Characterization of Elongation Factor-1A (eEF1A-1) and eEF1A-2/S1
Protein Expression in Normal and wasted Mice*
Abdelnaby
Khalyfa
§,
Denis
Bourbeau
,
Edwin
Chen
,
Emmanuel
Petroulakis
,
Jie
Pan
,
Suying
Xu
, and
Eugenia
Wang
§¶
From the
Bloomfield Center for Research in Aging,
Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, The Sir Mortimer B. Davis-Jewish General Hospital and Departments of Medicine, Anatomy and
Cell Biology, and Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University,
Montréal, Québec H3T 1E2, Canada and the
§ Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,
University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville,
Kentucky 40292
Received for publication, February 2, 2001, and in revised form, April 6, 2001
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ABSTRACT |
The eEF1A-2 gene (S1) encodes a
tissue-specific isoform of peptide elongation factor-1A (eEF1A-1); its
mRNA is expressed only in brain, heart, and skeletal muscle,
tissues dominated by terminally differentiated, long-lived cells.
Homozygous mutant mice exhibit muscle wasting and neurodegeneration,
resulting in death around postnatal day 28. eEF1A-2/S1 protein shares
92% identity with eEF1A-1; because specific antibodies for each were
not available previously, it was difficult to study the developmental
expression patterns of these two peptide elongation factors 1A in
wasted and wild-type mice. We generated a peptide-derived
antiserum that recognizes the eEF1A-2/S1 isoform and does not
cross-react with eEF1A-1. We characterized the expression profiles of
eEF1A-1 and eEF1A-2/S1 during development in wild-type (+/+),
heterozygous (+/wst), and homozygous
(wst/wst) mice. In wild-type and heterozygous animals, eEF1A-2/S1 protein is present only in brain, heart, and muscle; the onset of its expression coincides with a concomitant decrease in the eEF1A-1 protein level. In wasted mutant
tissues, even though eEF1A-2/S1 protein is absent, the scheduled
decline of eEF1A-1 occurs nonetheless during postnatal development, as it does in wild-type counterparts. In the brain of adult wild-type mice, the eEF1A-2/S1 isoform is localized in neurons, whereas eEF1A-1
is found in non-neuronal cells. In neurons prior to postnatal day 7, eEF1A-1 is the major isoform, but it is later replaced by eEF1A-2/S1,
which by postnatal day 14 is the only isoform present. The
postdevelopmental appearance of eEF1A-2/S1 protein and the decline in
eEF1A-1 expression in brain, heart, and muscle suggest that eEF1A-2/S1
is the adult form of peptide elongation factor, whereas its sister is
the embryonic isoform, in these tissues. The absence of eEF1A-2/S1, as
well as the on-schedule development-dependent disappearance
of its sister gene, eEF1A, in wst/wst
mice may result in loss of protein synthesis ability, which may account
for the numerous defects and ultimate fatality seen in these mice.
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INTRODUCTION |
Peptide elongation factor-1A
(eEF1A-1)1 is an abundant
protein, once thought to be ubiquitously expressed; its major role is to mediate the transfer of charged aminoacyl-tRNA to the A site of the
ribosome during peptide elongation. We have previously shown that the
mRNA expression of this gene declines in rat brain, heart, and
skeletal muscle during development (1, 2), to the extent that in adult
skeletal muscle, there is an almost complete loss of eEF1A-1 mRNA
expression; a sister gene, eEF1A-2/S1, is expressed
instead (3). Furthermore, in contrast to the ubiquitous expression of
eEF1A-1 in many cell types, eEF1A-2/S1 expression is limited to the
terminally differentiated cells of the brain, heart, and skeletal
muscle (3, 4).
Recent evidence suggests that eEF1A-2/S1 is an alternative peptide
elongation factor-1A for neurons and myocytes, because the amino acid
homology between them is 92% (5, 6), and eEF1A-2/S1 can perform
peptide elongation in vitro (7). The absence of eEF1A-2/S1
mRNA, as a result of a deletion in the promoter and first exon of
the eEF1A-2/S1 gene, was recently identified in the mutant mouse
wasted (8). wasted mice exhibit severe muscle
wasting and degeneration of motor neurons, beginning at 3 weeks after
birth and die by the age of 28 days (8-11). This coincides with the
decline of eEF1A-1 expression in brain, heart, and skeletal muscle,
without the normal concordant appearance of its sister gene; because
neither form of elongation factor-1A is found, the consequential loss
of protein synthesis ability is the likely cause of death.
Distinguishing between eEF1A-1 and eEF1A-2/S1 protein expression was
long hampered by the absence of isoform-specific antibodies; for
example, it was impossible to determine the proportion of eEF1A-1
versus eEF1-A2/S1 in any given skeletal muscle biopsy. This
is specifically true with regard to a recent report, which concludes
that there is no change in eEF1A in young and old muscle (12); this
conclusion was based on a study using a pan-monoclonal antibody that
recognizes both isoforms and thus cannot discriminate either
qualitatively or quantitatively between the two sister forms of this
gene family. To investigate the presence of eEF1A-2/S1 protein and
differentiate its level from that of its sister, during mouse
development, we generated a polyclonal antiserum that specifically recognizes the eEF1A-2/S1 isoform and does not cross-react with eEF1A-1. Using it along with another antiserum that specifically recognizes eEF1A-1, we characterized the protein presence of both peptide elongation factor-1A isoforms during development in normal and wasted mutant mice.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
Peptide Synthesis and Production of eEF1A-1- and
eEF1A-2/S1-specific Antibodies--
A highly purified,
sequence-specific peptide of eEF1A-2/S1 protein, CB5 (see Fig.
