From the Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510
Received for publication, September 15, 2000
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ABSTRACT |
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Mutations at critical residue positions in
transmembrane span 7 (TM7) of the serotonin transporter affect the
Na+ dependence of transport. It was possible that
these residues, which form a stripe along one side of the predicted
The serotonin transporter
(SERT)1 is responsible for
re-uptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin from the synaptic cleft
following neurotransmission. SERT cDNAs have been cloned and
sequenced from a number of species, as well as from several different
human tissues (for reviews, see Refs. 1-3). The DNA and predicted
amino acid sequences of these SERT isoforms are highly homologous, not
only to each other but also to the transporters for the other biogenic amines, dopamine and norepinephrine. The biogenic amine transporters in
turn belong to a larger superfamily of neurotransmitter and bioactive
amine transporters, each of which couples uptake to the transmembrane
Na+ and Cl Our group and others are using site-directed mutagenesis to test these
structural predictions about SERT and its relatives, and to correlate
structural information with the physical mechanisms by which the
Na+ and Cl Recently, we reported the results of random site-directed mutagenesis
on the residues predicted to make up TM7 (14). This study identified a
stripe of functionally important amino acid residues that runs along
one side of the predicted TM7 In the course of the random mutagenesis study, we isolated five mutants
containing cysteine substitutions in TM7: N368C/C369G, F373C,
F377C, F380C, and Y385C/I379V (two mutants contain multiple substitutions due to the random mutagenesis protocol) (14). The
predicted positions of these cysteine substitutions with respect to the
membrane ranged from Asn-368, which is predicted to lie well within the
membrane, to Tyr-385, which is predicted to lie near the end of the
helix and thus might be exposed to the external environment.
Sensitivity to hydrophilic reagents at Tyr-385 might allow us to define
the end of the membrane-spanning helix. Sensitivity at other positions
might indicate the presence of a water-filled pore or, alternatively,
that this region of the protein does not lie buried in the membrane as
predicted by hydropathy analysis. Here we report the results of these
studies, which have led to the conclusion that the critical stripe
residues of TM7 do not form part of a water-filled pore, since they do
not appear to be accessible to hydrophilic MTS reagents. Our results
suggest instead that TM7 is involved in the propagation of
conformational changes occurring after ion binding to the transporter,
perhaps as part of the translocation mechanism. The critical stripe
region is likely to represent a close contact region between TM7 and one or more other TMs.
Materials--
Plasmid DNA was prepared using Qiagen Midiprep
kits (Qiagen, Inc., Valencia, CA.) Restriction fragments were purified
from agarose gels using the Geneclean kit (Bio-101, Inc., Vista, CA). All other reagents were obtained from Sigma unless otherwise indicated.
Construction of New Mutants--
The plasmid pRSTag carries a
cDNA encoding the rat brain serotonin transporter, with the
addition of sequences encoding a c-Myc epitope tag at the N terminus
and a FLAG epitope tag at the C terminus (22). We used site-directed
mutagenesis to add a silent mutation at base pair 1273, creating a new,
unique MfeI restriction site (plasmid pRSTagM). The random
mutants used in this paper were created by polymerase chain
reaction-mediated site-directed mutagenesis, using pRSTagM as a
template (described in detail in Ref. 14). We added the C109A mutation
to selected TM7 mutants by removing a 623-base pair
EcoRV-RsrII fragment, which encodes the N
terminus and TMs 1-3, and replacing it with the equivalent fragment
from the C109A mutant (17). After ligation, colonies were picked and
minipreps prepared using the boiling water lysis method (23). Each
mutant plasmid was screened for the presence or absence of diagnostic
restriction sites, indicating the presence or absence of the desired
mutations. The presence of the C109A mutation was confirmed by the
absence of a native NdeI site, while the TM7 mutations were
confirmed by the presence of the MfeI site, and the absence
or presence of BspMI, SspI, or HindIII
sites as appropriate (also as described in Ref. 14). A large plasmid
preparation of each positive colony was then made and re-tested for the
presence or absence of the screening sites. Plasmid preparations were
also tested with the diagnostic enzymes PvuII and
PstI to detect any major rearrangements, insertions, or
deletions in the SERT cDNA.
Expression of Mutant SERTs--
The expression system used has
been described in detail elsewhere (24-26). Briefly, the plasmid
pRSTagM contains a promoter for T7 RNA polymerase upstream from the rat
brain SERT cDNA. This promoter was used to express wild type and
mutant SERTs in the vaccinia/T7 polymerase/HeLa cell system. HeLa cells
were plated in 48-well plates at 50% confluence and allowed to grow
overnight in DMEM supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 100 units/ml penicillin G, and 100 µg/ml streptomycin sulfate (Life
Technologies, Inc.). The next day they were infected with a vaccinia
virus strain, VTF-7 (25), which makes T7 RNA polymerase (added to the
cells in 50 µl/well DMEM without serum). After a 15-min incubation
with the virus at 37 °C, the cells were transiently transfected with wild type and mutant plasmids (400 ng of plasmid DNA and 1.2 µl of
Lipofectin (Life Technologies, Inc.) per well in 100 µl of DMEM
without serum). Wild type SERT, no plasmid (mock-transfected) controls,
and mutants were each transfected in duplicate wells.
