the family, ADAM17/TACE and
ADAM9/MDC9 can be inhibited by hydroxamic acid-based metalloprotease
inhibitors (47-49). ADAM17/TACE has been shown to cleave
pro-transforming growth factor (50). Interestingly, ADAM17/TACE
knockout mice have a phenotype very similar to that observed in EGFR
knockout mice, indicating its possible role in the processing of other
EGFR ligands (50). Recently, ADAM9/MDC9 was shown to mediate
PKC-dependent cleavage of pro-HB-EGF (51). However, the
PKC-dependent metalloprotease does not contribute to the
EGFR transactivation by GPCRs (22), and our present data showed that
BB2116 preferentially inhibited Ca2+-induced but not
PMA-stimulated ERK activation. Additionally, Ca2+ influx
was shown to stimulate HB-EGF release independent from PKC that was
specifically inhibited by the metalloprotease inhibitors (52). These
observations are consistent with our previous observation and by others
that AngII-induced EGFR transactivation is independent of PKC (14, 53)
and requires intracellular Ca2+ elevation (14). The
identification and characterization of the putative
Ca2+-sensitive metalloprotease that is indispensable for
the EGFR transactivation by AngII must await further investigation.
Recently, much progress has been accomplished in defining the signal transduction pathway(s) by which GPCRs activate ERK. However, little is known regarding the mechanism of activation of other MAPKs by GPCRs (19, 54, 55). The present results strongly indicate that the metalloprotease-dependent EGFR activation through HB-EGF generation also contributes to p38MAPK activation in the Gq-coupled AT1 receptor cascade in VSMC. A recent publication implicated an Src family tyrosine kinase in p38MAPK activation by Gq (56). Additionally, p38MAPK activation by AngII in VSMC was shown to involve generation of reactive oxygen species (29). Because we have previously shown the inducible association of EGFR and c-Src by AngII (14) and that c-Src is activated by reactive oxygen species (57), c-Src could be a possible link that connects the transactivated EGFR to p38MAPK in response to AngII in VSMC.
Although we showed that PDGF activates JNK, and AngII has been shown to transactivate PDGF receptor (13), the involvement of PDGF receptor in AngII-induced JNK activation is unlikely, because AngII failed to induce tyrosine phosphorylation of PDGF receptor in our VSMC (14). How does AngII activate JNK in VSMC? A recent study indicated that a Ca2+-sensitive tyrosine kinase mediates the JNK activation by AngII in cultured VSMC (30), and the present study showed that intracellular Ca2+ elevation by AngII is sufficient to activate JNK. Thus, a Ca2+-sensitive tyrosine kinase other than the EGFR (8, 10) is a candidate involved in JNK activation by AngII.
HB-EGF has long been implicated in vascular diseases (24).
Interestingly, the metalloprotease inhibitor BB94 inhibited VSMC migration and DNA synthesis after arterial injury (58). We and others
recently reported that not only AngII (14) but also endothelin (59),
thrombin (38), oxidized low density lipoproteins (60), and mechanical
stretch (61) induce the transactivation of EGFR in cultured VSMC,
suggesting the pathogenic role of the transactivation in vascular
remodeling. Our data presented here connect the extracellular signaling
through metalloprotease-dependent processing of EGFR ligands such as HB-EGF and the transactivation of EGFR by which various
vascular pathogens including AngII exert their function.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank Kunie Eguchi and Trinita Fizgerald for their excellent technical assistance.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported by Research Grants HL58205, HL03220, DK20593, and DK59778 from the National Institutes of Health.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
§ To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232. Tel.: 615-322-4334; Fax: 615-322-3201; E-mail: satoru.eguchi@vanderbilt.edu.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, December 14, 2000, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M008570200
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ABBREVIATIONS |
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The abbreviations used are: AngII, angiotensin II; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; p38MAPK, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase; JNK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase; AT1, angiotensin II type-1 receptor; GPCR, G protein-coupled receptor; EGF, epidermal growth factor; EGFR, EGF receptor; HB-EGF, heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor; PDGF, platelet-derived growth factor; VSMC, vascular smooth muscle cells; PKC, protein kinase C; PMA, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate; ADAM, a disintegrin and metalloprotease.
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