1A), was obtained by high performance liquid chromatography on a C18 reverse-phase column, using
an acetonitrile and trifluoroacetic acid gradient. CB5 protein was
solubilized in 20 mM phosphate buffer and coupled to
keyhole limpet hemocyanin carrier protein (Pierce) through
amino-terminal cysteine residues. Antibodies were generated by
multiple injections of 200 µg of the peptide in Freund's incomplete
adjuvant (Pierce), followed by two booster injections given at 3-week
intervals with the same amount of antigen. One week after the final
injection, the rabbits were sacrificed, and blood was collected. The
eEF1A-1-specific antibody was raised against eEF1A-1 protein-specific
peptide HT7 (see Fig. 1B), as previously described (13).
Tissue Preparation--
Brain, heart, muscle, liver, and spleen
samples were obtained from mouse, rat, and human autopsy tissues.
Tissue extraction and preparation were performed as previously
described (14), with minor modifications. All tissues were extracted by
homogenization in a 2-ml tissue grinder (Wheaton, Millville, NJ) with 1 ml of homogenizing buffer (300 mM sucrose, 150 mM KCl, 30 mM Tris-HCl, 5 mM
MgCl2, 1.5 mM dithiothreitol, 1 mM
EDTA, pH 8.0, and 1.5% Triton X-100) containing protease
inhibitors (10 µg/ml aprotinin, 2 µg/ml leupeptin, 10 µg/ml
pepstatin, and 2 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride) (ICN
Biochemicals Canada, Montréal, Quebec). Protein extracts were
then incubated with 150 µg/ml DNase I (Roche Molecular Biochemicals) on ice for 1 h and sonicated for 1 min in an
ice bath, followed by centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 15 min. The
resulting pellet was discarded, and the supernatant was designated as
total protein. Protein concentration was assayed by a Bio-Rad protein assay reagent (Bio-Rad), using bovine plasma globulin as a standard.
Expression and Purification of Recombinant Proteins--
The
construction of recombinant plasmids and expression of eEF1A-2/S1
protein in the glutathione S-transferase (GST) system using
the pGEX-2T plasmid vector (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) were
reported previously, and the recombinant plasmid was referred to
as GST-eEF1A-2/S1 (13). We also amplified the mouse eEF1A-1 cDNA by
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and subcloned it into the pGEX-2T
expression vector, resulting in the GST-eEF1A-1 construct. The
recombinant vectors were used to transform Escherichia coli. Individual clones were isolated, and the constructs were analyzed by
DNA sequencing to identify those carrying the desired fragment, without
any mutations that might have been introduced by PCR. Extraction and
purification of GST and GST fusion proteins (GST-eEF1A-2/S1 and
GST-eEF1A-1) using glutathione-Sepharose 4B beads were performed as
previously described (15).
Electrophoresis and Immunoblotting--
SDS-polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis was carried out on 10 or 12% gels using a
discontinuous Laemmli system (16). For each assay of protein profile
determination, 50 µg of total protein extract was loaded onto the
SDS-polyacrylamide gel. After electrophoresis, the proteins were either
stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250 or transferred onto
nitrocellulose paper. The nitrocellulose membranes were stained with
Ponceau S (Sigma) to visualize the electrophoretic pattern of total
protein and subsequently destained with Tris-buffered saline (50 mM Tris-HCl, 500 mM NaCl) containing 0.5%
Tween 20 (TBST), followed by blocking with 5% milk in TBST for 1-2 h.
The membranes were probed with the anti-eEF1A-1 or anti-eEF1A-2/S1
polyclonal antibodies for 2 h at room temperature in TBST at a
1:2000 dilution. The membranes were then washed four times with TBST
for 10 min each, incubated with goat anti-rabbit immunoglobulin
conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (Cappel, Durham, NC) for 1 h
at room temperature in a 1:20,000 dilution, and washed four times as
described above. Nitrocellulose blots incubated with horseradish
peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibodies were developed using
enhanced chemiluminescence detection (ECL) (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech)
according to the manufacturer's protocols and exposed to x-ray film.
Immunoprecipitation--
eEF1A-1 or eEF1A-2/S1 was
immunoprecipitated from total protein extracts of adult rat brain,
liver, and skeletal muscle, using a monoclonal anti-EF1A antibody (17)
(Upstate Biotechnology, Lake Placid, NY) that recognizes both proteins.
One mg of total protein extracts was pre-cleared with 50 µl of
protein G-agarose (Sigma) for 30 min at 4 °C. Of the pre-cleared
tissue extract, 720 µg was incubated with 3 µg of anti-EF1A
monoclonal antibody for 17 h at 4 °C. Immune complexes were
collected with 100 µl of protein G-agarose (Sigma) for 3 h at
4 °C. The protein G-agarose/immune complex was washed four times
with 1 ml of ice-cold lysis buffer containing 1 mM
phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, resuspended in 100 µl of SDS-loading
buffer, and heated at 95 °C for 10 min. Twenty-five µl of the
immunoprecipitated mixture was used for Western blotting analysis using
the monoclonal anti-eEF1A-1, polyclonal anti-eEF1A-1, or anti-EF1A-2/S1 antibodies.
wasted Mice Genotyping--
A pair of heterozygous mice obtained
from the Jackson Laboratory was further cross-bred. When the F1
offspring reached the age of day 7, ~0.5 cm of the tails of the
pups was cut, and genomic DNA was isolated as described (18).