Transport Assays--
[3H]Serotonin transport
assays were carried out the next day between 19 and 24 h after
infection. For the standard assay, cells were washed twice with 200 µl of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS; 137 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 4.3 mM Na2HPO4,
and 1.4 mM KH2PO4, pH 7.3)
containing 0.1 mM CaCl2 and 1 mM
MgCl2 (PBSCM). Transport was measured by incubating the
cells with 14.6 nM [1,2-3H]serotonin
(PerkinElmer Life Sciences; NET-498) in 80 µl of PBSCM for 10 min at room temperature, an interval previously determined to include
only the initial, linear phase of transport. Each well was washed very
quickly three times with 200 µl of ice-cold PBS. The cells were lysed
in 300 µl of 1% SDS, transferred to scintillation vials, and counted
in 3 ml of Optifluor (Packard Instrument Co., Meriden, CT).
Treatment with MTS Reagents--
Mutants were tested for their
sensitivity to the MTS reagents
([2-(trimethylammonium)ethyl]methanethiosulfonate bromide (MTSET) and
sodium (2-sulfonatoethyl)methanethiosulfonate (MTSES); both reagents obtained from Toronto Research Chemicals, Ontario, Canada). Cells were preincubated with these reagents for 10 min at room temperature, in buffer K (1.4 mM
KH2PO4, 4.3 mM
K2HPO4, 0.1 mM CaCl2,
and 1 mM MgCl2, pH 7.5) with the addition of
150 mM NaCl, 150 mM LiCl, or 150 mM
N-methyl-D-glucamine chloride (NMDG-Cl). After
preincubation, each well was washed rapidly three times with 200 µl
of room temperature PBSCM. The third wash was left in the wells until
the transport assay was performed in PBSCM as described above. In
control wells, cells were incubated with the same concentrations of
ions but without MTS reagent. For later experiments in which the
Na+ and Li+ concentrations were varied, NMDG-Cl
was used as a compensating ion to maintain the same total ionic
strength in all wells. In these experiments, the cells were washed
twice with 200 µl of K buffer containing 300 mM NMDG-Cl
before the MTS preincubation. In all experiments, MTS reagents were
freshly weighed out and dissolved in distilled deionized
H2O immediately prior to addition to the cells.
Experiments measuring the Na+ and Li+
dependence of the MTSET reaction were repeated two to four times.
Curves were fitted to obtain K1/2 values using the
Origin plotting program (MicroCal Software, Northampton, MA). The
values reported represent the means and standard deviations of values obtained from several experiments. Figures show representative experiments.
Determination of External Accessibility Using
MTSEA-biotin--
TM7 mutants containing novel cysteines were also
tested for their ability to react with the biotinylating reagent,
MTSEA-biotin (Toronto Research Chemicals). HeLa cells were grown and
transfected as described above except in 12-well plates, with
appropriate scaling up of DNA and other reagents. Eighteen to 24 h
after transfection, each well was washed twice with 1.2 ml of room
temperature PBSCM. After removing the second wash, 450 µl of PBSCM
was added, and 50 µ l of MTSEA-biotin (10 mM, dissolved
in water) was added to each well. Cells were allowed to incubate with
MTSEA-biotin for 10 min at room temperature before washing the reagent
away three times with 600 µl of room temperature PBSCM.
The MTSEA-biotin-labeled cells were lysed in 120 µl of SDS-lysis
buffer (50 mM Tris, pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, 5 mM EDTA, 1% Triton X-100, 1% SDS, 0.2 mM
phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, and 0.5% Sigma Protease Inhibitor
Mixture (P8340)) for 30 min. on ice. The cell lysate was diluted to 1.2 ml with ice-cold lysis buffer (same as SDS-lysis buffer above but
without SDS or protease inhibitors). The biotinylated proteins were
recovered by overnight incubation with 100 µl of streptavidin-agarose
beads/sample (Pierce) at 4 °C with end-over-end rotation. The next
day, the beads were washed once with 1.2 ml of lysis buffer, once with
1.2 ml of high salt lysis buffer (same as lysis buffer except with 500 mM NaCl and 0.1% Triton X-100) and twice with 1.2 ml of 50 mM Tris, pH 7.5. The biotinylated proteins were eluted
using 100 µ l of SDS-PAGE sample buffer (62.5 mM Tris, pH
6.8, 2% SDS, 10% glycerol, 1% mercaptoethanol, 0.003% bromphenol
blue) for 10 min at 85 °C. One fifth of each sample was applied to a
10% SDS-PAGE gel (Laemmli protocol (Ref. 27)) and transferred to
nitrocellulose for Western blotting (Towbin protocol (Ref. 28)).
Wild type SERT and mutant transporters were detected in the mixture of
biotinylated proteins using the M2 anti-FLAG antibody (Sigma) directed
against the FLAG epitope tag located at the C terminus. Blots were
incubated with 10 µg/ml anti-FLAG in blocking buffer (5% nonfat dry
milk, 40 mM Tris, pH 7.5, 300 mM NaCl, 0.1% Tween 20) overnight with gentle rocking, washed, and then further incubated with goat anti-mouse IgG-horseradish peroxidase conjugate (Pierce). After further washing, bands were detected by
chemiluminescence using Super Signal West Pico (Pierce).