Essentially, tails were incubated in 0.5 ml of lysis buffer (100 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.5, 5 mM EDTA, 0.2% SDS, 200 mM NaCl, 100 µg of proteinase K/ml) overnight at
55 °C. DNA was extracted using phenol/chloroform, precipitated using
isopropanol, and dissolved in TE buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl, pH
7.4, EDTA). One hundred µg of genomic DNA was amplified in 50 µl of
reaction buffer containing 10 mM dNTPs, 100 ng of primers (designated P1), and 4 units of rTth DNA polymerase (PerkinElmer Life
Sciences) using long distance polymerase chain reaction. Primers
selected for identifying eEF1A-2/S1 gene presence were designed as
follows: Primers 1 (P1), sense (5'-GACAGAGAAAGAGATAGTGAG-3'; 4-24 base
pairs (bp)) and antisense (5'-CGCCATTCTTGTATTGTTTG-3'; 18814-18795
bp); primers 2 (P2), sense (5'-TAGTGGCTCCTTGGAACAG-3'; 15752-15770 bp)
and antisense (5'-CTACTCTCCCTGAATGCCTT-3'; 16204-16187 bp). Long
distance PCR reactions were carried out at 95 °C for 3 min, followed
by 94 °C for 30 s, 54 °C for 30 s, and 72 °C for 3 min, for a total of 28 cycles. Regular PCR reactions in buffer containing 200 µg of genomic DNA, 100 ng of primers (P2), 10 mM dNTPs, and 1 unit of Taq DNA polymerase were
performed at 99 °C for 5 s, followed by 94 °C for 40 s,
55 °C for 30 s, and 72 °C for 40 s, for a total of 30 cycles. PCR products were separated by electrophoresis in a 1% agarose gel.
Densitometry and Quantification--
Western blot analysis of
protein patterns from wild-type, heterozygous, and mutant mice from
embryonic day 18 (E18) and postnatal days 1 (P1), P7, P14, P20, and P28
were scanned and quantified on a Molecular Dynamics Densitometer SI
scanner (Sunnyvale, CA). The band intensities were quantified by
ImageQuaNTTM software 4.1. For each sample, means and
standard deviations were derived from specimens isolated from three
different animals.
Immunofluorescence Labeling and Confocal Microscopy--
All
mouse tissues processed for immunofluorescence analysis were
immediately embedded in Optimum Cutting Temperature (OCT) compound
(VWR, Montréal, Quebec) at
80 °C after dissection. Frozen
sections (10 µm) were obtained using a Leica microtome type 2800 Frigocut. The tissue sections were incubated with either the
anti-eEF1A-1 antibody (1:1000) or the anti-eEF1A-2/S1 antibody (1:100).
The secondary antibody used was goat anti-rabbit fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated (Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories, Inc.,
West Grove, PA). For double labeling, serial sections of samples
previously stained for eEF1A-1 or eEF1A-2/S1 immunoreactivity were
incubated with a mouse antibody against a 68-kDa neurofilament neuronal marker (NF-68) (Sigma), followed by incubation with
rhodamine-conjugated goat anti-mouse antibody (Cappel). The
histochemical preparations were examined using a Bio-Rad MRC-600 laser
scanning confocal microscope, equipped with a × 60 oil immersion
objective. Images were scanned on two channels (red and green) and
merged to produce a signal profile. In this model, all regions
exhibiting colocalization of red and green emitters produce yellow
fluorescence. The images were collected using the COMOS software
package (Bio-Rad) and stored on an optical disc.
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RESULTS |
Characterization of the eEF1A-2/S1-specific Antibody--
Because
of the 92% amino acid homology between the eEF1A-1 and eEF1A-2/S1
proteins, antibodies to distinguish between them were not available. To
resolve this matter, we generated an eEF1A-2/S1-specific antibody
(anti-eEF1A-2/S1) by immunizing rabbits with a purified peptide
composed of a sequence unique to eEF1A-2/S1, designated CB5 (Fig.
1). In addition, an eEF1A-1-specific
antibody (anti-eEF1A-1) was similarly produced elsewhere, using the HT7
peptide with sequence unique to eEF1A-1 (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1.
Peptide sequences used to derive eEF1A-1- and
eEF1A-2/S1-specific polyclonal antibodies. Diagrammatic
representation of the CB5 peptide used to make the eEF1A-2/S1-specific
antibody (A) and the HT7 peptide used to generate the
antibody specific to eEF1A-1 protein (B).
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To verify the specificity of these polyclonal antibodies against
eEF1A-1 or eEF1A-2/S1 proteins, we subcloned the eEF1A-1 and eEF1A-2/S1
cDNAs in the pGEX-2t vector, resulting in a GST fusion protein, and
produced recombinant proteins (referred to as GST-eEF1A-1 and
GST-eEF1A-2/S1, respectively). After induction with
isopropyl-1-thio-
-D-galactopyranoside, transformed
E. Coli bacteria were harvested, and bacterial proteins were
analyzed by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. In bacteria
transformed with a GST vector alone, the 26-kDa GST protein is induced
upon treatment with
isopropyl-1-thio-
-D-galactopyranoside, whereas bacteria
possessing the pGEX-eEF1A-1 or pGEX-eEF1A-2/S1 constructs expressed
76-kDa proteins representing the GST-eEF1A-1 and GST-eEF1A-2/S1 fusion
proteins, respectively (Fig.
2A). These fusion proteins were further purified by affinity chromatography on Sepharose 4B beads
and yielded purified proteins of 26 kDa for GST and 76 kDa for
GST-eEF1A-1 and GST-eEF1A-2/S1 (Fig. 2B). The size of both
eEF1A-1 and eEF1A-2/S1 proteins after thrombin cleavage of the two
recombinant fusion proteins, GST-eEF1A-1 and GST-eEF1A-2/S1, was 50 kDa, consistent with the predicted size of the open reading frame of
the cDNA sequence for both proteins.

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Fig. 2.
Expression and induction of eEF1A-1 and
eEF1A-2/S1 in a GST system. A, Coomassie Brilliant Blue
staining of total protein extracts (soluble fractions) of
isopropyl-1-thio- -D-galactopyranoside-induced and
non-induced GST, GST-eEF1A-2/S1, and GST-eEF1A-1 fusion proteins, as
described under "Materials and Methods." Note the increase in
quantity of the protein bands of 26 kDa for GST and 76 kDa for both
GST-eEF1A-2/S1 and GST-eEF1A-1 upon induction with
isopropyl-thio- -D-galactopyranoside, as indicated by the
arrow. B, Coomassie Brilliant Blue staining of
fusion proteins purified in non-denaturing conditions, using affinity
chromatography with Sepharose 4B beads. As indicated, protein bands
were detected at 26 kDa for GST and 76 kDa for GST-eEF1A-2/S1 and
GST-eEF1A-1. C, immunoblotting analysis of purified fusion
proteins using the eEF1A-1-specific polyclonal antibody. A protein band
was detected at 76 kDa for the GST-eEF1A-1 fusion protein, with no
evidence of cross-reaction with the GST-eEF1A-2/S1 fusion
protein or with the GST protein alone. D, immunoblots of
purified GST-eEF1A-2/S1 fusion protein probed with eEF1A-2/S1-specific
antibody in the presence of increasing concentrations of either the HT7
or CB5 peptide. Soluble HT7 peptide inhibits binding of
eEF1A-1-specific polyclonal antibody, whereas CB5 does not.
E, immunoblots of purified GST-eEF1A-2/S1 fusion protein
probed with eEF1A-2/S1-specific antibody in the presence of increasing
concentrations of either the HT7 or CB5 peptide. Contrary to
D, the soluble HT7 peptide does not compete with the
eEF1A-2/S1-specific polyclonal antibody for binding with the fusion
protein, whereas soluble CB5 inhibits binding.
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To characterize the peptide-derived antibody for eEF1A-2/S1 protein,
immunoblotting assays were performed to assess its reactivity with the
purified GST-eEF1A-2/S1 and absence of reactivity with GST-eEF1A-1. In
fact, anti-eEF1A-2/S1 recognizes only the GST-eEF1A-2/S1 fusion protein
and does not react with GST-eEF1A-1 or GST proteins (Fig.
2C). The anti-eEF1A-1 antibody recognizes only GST-eEF1A-1 and does not cross-react with either GST or GST-eEF1A-2/S1 proteins (Fig. 2C). Furthermore, we assessed the specificity of our
antibodies by competition with soluble HT7 and CB5 peptides (Fig.
2D); the binding capability of anti-eEF1A-1 to the
GST-eEF1A-1 fusion protein is competed by soluble HT7 peptide in a
concentration-dependent manner, whereas it is unaffected by
soluble CB5 peptide (Fig. 2D). Conversely, the CB5 soluble
peptide competes for the reaction of anti-eEF1A-2/S1 to GST-eEF1A-2/S1
fusion protein in a concentration-dependent manner, and the
HT7 peptide does not compete for anti-eEF1A-2/S1 to GST-eEF1A-2/S1
(Fig. 2E). Therefore, we conclude that the CB5 peptide-derived anti-eEF1A-2/S1 is specific for its intended substrate, eEF1A-2/S1, and the HT7 peptide-derived anti-eEF1A-1 is specific for
eEF1A-1.
We used a monoclonal antibody that recognizes both eEF1A-1
and eEF1A-2/S1 in an immunoprecipitation reaction against total protein
extracts from adult rat tissues (liver, skeletal muscle, and brain) and
determined the presence of eEF1A-1 and eEF1A-2/S1 in the
immunoprecipitated products by Western blot analysis, using either
anti-eEF1A-1 or anti-eEF1A-2/S1 antibodies. Fig.
3 shows the total and immunoprecipitated
protein extracts probed with the anti-eEF1A-1 monoclonal antibody
(A), secondary antibody alone as a control
(Panel B), and the anti-eEF1A-1 and anti-eEF1A-2/S1 antibodies (C and D, respectively). Evidently the
monoclonal antibody for eEF1A-1 immunoprecipitates both eEF1A-1 and
eEF1A-2/S1 proteins; probing the immunoprecipitates with this antibody
detects the presence of both eEF1A isoforms, eEF1A-1 in liver and
eEF1A-2/S1 in skeletal muscle and brain. The presence of eEF1A-1 (which
has a slightly smaller molecular weight) was not detected in muscle and
brain, because we used adult tissues, where the level of eEF1A-1 protein is drastically diminished in later postdevelopmental stages (described in this report; Figs. 4 and
7). However, eEF1A-1 was detected in liver, an eEF1A-2/S1-negative
tissue (Fig. 3A). To verify this finding, we probed the
immunoprecipitates with anti-eEF1A-1 and anti-eEF1A-2/S1 antibodies; we
found eEF1A-1 only in the liver (and a small amount in the brain (Fig.