MTSEA-biotinylated samples were compared with two controls:
NHS-SS-biotinylated samples and total cell expression.
Sulfosuccinimidyl-2-(biotinamido)ethyl-1,3-dithiopropionate (NHS-SS-biotin; Pierce) was used to detect the total surface expression of each transporter, as described in Ref. 26. Total cell expression levels were determined without biotinylation by lysing cells directly in SDS-PAGE sample buffer, heating to 85 °C for 10 min., and running them on the gel without further sample preparation.
Accessibility of TM7 Cysteine Substitutions to Membrane-impermeant
MTS Reagents--
As described in the Introduction, we had previously
isolated by random mutagenesis five mutants containing cysteine
substitutions in TM7: Y385C/I379V, F380C, F377C, F373C, and N368C/C369G
(positions shown in Fig. 1). Wild type
SERT, although containing 18 native cysteine residues, is resistant to
the membrane-impermeant reagents MTSET or MTSES at physiological
Na+ concentrations. In the presence of Li+,
SERT becomes sensitive to both reagents. This sensitivity in Li+ has been traced to a native cysteine residue, Cys-109,
which lies in extracellular loop 1 (EL1) between TMs 1 and 2 (17) (Fig.
1). By testing the mutants in Na+, where the wild type is
insensitive, we could detect any new sensitivity caused by the presence
of the cysteine substitutions, which could mean that these residues
were exposed to reaction with the MTS reagents. However, it was also
possible that cysteine mutations in TM7 might make the transporter
sensitive by changing the structure of SERT so that a previously
inaccessible native cysteine (or cysteines) became exposed. Due to the
large number of mutants isolated in the random mutagenesis project, we
also had at least one noncysteine substitution at each of the five positions to use as controls for this possibility. These controls were:
Y385N, F380Y, F377Y, F373Y, and N368I (the single mutations C369G and
I379V were also tested separately and found to have no effect on SERT
sensitivity to MTS reagents; data not shown).
Cells expressing TM7 cysteine mutants, noncysteine control mutants, or
the wild type transporter were pretreated with MTSET or MTSES in the
presence of 150 mM NaCl, 150 mM NMDG-Cl, or 150 mM LiCl as described under "Experimental Procedures."
After pretreatment, unreacted reagents and the salts were washed away,
and [3H]serotonin uptake measured under normal, high
Na+ conditions. Fig. 2 shows
the results of these experiments, using 1 mM MTSET
(solid bars) or 2 mM MTSES
(hatched bars). As had been shown previously
(17), wild type SERT was highly sensitive to MTSET or MTSES in the
presence of Li+ but not in Na+
(panels C and A). Wild type SERT was
also resistant to both reagents in NMDG (panel
B), indicating that it is the presence of Li+
rather than the absence of Na+ that results in MTS
sensitivity. Panel A shows that, in
Na+, all of the TM7 cysteine mutants were more sensitive
than wild type to one or both reagents, albeit to varying degrees.
Mutants Y385C/I379V and N368C/C369G were most sensitive to MTSET, while mutant F380C was most sensitive to MTSES. A similar pattern was found
for these mutants in the presence of NMDG (panel
B). In Li+ (panel C), all
of the mutants were highly sensitive to MTSET, in all cases much more
than wild type. Two mutants, F380C and F373C, also showed a much higher
than wild type sensitivity to MTSES.
The enhanced sensitivity of the TM7 cysteine mutants, especially in
Na+ and NMDG, would seem to suggest that the novel
cysteines in TM7 were accessible to reaction with the MTS reagents.
However, Fig. 2 (panels D-F) shows that in many cases the
noncysteine control mutants were also more sensitive than wild type to
the MTS reagents. In Na+, mutant F380Y was more sensitive
than both wild type and its cysteine-containing counterpart F380C, to
both reagents (panels A and D). In
NMDG, F380Y and F377Y were more sensitive to MTSET than both wild type
and their counterparts F380C and F377C (panels B
and E). In Li+, all of the noncysteine TM7
mutants except Y385N show the same enhanced sensitivities as the TM7
cysteine mutants. These results suggest that it is not the presence of
novel cysteines in the TM7 mutants that confers enhanced MTS
sensitivity, but rather that mutations in TM7 disturb the structure of
SERT to expose a previously unexposed native cysteine or cysteines to
these reagents.
Effect of Incorporating the C109A Mutation into TM7
Mutants--
The observation that Li+ even further
enhanced the sensitivity of the TM7 mutants suggested that the newly
exposed native cysteine could be Cys-109, previously identified in wild
type SERT as the source of its sensitivity in Li+. We
tested this possibility by incorporating the C109A mutation into all of
the TM7 cysteine mutants. The C109A mutation was added by replacement
of a restriction fragment in the SERT cDNA (described under
"Experimental Procedures"). For the most part, the Cys-109-less mutants retained a significant portion of the transport activity found
in the parent mutants (Table I). The
results of MTSET and MTSES treatment of these mutants are shown in Fig.
3 (panels B and
D), compared with wild type, the C109A construct alone, and the parent mutants (panels A and C).