3D)) and eEF1A-2/S1 only in skeletal muscle, and the
latter as a major band in brain (Fig. 3C). These results
verify the specificity of the anti-eEF1A-1 and anti-eEF1A-2/S1
polyclonal antibodies in tissue extracts and demonstrate that the
commercially available monoclonal antibody to eEF1A-1 recognizes both
isoforms of eEF1A indiscriminately.

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Fig. 3.
Immunoblotting analysis of polyclonal
antibodies to eEF1A-1 and eEF1A-2/S1 with monoclonal anti-eEF1A-1
immunoprecipitates from adult rat protein extracts. Total protein
extracts from 3-month-old rat tissues (liver (L), skeletal
muscle (M), and brain (B)) were
immunoprecipitated using a commercially available eEF1A monoclonal
antibody. Western blot (WB) analyses are shown for both the
total protein extracts and the immunoprecipitated mixtures, using a
monoclonal antibody to eEF1A-1 (A); a secondary antibody
alone (goat anti-mouse, control for monoclonal antibody)
(B), detecting only Ig in the immunoprecipitation panel
(IP); and eEF1A-2/S1- and eEF1A-1-specific antibodies
detecting the former protein in muscle and brain but the latter in
liver and sparsely in brain in both total protein and
immunoprecipitation (IP) panels (C and
D, respectively).
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Fig. 4.
eEF1A-1 and eEF1A-2/S1 proteins in adult
mouse, rat, and human tissues. Immunoblotting analysis of eEF1A-1
and eEF1A-2 protein presence in mouse (3-months-old), rat
(3-months-old), and human autopsy (68-year-old woman) tissues.
Extraction was performed as described under "Materials and
Methods." IA, various mouse tissues (brain (B),
heart (H), skeletal muscle (M), liver
(L), spleen (S)) were probed with
eEF1A-1-specific antibody, revealing a 50-kDa protein band in abundance
in liver and spleen. The 50-kDa protein is also present in moderation
in brain and muscle but absent in heart (arrow).
IB, on the other hand, probing the same mouse tissues with
eEF1A-2/S1-specific antibody reveals a differentially expressed 50-kDa
protein band in brain, heart, and muscle alone (arrow), in
addition to two prominent nonspecific 66- and 45-kDa bands (*).
IC, immunoblotting with rabbit preimmune serum verifies that
the additional bands seen in IB (*) are the result of some
pre-immune reaction in the rabbits used for immunization.
IIA and IIB, in rat tissues, eEF1A-1 and
eEF1A-2/S1 proteins exhibit the same pattern of expression;
i.e. eEF1A-2/S1 protein is restricted to the same three
tissues, brain, heart, and muscle, whereas eEF1A-1 protein is prominent
in liver and spleen (arrow) but reduced in abundance in
brain and skeletal muscle and absent in heart. The same nonspecific
reactions associated with the eEF1A-2/S1-specific antibody are also
observed (*). IIIA and IIIB, human autopsy
tissues (68-year-old woman), also probed with the same antibodies,
reveal a similar tissue-specific pattern of eEF1A-1 and eEF1A-2/S1
protein expression (arrow). Again, the same nonspecific
antibody reaction is seen as with the preimmune serum (*).
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Tissue-specific Presence of eEF1A-2/S1 Protein in Mice, Rats, and
Humans--
Our laboratory reported previously that eEF1A-2/S1
mRNA expression is restricted to three tissues: brain, heart,
and skeletal muscle. The appearance of eEF1A-2/S1 mRNA is a late
differentiation event, occurring after myotubes are formed and neuronal
terminal differentiation is completed (1). Using anti-eEF1A-1 and
anti-eEF1A-2/S1 antibodies, we investigated the presence of eEF1A-1 and
eEF1A-2/S1 proteins in various tissues previously characterized for
positive or negative expressions of eEF1A-2/S1 mRNA. Immunoblotting
analyses were performed on various tissues isolated from adult mice,
rats, and humans. A major band of 50 kDa in mouse liver and spleen was detected using the anti-eEF1A-1 antibody (Fig. 4IA). The
50-kDa eEF1A-1 protein was also present at a very low level in heart and reduced in abundance in brain and skeletal muscle (Fig.
4IA). By probing with anti-eEF1A-2/S1, a 50-kDa
protein was detected only in brain, heart, and muscle (Fig.
4IB). Anti-eEF1A-2/S1 also detected two other bands at 66 and 45 kDa; to determine whether these two additional bands were
specific, a reaction with a rabbit antiserum obtained prior to
immunization was compared with the anti-eEF1A-2/S1 reaction, in which
the preimmune serum also yielded 66- and 45-kDa protein bands but
lacked the specific reaction with the 50-kDa eEF1A-2/S1 protein (Fig.
4IC). We conclude that the 66- and 45-kDa bands detected
using anti-eEF1A-2/S1 are the result of nonspecific reactions of the
preimmune serum.
Similar studies in adult rat (3 months) and human autopsy tissues
(68-years-old) revealed the same pattern of expression found in mice.
In rat and human tissue, eEF1A-2/S1 protein is restricted to brain,
heart, and muscle (Fig. 4, IIA, IIB,
IIIA, and IIIB). However, eEF1A-1 protein levels
in these three eEF1A-2/S1-positive tissues vary among the three tested
species, humans, mice, and rats, ranging from non-detectable to modest
levels. This variation may be due to species differences. Nevertheless,
results of these studies at the protein level are in overall agreement
with the specific gene expression patterns examined at the message
level, because eEF1A-2/S1 mRNA is only expressed in brain, heart,
and skeletal muscle (3, 6). We also investigated rat smooth muscle
(bladder and stomach) for both eEF1A-1 and eEF1A-2/S1 proteins (Fig.
5); lung and spleen were also studied,
along with liver and skeletal muscle, which we know are negative and
positive, respectively, for eEF1A-2/S1 protein. Fig. 5A
shows that eEF1A-1 protein is present in all tested tissues, whereas
eEF1A-2/S1 is only present in skeletal muscle but not in smooth muscle
of aorta, bladder, or stomach or any other eEF1A-2/S1-negative tissues
(including liver, lung, and spleen) (Fig. 5B).

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Fig. 5.
eEF1A-1 and eEF1A-2/S1 proteins in smooth
muscle. To investigate the protein presence of eEF1A-1 and
eEF1A-2/S1 in smooth muscle, immunoblotting analysis was performed on
adult rat bladder and stomach tissues, as well as skeletal muscle,
liver, lung, and spleen. A, various rat tissues were probed
with eEF1A-1-specific antibody. eEF1A-1 is very abundantly expressed in
smooth muscle tissues from bladder and stomach as well as in
eEF1A-2/S1-negative tissues such as liver and spleen. B, the
same rat tissues were probed with the eEF1A-2/S1-specific antibody.
eEF1A-2/S1 is detected only in skeletal muscle, not in smooth muscle or
eEF1A-2/S1-negative controls, including liver, lung, and spleen.
|
|
Genotyping of Wild-type and Mutant Mice--
The wasted
mouse is a spontaneous mutant strain from the Jackson
Laboratories (9). The mutant phenotype was recently shown to correlate
with a 15.8-kb deletion, including the promoter and first non-coding
exon of the eEF1A-2/S1 gene (8) (Fig.
6A). To detect the presence of
the mutant allele, we designed oligonucleotide primers to amplify
around the boundary of the deletion (the P1 fragment), with the forward
primer upstream and the reverse primer downstream, of the 15.8-kb
deleted region (Fig. 6A). PCR using these two primers
amplifies a 2.9-kb DNA fragment from both homozygous (
/
) and
heterozygous (+/
) mice (Fig. 6B, lanes 2 and
4). This PCR product is not observed with the wild-type
(+/+) mouse DNA, because the expected PCR reaction yields a product
larger than 18 kb (Fig. 6B, lane 3). To detect a
wild-type allele, oligonucleotide primers were designed to amplify a
456-bp fragment within the 1.5-kb deletion (the P2 fragment). The
absence of the fragment was used to identify the homozygous mutants
(Fig. 6B, lane 6), whereas the PCR product is
readily obtained in the parallel PCR reactions of the wild-type and
heterozygous animals (Fig. 6B, lanes 7 and
8).

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Fig. 6.
Genotyping of mutant mice. A,
strategy for genotyping wasted mice and distinguishing
wild-type, heterozygous, and homozygous mice, using PCR. B,
PCR product showing amplification of the P1 fragment (2.8 kb),
indicating a mutant allele, and the P2 fragment (456 bp), indicating a
wild-type allele.
|
|
Presence of eEF1A-1 and eEF1A-2/S1 Proteins in Wild-type,
Heterozygous, and wasted Mice--
Using anti-eEF1A-1 and
anti-eEF1A-2/S1 antibodies, we expanded the previous findings of the
mRNA levels of both isoforms in wasted mutant mice to a
study of their protein presence, detailing the temporal pattern of
eEF1A-1 and eEF1A-2/S1 protein levels. In wild-type mice, there
is a switch from a predominant eEF1A-1 presence to eEF1A-2/S1 protein
in brain, heart, and skeletal muscle during development. eEF1A-1
protein levels are high in embryonic life but gradually decline with
postnatal age (Fig. 7). In comparison, the level of eEF1A-2/S1 protein is low in embryonic tissues and increases in abundance up to P28 after birth (Fig. 7, A-C).
Interestingly, some residual eEF1A-1 protein is still detectable in
eEF1A-2/S1-positive tissues at P20 and P28. As expected, liver does not
express eEF1A-2/S1 protein at any developmental time point (Fig.
7D), consistent with previous reports where eEF1A-2/S1
mRNA was not detected.

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Fig. 7.
Differential expression of eEF1A-1 and
eEF1A-2/S1 proteins during development of wild-type, heterozygous, and
mutant mice. Mouse tissues from brain (A), heart
(B), skeletal muscle (C), and liver
(D) obtained at ages of embryonic day 18 (E18)
and postnatal (P) days 1-, 7-, 14-, 20-, and 28-days-old
were used for immunoblotting assays from wild-type (+/+), heterozygous
(+/ ), and mutant ( / ) mice. Protein extracts of the four selected
tissues were processed for immunoblot analysis with eEF1A-1- and
eEF1A-2/S1-specific antibodies, as described under "Materials and
Methods."