In all TM7 cysteine mutants, removal of Cys-109 resulted in nearly
complete loss of sensitivity to the MTS reagents. This was true for
both reagents and under all three ionic conditions. The C109A mutation
was also incorporated into the noncysteine TM7 control mutants,
resulting in the same complete loss of MTS sensitivity in these mutants
(data not shown). These results indicate that Cys-109 was the major
source of enhanced MTS sensitivity in the TM7 mutants, whether they
contained novel cysteines or not.
MTS Concentration Dependence--
We examined the concentration
dependence of MTSET and MTSES reaction with two mutants, Y385C/I379V
and F380Y. Mutant Y385C/I379V was of particular interest because
position 385 is predicted to lie near the end of the TM7 Ion Dependence of the Reaction between MTSET and Cys-109--
We
further studied the dependence of the reaction between MTSET and
Cys-109 on Na+ and Li+ concentrations, using
NMDG to maintain the same ionic strength in all samples (see
"Experimental Procedures"). Fig. 5
shows the effects of changing the ionic conditions on the rate of MTSET inactivation of the wild type (panels A and
D), F380Y (panels B and E),
and Y385C/I379V (panels C and F).
After MTSET preincubation in the indicated salt concentrations, the
unreacted reagents and salts were washed away and transport measured
under high Na+ conditions. MTSET-treated wells were
compared with control wells that were subjected only to the varying
salt conditions without the addition of MTSET. We chose two MTSET
concentrations for each mutant and the wild type: a low concentration
at which inhibition was limited, and a high concentration at which
inhibition was complete (both as observed in 150 mM LiCl;
see Fig. 4A). These concentrations allowed us to observe
whether the ions could accelerate or reduce the rate of MTSET
inhibition.
The results for wild type SERT are shown in panels
A and D. Wild type SERT was equally insensitive
to MTSET in all concentrations of Na+, at all MTSET
concentrations tried (up to 5 mM). As expected, Li+ increased the sensitivity of the wild type transporter.
However, this effect was apparent only at higher concentrations of
MTSET (panel D; results for 0.5 and 1 mM MTSET were similar to the curve shown here for 5 mM MTSET.) MTSET at 0.05 mM had little or no effect on wild type SERT regardless of the Li+
concentration (panel A). At 5 mM
MTSET, Li+ increased the rate of inactivation in a
saturable, concentration-dependent fashion, with a
K1/2 of 252 ± 48 mM.
The F380Y mutant, shown in panels B and
E, revealed a very different phenotype. F380Y is highly
sensitive to MTSET when treated in NMDG, unlike the wild type (Fig.
2E). At a low concentration of MTSET (0.05 mM),
the rate of inactivation in NMDG was low but measurable
(panel B, 0 mM data point). This
reaction rate was increased dramatically by increasing concentrations
of Li+ (panel B). At a high
concentration of MTSET (1 mM), the inactivation rate in
NMDG was quite high already (panel E, 0 mM data point). Under these conditions, F380Y in NMDG was
completely inhibited within the 10-min time interval, so any further
stimulatory effect of Li+ could not be observed and no
Li+ curve is shown. However, we did observe a strong
protective effect of increasing concentrations of Na+
(panel E). This is consistent with the results
shown in Fig. 2 (D-F), which shows that F380Y is much less
sensitive to MTSET in 150 mM NaCl than it is in NMDG-Cl or
LiCl. The stimulatory effect of Li+ on MTSET inactivation
of F380Y, observed at 0.05 mM MTSET, had a
K1/2 of 198 ± 2 mM. The protective effect of Na+, observed at 1 mM MTSET, had a
K1/2 of 22 ± 6 mM.
The Y385C/I379V mutant presented yet another phenotype. Like F380Y,
Y385C/I379V is sensitive to 1 mM MTSET in the presence of
NMDG (Fig. 2). However, this reaction was neither stimulated by
increasing Li+ concentrations, nor prevented by increasing
Na+ concentrations, whether tested at low or high MTSET
concentrations (Fig. 5, panels C and
F).
Accessibility of TM7 Cysteines to MTSEA-biotin--
The results
shown thus far indicate that neither MTSET nor MTSES had a discernible
effect on the activity of the TM7 cysteine mutants, beyond that which
can be traced to effects on the accessibility of Cys-109. However, the
possibility remained that one or both reagents might react with one of
the introduced cysteines without having any effect on transport
activity. This possibility might particularly apply to the cysteines at
positions 373 and 377, since these positions are not part of the
"critical stripe" where mutations were shown to be highly likely to
have deleterious effects on activity. For the other positions, which do
lie in the critical stripe region, the possibility was less likely but
did still exist. For example, Asn-368 can be mutated to aspartate
without loss of activity (14), suggesting that the introduction of a
negative charge at this position by MTSES might also be harmless.
However, a lysine mutation here abolishes activity, suggesting that
reaction at this position with MTSET was likely to be deleterious (14). In opposite fashion, mutation of Tyr-385 to aspartate abolishes activity, suggesting potential sensitivity to MTSES (14). The effect of
a positively charged substitution at this position is unknown, as is
the effect of introducing either a positive or a negative charge at
position 380.
To address these possibilities, we used a third MTS reagent,
MTSEA-biotin. This reagent reacts with exposed cysteine residues to
attach a covalent biotin "tag." The presence of the tag can then be
detected by the ability of the transporter to be captured on
streptavidin-coupled beads. This measurement is thus independent of
effects on activity. Fig. 6A
shows the results of such an experiment. Cells expressing mutant or
wild type transporters were treated with MTSEA-biotin, after which the
reagent was washed away and the cells lysed. The cell lysate was
incubated with streptavidin-agarose beads to capture the biotinylated
proteins, which would include any cell surface protein with an exposed
cysteine residue. The beads were washed and the mixture of cell surface
proteins eluted with SDS-PAGE sample buffer containing
Fig. 6A (lane 1) shows a positive
control for this experiment. Glutamate 493 of SERT is predicted to lie
on the external surface of the transporter, in the hydrophilic loop
between TMs 9 and 10. Replacement of this residue with cysteine (in the
C109A background) leads to a transporter that is very sensitive to both
MTSET and MTSES, strongly supporting an external location for this
residue.2 This conclusion is
further supported by the result in lane 1, which
shows that this mutant was recovered in the MTSEA-biotinylation experiment. The cell surface form of the transporter appears
predominantly as a 90-kilodalton (kDa) band. The faint higher and lower
molecular mass bands represent internal forms of the transporter
recovered due to the presence of a small number of dying, permeable
cells in the population. SERT is highly overexpressed in the
vaccinia-T7 system, and these two forms greatly predominate over the
90-kDa form when total cell protein is examined (wild type and C109A are shown as examples in Fig. 6B, lanes
1 and 2; the mutants look essentially the same).
This interpretation is further supported by the observation that these
forms also predominate when biotinylation is performed in the presence
of 50 µg/ml digitonin to permeabilize the cells (Fig. 6B,
lanes 3 and 4). A negative control for
MTSEA-biotinylation in shown in Fig. 6A (lane
2). As shown previously (18), the C109A mutant was not
recovered by MTSEA-biotinylation, since Cys-109 is the only free
cysteine available on the external face of SERT. The remaining lanes of
Fig. 6A show the results of MTSEA-biotinylation for the
mutants. None of the mutants show a detectable 90-kDa band, indicating
that they were not biotinylated and supporting the conclusion that the
novel cysteines they contain are not accessible to MTS reagents from
outside the cell.
Fig. 6C shows a further control for this experiment.
Although most of the mutants show fairly robust activity, indicating good cell surface expression, a few have low activity (Table I). It was
thus possible that these mutants might not be recovered simply because
they were not well expressed on the cell surface. In Fig.
6B, a different biotinylating reagent was used,
NHS-SS-biotin. This reagent reacts with lysines instead of cysteines
and has been used previously to measure the cell surface expression of other mutant SERTs (26, 29). All of the mutants have the same number of
lysine residues on their external surfaces. Fig. 6C shows
that, although there were differences in cell surface expression, all
of the mutants were expressed in sufficient amounts to be detectable in
the MTSEA-biotinylation experiment. In particular, the two mutants with
the lowest transport activities, F380C/C109A and N368C/C369G/C109A,
appear to be at least as well expressed on the cell surface as the
other mutants (Fig. 6C, lanes 3 and 6).
We had previously identified a pattern of functionally important
residues in TM7 of SERT: a "critical stripe" that runs down one
side of the putative In the course of these studies, however, we observed an unexpected and
interesting property of the TM7 mutants. Many of the TM7 mutations we
studied affected the accessibility of a native cysteine residue,
Cys-109, to MTS reagents (Figs. 2-4). This residue lies on
extracellular loop 1 between TMs 1 and 2, some distance away from TM7
in the primary structure of the transporter. This result suggests that
structural changes in TM7 affect the conformation of EL1. Such an
effect could occur relatively directly, for example, if TM7 lies in
direct contact with TM1 or TM2. Alternatively, this effect could occur
more indirectly, via global changes in SERT structure occurring when
TM7 is mutated. In either case, these considerations led us to consider
an alternative hypothesis for the functional role of the critical
stripe residues: as an important region of close contact with one or
more other TMs. For reasons described below, we think this contact
region may be involved in the propagation of conformational changes
brought about when ions, specifically Na+ and
Li+, bind to the transporter. It is possible that these
conformational changes are the same changes that link ion binding to
the translocation of serotonin through the membrane as part of the
transport cycle.
In earlier studies, it had been observed that Cys-109, the only free
cysteine on the extracellular face of SERT, becomes accessible to MTS
reagents in the presence of Li+ but not in Na+
(17). This result suggested that Li+ binding changes SERT
structure so that Cys-109 is exposed to the aqueous environment. In
this paper we show that mutations in TM7 have a similar effect of
exposing Cys-109. In many of the TM7 mutants, Cys-109 reacts with MTS
reagents in Na+ and/or NMDG, unlike in wild type. This
result suggests that Cys-109 is permanently more exposed in the
conformation adopted by these mutants. Two such mutants were examined
in more detail: F380Y and Y385C/I379V. In F380Y, Cys-109 is highly
exposed in the presence of NMDG, as evidenced by a very high rate of
reaction. Li+ further stimulates this reaction.
Na+, on the other hand, promotes a conformation in which
Cys-109 is less exposed and reduces the rate of reaction (Fig. 5,
B and E). By contrast, in Y385C/I379V, Cys-109 is
also more exposed than wild type in NMDG, but neither Li+
nor Na+ has any further effect on the degree of this
exposure (Fig. 5, C and F).