|
|
The patterns of eEF1A-1 protein presence in heterozygous and wild-type
mice are quite similar (Fig. 7). However, in experiments directly
comparing eEF1A-2/S1 protein levels in wild-type and heterozygous
animals, we detected a decrease in the protein presence of eEF1A-2/S1
in heterozygous animals (data not shown). This was expected, because
heterozygous animals lack one eEF1A-2/S1 allele. In homozygous mutant
mice we detected no eEF1A-2/S1 protein throughout the entire period of
development, up to and including postnatal day 28 (Fig. 7). The absence
of eEF1A-2/S1 protein has no effect on eEF1A-1 protein abundance during
development in all three tissues that are normally eEF1A-2/S1-positive;
the scheduled reduction in eEF1A-1 protein quantity is
indistinguishable from that in wild-type mice. Quantitation of eEF1A-1
and eEF1A-2/S1 expression levels in brain, heart, and muscle of
wild-type and heterozygous mice reveals an inverse relationship between
the expression levels of eEF1A-1 and eEF1A-2/S1. In other words, when
eEF1A-1 protein is very abundant, during early embryonic development,
eEF1A-2/S1 levels are very low and vice versa later. Table
I summarizes elongation factor abundance,
expressed as a ratio of eEF1A-1 to eEF1A-2/S1 Western blot band
intensities (eEF1A-1/eEF1A-2 ratio). In all eEF1A-2/S1-positive
tissues, the eEF1A-1/eEF1A-2 ratio is high during embryonic life and
gradually decreases during postnatal development.
Immunofluorescence Microscopy--
Western blot analysis
demonstrates that reactivity against eEF1A-1 in the brain of wild-type
mice (20-day-old, P-20) is weak, whereas eEF1A-2/S1 reactivity is
intense (Fig. 7A). However, some eEF1A-1 protein is still
detectable in the mouse brain, making it unclear whether both isoforms
are coexpressed in the same cells. To resolve this matter, we analyzed
eEF1A-1 expression by immunohistochemical studies in sections of
wild-type mouse brain at postnatal day 20. To assess whether eEF1A-1
expression in brain is contributed by neurons or by non-neuronal cells,
we double stained with either anti-eEF1A-1 or anti-eEF1A-2/S1
antibodies, anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein antisera for
detection of non-neuronal astrocytes, and an antibody against
neurofilament (NF-68). Neurofilament is specifically expressed in
neurons, serving as a marker for neuronal localization in brain
sections (Fig. 8B,
H, K, and N, red). Double staining of wild-type brain sections with anti-eEF1A-2/S1 (Fig. 8A) and anti-NF-68 (Fig. 8B) revealed prominent
colocalization of both proteins; merging of the red and green images
produced a yellow fluorescence (Fig. 8C), indicating that
eEF1A-2/S1 protein is present in the neuronal cells of the brain. We
labeled non-neuronal GFAP-positive cells (Fig. 8D) to
demonstrate the presence of eEF1A-1 immunoreactivity (Fig.
8E) in the non-neuronal population of the brain sections and
found GFAP and eEF-1A-1 coimmunoreactivity (Fig. 8F),
indicating that both GFAP and eEF1A-1 proteins are localized in the
non-neuronal population. As expected, eEF1A-2/S1 protein is not
detected in mutant brain (Fig. 8G), although neurons show
positive staining with anti-NF-68 in the cell body (Fig. 8,
H and I, solid arrows) and dendrites
(Fig. 8I, open arrows). On the other hand,
brain sections of postnatal day 20 mutant mice reveal similar low level
expression patterns of eEF1A-1 in a few cells (Fig. 8J) but
strong NF-68 (Fig. 8K), with no obvious colocalization between cells positive for NF-68 (Fig. 8L, open
arrows) and those staining weakly for eEF1A-1 (Fig. 8L,
solid arrows). Similar to results from mutant mice, double
staining wild-type samples with both anti-eEF1A-1 (Fig. 8M,
green) and anti-NF-68 (Fig. 8N, red) shows little colocalization (with the exception of two or three neurons
with weak eEF1A-1 presence), demonstrating that most eEF1A-1-positive cells have lost this gene expression by this stage of development (Fig.
8O, arrows). These results show that the residual
eEF1A-1 presence following the onset of eEF1A-2/S1 appearance is
contributed by the non-neuronal cells in the brain or by at most low
level presence in neurons. It is likely that analogous situations exist in the heart and muscle, where fibroblasts and satellite cells, respectively, may house most of the eEF1A-1 protein, whereas eEF1A-1 is
absent in cardiomyocytes and skeletal myotubes, as in neurons.

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Fig. 8.
Indirect immunofluorescence labeling
and confocal micrographs of 20-day-old (P-20) mouse brain.
Top panels (A-C) show localization of eEF1A-2/S1
(A, green) and neurofilament (B,
red) and colocalization of the two proteins in neural cell
bodies (C, yellow, solid arrows) in
brains of wild-type mice. D-F, both normal and mutant
P-20 brains labeled with anti-GFAP (D,
green), anti-eEF1A-1 (E, red), and
their overlap (F, yellow) show the same results.
G-I show mutant brain labeled with anti-eEF1A-2/S1
(G) and anti-NF-68 (H, red) antibodies
and double-stained with both antibodies (I). As expected,
the mutant brain shows no eEF1A-2/S1 immunoreactivity (G and
I). J-L show wasted mutant brain
stained with eEF1A-1 (J, light green) and NF-68
(K, red) and overlaps (L). The
solid arrows point to the neural body, which shows both
NF-68 and low level eEF1A-1 staining (L), whereas dendrites
show only NF-68-positive staining (L, open
arrows). M-O show wild-type brain immunolabeled with
eEF1A-1 (M, green) and NF-68 (N, red) and colocalization
(O, yellow). Note eEF1A-1 and neurofilament
colocalization in a few neurons (O, solid
arrows), whereas most neurons stain eEF1A-1 negative but NF-68
positive (O, open arrows). The eEF1A-1 positivity
in some neurons may suggest that at this stage some neurons still
retain residual positivity. The magnification scale of A-O
is shown in F, H, and I; the
bar is 100 µm.
|
|
 |
DISCUSSION |
We have generated an eEF1A-2/S1-specific polyclonal antibody,
which recognizes the eEF1A-2/S1 protein with high affinity. This
success, combined with the existing peptide-derived anti-eEF1A-1 (13),
provided us two antibodies that distinguish between eEF1A-2/S1 and
eEF1A-1 proteins. These antibodies allowed us to demonstrate the
following. (i) eEF1A-1 protein presence declines at postnatal day 7, with the concomitant increase of its sister protein, eEF1A-2/S1, in
brain, heart, and skeletal muscle. (ii) wasted mutant mice, as expected, do not express eEF1A-2/S1 protein. (iii) The reduction in
eEF1A-1 protein abundance occurs on schedule in wasted
mutant mice, as in their wild-type counterparts, indicating that the decline of eEF1A-1 protein abundance is regulated independently of
eEF1A-2/S1 protein presence. Therefore, it appears that by postnatal
day 28 wasted mutant mice are deficient in both isoforms of
peptide elongation factor-1A, which are essential for normal protein synthesis.
During the course of development of the wasted mutant mouse,
we failed to detect eEF1A-2/S1 protein at any postnatal stage, which is
in agreement with the absence of eEF1A-2/S1 mRNA in mutant mice
(8). It is important to note that the absence of eEF1A-2/S1 protein is
not compensated for by any increase in eEF1A-1, in agreement with
Chambers et al. (8), who detected no substantial level of
eEF1A-1 mRNA in the brain, heart, or muscle of wasted mice. Therefore, these tissues in the wasted mutant do not
express any known peptide elongation factor-1A; so it is to be expected that there is a deficiency of protein synthesis in these tissues. However, no reports so far describe protein synthesis in
wasted mice. In the mouse brain, a residual amount of
eEF1A-1 remains even in adulthood, in contrast with heart and muscle,
where its expression is almost undetectable. It is well known that the
brain has a very heterogeneous cellular composition; thus, to determine whether eEF1A-1 expression is found in neurons, where eEF1A-2/S1 is
expressed, immunohistochemical studies were performed. We demonstrate that the residual expression of eEF1A-1 in the adult brain is attributed mostly to non-neuronal cells, suggesting that only neurons
express eEF1A-2/S1 as a peptide elongation factor-1A, which is
consistent with the previous report of Lee et al. (19).
Taken together, our findings favor the possibility that the cause of
death in wasted mutant mice may be a drastic reduction or
absence of peptide elongation factor-1A. Despite the absence of
eEF1A-2/S1 in the wasted mutant mice, the possibility that other mutations coexist with the eEF1A-2/S1 deletion cannot be excluded, as argued by Chambers et al. (8). Therefore, the phenotype of the wasted mutant may result from additional
mutations. In addition to muscle wasting and motor neuron loss, the
wasted phenotype is also associated with immune system
abnormalities and defects in mechanisms of DNA repair (20), where the
presence and role of eEF1A-2/S1 would be obscure.
There are many possible functional implications for a shift in
expression from eEF1A-1 to eEF1A-2/S1 in brain, heart, and skeletal
muscle during development. It is reported that eEF1A-2/S1 performs
peptide elongation in vitro, with the only known difference being a slower rate of GDP dissociation (7), which may result in
increased translational fidelity. Indeed, a correlation between translational accuracy and GTP hydrolysis has been reported (21-24). It is also possible that eEF1A-2/S1 retains the protein elongation role
of eEF1A-1 but not all of its other functions, most importantly the
bundling of actin filaments (25) and severing of microtubules (26).
Investigation into the peptide domains responsible for the shared
protein elongation function and for the dissimilar non-canonical
functions between the two sister eEF1As will definitively explain the
development-dependent shift in expression of these two
genes. Nonetheless, our results show that in neurons, myotube and
cardiomyocytes, eEF1A-1 is the embryonic form of peptide elongation factor, whereas its sister, eEF1A-2/S1, is the adult form.
 |
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
We are indebted to Mr. Alan N. Bloch for
proofreading this manuscript, to Dr. Reen Wu of the University of
California, Davis for the gracious gift of the HT7 antibody against
eEF1A-1, to Dr. Jeff Qian for many useful discussions, and to
Xiao-Ling Wang for construction of the original S1 in the
glutathione-S-transferase constructs in PGEX-2t vector.
 |
FOOTNOTES |
*
This work was supported by a research operating grant from
the Medical Research Council of Canada (to E. W.) and by NIA, National Institutes of Health Grant AG10871.The costs of publication of this
article were defrayed in part by the
payment of page charges. The article
must therefore be hereby marked
"advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section
1734 solely to indicate this fact.
¶
To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of
Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40292. Tel.: 502-852-2556; Fax: 502-852-2555; E-mail: eugenia.wang@louisville.edu.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, April 9, 2001, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M101011200
 |
ABBREVIATIONS |
The abbreviations used are:
eEF1A, peptide elongation factor-1A;
GST, glutathione
S-transferase;
PCR, polymerase chain reaction;
TBST, Tris-buffered saline, 0.5% Tween 20;
bp, base pair(s);
kb, kilobase(s).
 |
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Copyright © 2001 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.