As mentioned above, most mutants in the critical stripe region of TM7
show impaired Na+ dependence (14). Such a result might
indicate that TM7 is directly involved in Na+ binding, or
alternatively, that TM7 participates in a later step of the
translocation process occurring after Na+ is bound. Our
results with these two mutants would seem to favor the latter
hypothesis. In the case of Y385C/I379V, the mutant does not appear to
respond to Na+ or Li+, as detected by the
ability of these ions to drive changes in the accessibility of Cys-109.
However, these results are unlikely to reflect a serious defect in ion
binding, at least for Na+, since this mutant is able to
transport serotonin at a nearly wild type level. Its
Km for Na+ is 39 ± 13 mM, compared with 14 ± 3 mM for the wild
type. Mutant F380Y, on the other hand, has a Km for
Na+ of 101 ± 16 mM, 7 times higher than
wild type, suggesting a potential defect in Na+ binding.
However, this mutant shows a K1/2 for the protective
effect of Na+ on Cys-109 exposure of 22 ± 6 mM. This value is comparable to the wild type
Km for transport, suggesting that this mutant
interacts with Na+ almost as well as wild type, but that
the subsequent coupling to transport is inefficient. Both of these
results support the idea that residues in TM7 act to propagate
conformational changes that occur after Na+ has bound.
There is no evidence for their direct involvement as part of the
Na+ binding site. Our inability to detect a water-filled
pore involving these residues also argues against a direct role for TM7
in Na+ binding.
If the TM7 residues were part of the lining of the translocation
pathway, it might be expected that mutating them would affect serotonin
binding affinity. Several other groups have studied the effects of
TM7 mutations on substrate binding, in the closely related dopamine (6,
11-13, 30) and norepinephrine transporters (15). These studies got
their first impetus from studies of the Other groups besides ours have suggested a role for TM7 in the
conformational changes accompanying substrate translocation. Recent
studies of DAT have shown that the divalent cation Zn2+
inhibits dopamine transport but does not prevent dopamine binding by
DAT (32, 33). Zn2+ inhibits transport in DAT by interacting
with an endogenous binding site, made up of three residues: His-193 in
EL2, His-375 in EL4 near the predicted top of TM7, and Glu-396, also
lying in EL4 but nearer to the top of TM8. The authors of these studies
have suggested that Zn2+ binding inhibits transport by
holding these residues in a fixed conformation relative to one another,
preventing the conformational changes necessary for substrate
translocation (32).
In summary, the results described here argue strongly against a direct
role for TM7 critical stripe residues in lining a pore or as part of
the translocation pathway. Instead, it seems likely that this group of
residues forms an important contact region with one or more other TMs.
TM7 appears to mediate at least some of the conformational changes that
occur when Na+ or Li+ bind to the transporter,
since at least one mutation in TM7 (Y385C/I379V) disables the
connection between ion binding and changes in Cys-109 accessibility. We
will continue to investigate the functional role of these residues by
studying how TM7 mutations affect serotonin and Cl-helix, formed part of a water-filled pore for Na+. We
tested whether cysteine substitutions in TM7 were accessible to
hydrophilic, membrane-impermeant methanethiosulfonate (MTS) reagents.
Although all five cysteine-containing mutants tested were sensitive to
these reagents, noncysteine control mutants at the same positions were
in most cases equally sensitive. In all cases, MTS sensitivity could be
traced to changes in accessibility of a native cysteine residue in
extracellular loop 1, Cys-109. Moreover, none of the TM7 cysteines
reacted with the biotinylating reagent MTSEA-biotin when tested in the
C109A background. It is thus unlikely that the critical stripe forms
part of a water-filled pore. Instead, studies of the ion dependence of
the reaction between Cys-109 and MTS reagents lead to the conclusion
that TM7 is involved in propagating conformational changes caused by
ion binding, perhaps as part of the translocation mechanism. The
critical stripe residues on TM7 probably represent a close contact
region between TM7 and one or more other TMs in the transporter's
three-dimensional structure.
INTRODUCTION
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
gradients. Hydropathy analysis
predicts that these transporters contain 12 membrane-spanning
-helices, connected by hydrophilic loops lying inside and outside
the cell (Fig. 1).
gradients are coupled to the
inward movement of serotonin. Functionally important residues have been
identified in several regions, including transmembrane span 1 (TM1)
(4-6), TM3 (6-10), TM5 (11), TM7 (6, 12-15), TM11 (11), and TM12
(16).
-helix. Experimental evidence
suggested that these residues might be involved in Na+
binding or in the coupling of Na+ to serotonin transport.
One possibility was that the critical stripe represents one wall of a
water-filled pore or channel, through which ions and/or serotonin enter
the cell. To examine this possibility, we decided to test the
accessibility of cysteine substitutions in TM7 to the aqueous
environment, using membrane-impermeant methanethiosulfonate (MTS)
reagents. MTS reagents have previously been used to investigate the
external accessibility of cysteines in both the serotonin (8, 17, 18)
and dopamine transporters (19, 20). The reaction of these reagents with
cysteine residues introduces a positively or negatively charged group
into the protein's structure (21). If the reacting cysteine lies in a
functionally important position, transporter activity will be sensitive
to the modification.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
RESULTS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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Fig. 1.
Predicted membrane topology of SERT from
hydropathy analysis. Rectangular boxes
represent membrane-spanning -helices (numbered
1-12), and connecting lines represent
intracellular and extracellular loops and the N and C termini.
Extracellular loops are labeled EL1-EL6. Amino acid
residues discussed in this report are circled and identified
by their position in the transporter sequence.
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Fig. 2.
Effects of MTS reagents on TM7 mutants.
Cells expressing wild type and mutant transporters were treated with 1 mM MTSET (solid bars) or 2 mM MTSES (hatched bars) and then
assayed for transport activity, as described under "Experimental
Procedures." Each transporter was treated in the presence of 150 mM NaCl (A and D), 150 mM
NMDG-Cl (B and E), or 150 mM LiCl
(C and F). The activity remaining is shown as a
percentage of each transporter's activity in control wells that
received the same salt solutions without MTS reagents. The results
reported here are the mean and S.D. of two to four separate experiments
for each mutant. Names of the double mutants have been shortened due to
space considerations: Y385C, Y385C/I379V; N368C,
N368C/C369G.
Transport activities of mutant SERTs
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Fig. 3.
Effects of MTS reagents on TM7 mutants with
and without Cys-109. Cells expressing wild type and mutant
transporters were treated with 1 mM MTSET (A and
B) or 2 mM MTSES (C and D)
and then assayed for transport activity, as described under
"Experimental Procedures." Each transporter was treated in the
presence of 150 mM NaCl (solid bars),
150 mM NMDG-Cl (open bars), or 150 mM LiCl (hatched bars). The activity
remaining is shown as a percentage of each transporter's activity in
control wells that received the same salt solutions without MTS
reagents. The results reported here are the mean and S.D. of two to
four separate experiments for each mutant. As in Fig. 2 (see legend),
names of mutants have been shortened due to space considerations.
CA stands for the C109A mutation.
-helix,
perhaps accessible to the external environment. It seemed possible that
this residue might react with MTS reagents at higher concentrations, if
tested in a C109A background to eliminate Cys-109 as a source of
sensitivity. Mutant F380Y was investigated to learn more about its very
high sensitivity to these reagents. Fig.
4 shows the effects of increasing concentrations of MTSET (A) or MTSES (B), in 150 mM LiCl, on the activity of these mutants and wild type
SERT. In the wild type background (Cys-109 present), the two mutants
showed very different patterns of concentration dependence. Mutant
F380Y, as expected, showed a very steep concentration dependence for
both reagents, while Y385C/I379V showed a concentration dependence
similar to wild type. Mutant Y385C/I379V/C109A remained completely
resistant to both reagents even at very high concentrations, up to 5 mM for MTSET and 2.5 mM for MTSES (complete
curves not shown). The same was true of F380Y/C109A, as expected since
it does not contain any novel cysteines. These results reinforce the
conclusion of Fig. 3, that the major source of MTS sensitivity in both
these mutants is due to reaction with Cys-109. The cysteine at position 385 does not appear to react with MTS reagents, even at very high concentrations.
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Fig. 4.
Concentration dependence of MTS reaction with
two TM7 mutants and their C109A counterparts. Cells expressing
wild type and mutant transporters were treated with increasing
concentrations of MTSET (top) or MTSES (bottom),
washed, and assayed for transport activity as described under
"Experimental Procedures." The mutants are F380Y (closed
circles), Y385C/I379V (open circles),
F380Y/C109A (closed squares), and
Y385C/I379V/C109A (open squares). Wild type SERT
is represented by the closed triangles. These
experiments were carried out in 150 mM LiCl. The activity
remaining is shown as a percentage of each transporter's activity in
control wells that received the same salt solution without MTS
reagents. Results are shown for representative experiments. Error bars
smaller than the height of the symbols have been omitted.
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Fig. 5.
Effects of increasing Na+ or
Li+ concentration on the reaction between MTSET and Cys-109
in wild type SERT, F380Y, and Y385C/I379V. Cells expressing wild
type and mutant transporters were treated with either a low
concentration (0.05 mM, panels A-C)
or a high concentration (5 mM for wild type, 1 mM for mutants; panels D-F) of MTSET
in the presence of increasing concentrations of NaCl (closed
symbols) or LiCl (open symbols).
NMDG-Cl was added at each concentration to maintain the same ionic
strength in all wells. Cells were then washed and assayed for transport
activity as described under "Experimental Procedures." Wild type
SERT is represented by the circles, mutant F380Y by the
squares, and mutant Y385C/I379V by the triangles.
Results are shown for representative experiments. Error bars smaller
than the height of the symbols have been omitted.
-mercaptoethanol, which cleaves off the biotin tag. The mixture was
separated on an SDS-PAGE gel, and mutant and wild type SERTs detected
by Western blotting, using anti-FLAG antibody directed at the epitope
tag incorporated into all of the constructs (see "Experimental
Procedures"). This method had been used previously to show that SERT
can be labeled with MTSEA-biotin at Cys-109, supporting an external
location for this residue (18). It was thus necessary to use the C109A versions of the mutants to detect any new labeling due to biotinylation at the TM7 cysteine residues.
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Fig. 6.
TM7 cysteine mutants are not recovered by
MTSEA-biotinylation. Cells expressing wild type and mutant
transporters were treated with MTSEA-biotin or NHS-SS-biotin as
described under "Experimental Procedures," the biotinylated
proteins recovered on streptavidin-agarose beads, and the transporters
visualized using SDS-PAGE and Western blotting. Panel
A, MTSEA-biotinylation of mutants E493C/C109A
(lane 1), C109A (lane 2),
Y385C/I379V/C109A (lane 3), F380C/C109A
(lane 4), F377C/C109A (lane
5), F373C/C109A (lane 6), and
N368C/C369G/C109A (lane 7). Panel
B, lanes 1 and 2, total
cell expression; lanes 3 and 4,
MTSEA-biotinylation in 50 µg/ml digitonin to permeabilize the cells.
Lanes 1 and 3 show wild type, and
lanes 2 and 4 show C109A.
Panel C, NHS-SS-biotinylation of mutants
E493C/C109A (lane 1), Y385C/I379V/C109A
(lane 2), F380C/C109A (lane
3), F377C/C109A (lane 4), F373C/C109A
(lane 5), and N368C/C369G/C109A (lane
6).
DISCUSSION
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-helix, ranging from its predicted
extracellular end nearly to the intracellular side of the membrane. The
residues in this stripe lie on a predominantly polar face of the
predicted helix. Mutant transporters with substitutions at these
critical stripe positions were found to have impaired Na+
dependence for transport, such that serotonin transport was decreased compared with wild type at low Na+ concentrations (14).
These observations led us to hypothesize that this stripe might form
one wall of a water-filled pore through which Na+, as well
as possibly the other substrates serotonin and Cl
, might
enter the cell. However, the results presented in this paper do not
support this hypothesis. We tested the accessibility of cysteine
substitutions in TM7 to hydrophilic MTS reagents added from the outside
of intact cells. The cysteine substitutions lay at positions ranging
from close to the predicted extracellular end of TM7 (position 385) to
near its predicted intracellular end (position 368). We found no
evidence that cysteine residues at any of these positions were
accessible to hydrophilic reagents from outside the cell, as would be
expected if these positions lined a water-filled pore (Figs. 2-4 and
6). The evidence included measurements of the effects of MTS reagents
on transport activity (Figs. 2-4), as well as direct physical
detection of the MTS reaction using the biotinylating reagent
MTSEA-biotin (Fig. 6).
-adrenergic receptors
showing that three residues, an aspartate in TM1 and two serines in
TM5, were principally responsible for substrate binding in this family
(31). By analogy, an aspartate in TM1 and two serines in TM7 of
dopamine transporter (DAT) were hypothesized to play a role in dopamine
binding. It was thought that the negatively charged aspartyl side chain
might bind to the amine moiety of dopamine, while the serines might
hydrogen-bond to the hydroxyl groups on the catechol ring. Mutant DATs
in which these serines were changed to alanine showed reduced dopamine uptake, characterized by a decrease in affinity for dopamine as well as
a decrease in Vmax. These mutants also showed
increased uptake of MPP+, supporting a potential
role in substrate recognition (12, 13). However, later studies of the
analogous serines in NET argue strongly against the hypothesis of a
receptor-like binding site (15). Although mutants in one serine residue
showed a loss of affinity for both dopamine and the inhibitor
nisoxetine, mutants in the other serine residue had nearly wild type
affinities for both. In addition, studies with substrates containing
either one or the other hydroxyl on the catechol ring showed no
evidence of interaction between a particular hydroxyl and a particular serine, as would be expected if these serines interacted directly with
the substrate. Interestingly, mutations at both serines affected the
rate of dopamine efflux but not influx, suggesting a potential role in
the translocation mechanism rather than direct interaction with
substrate (15). Other mutagenesis studies have focused on the roles of
aromatic, proline and polar residues in TM7 of DAT (6, 11, 30).
Although many of the mutants showed large defects in transport ability,
there was little evidence for direct involvement in dopamine binding.
These results support our conclusion that TM7 is not part of the
translocation pathway, since residues lying in such a pathway would be
expected to be involved in direct substrate interaction.
binding. We will also examine whether these substrates can also drive
conformational changes that expose Cys-109, similar to those driven by
Na+ and Li+ in mutant F380Y. These studies will
allow us to further elucidate the role of TM7 in the conformational
changes that bring about the translocation of ions and serotonin across
the membrane.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported by a grant from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (to M. M. S.).The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of Pharmacology,
Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar St., New Haven, CT 06510. Tel.: 203-737-1601; Fax: 203-785-7670; E-mail: megan.
stephan{at}yale.edu.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, October 31, 2000, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M008483200
2 C. Keller and G. Rudnick, unpublished results.
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ABBREVIATIONS |
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The abbreviations used are: SERT, serotonin transporter; TM, transmembrane span; MTS, methanethiosulfonate; MTSEA, 2-aminoethyl methanethiosulfate; MTSES, sodium (2-sulfonatoethyl)methanethiosulfonate; MTSET, [2-(trimethylammonium)ethyl]methanethiosulfonate bromide; DAT, dopamine transporter; PAGE, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; EL, extracellular loop; DMEM, Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium; NMDG, N-methyl-D-glucamine; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; PBSCM, PBS supplemented with calcium and magnesium.
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