From the Department of Biology, National Science Foundation Center for Biological Timing, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904-4328
Received for publication, November 1, 2000, and in revised form, December 13, 2000
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ABSTRACT |
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Nocturnin is a vertebrate circadian
clock-regulated gene, and in Xenopus laevis its mRNA is
specifically expressed in retinal photoreceptor cells. We have
investigated the transcriptional regulatory mechanism that drives this
precise spatial expression pattern of the nocturnin gene. A deletion
series of the nocturnin 5'-flanking sequence driving the green
fluorescence protein (GFP) reporter was used to generate transgenic
Xenopus tadpoles. We found that a construct containing 2.6 kilobase pairs of 5'-flanking sequence targeted high level GFP reporter
expression specifically to photoreceptor cells, in a pattern identical
to endogenous nocturnin. This photoreceptor-specific expression pattern
was maintained with several further deletions of 5'-upstream sequence,
including a short 59-base pair fragment. Within this region of 59 base
pairs, three perfect repeats of a novel protein binding site were
identified by electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Competitions
using varying oligonucleotide sequences demonstrated that the sequence
required for protein binding is CAGACAGGCTATA, designated
photoreceptor-conserved element II (PCE II). The protein complex that
binds to this element is enriched in retinal extracts, and mutations of
PCE II which fail to bind the protein complex also fail to direct GFP
reporter expression to photoreceptors. These results indicate that the PCE II in the proximal promoter of the nocturnin gene is sufficient for
driving the photoreceptor-specific expression of nocturnin.
Precise spatial patterns of gene expression are critical for the
proper function of all organisms. Within most of the central nervous
system of vertebrates, the study of spatial regulation of transcription
is difficult because of the vast heterogeneity of this tissue. The
retina is a part of the central nervous system which is more amenable
to these types of study because the cells are organized in
morphologically distinct layers, and the various cell types have been
well characterized (1-3).
Many genes have been shown to be expressed specifically in
photoreceptor cells within the retina, including those known to be
involved in the phototransduction cascade or other photoreceptor processes. Biochemical studies, such as DNase I footprinting and electrophoretic mobility shift assays
(EMSAs),1 have identified a
number of protein binding sites within the promoters/enhancers of
several retina-specific genes, including opsin, interphotoreceptor
retinoid-binding protein (IRBP), and rod arrestin (4-7). DNA elements
named Ret1 and PCE I were defined in the rat opsin promoter and the
arrestin promoter, respectively, but these two elements are quite
similar to each other (8, 9). Further analysis of the rat opsin gene
revealed two additional protein-binding elements named Ret2 and Ret3
(10). A positive acting opsin regulatory element Ret4 was identified
using an in vitro transcription system from bovine retinal
nuclear extracts (11). It has been demonstrated that a member of the
OTD/OTX family, CRX (cone rod homeobox), binds in
vitro to the Ret4 and Ret1 sites and to an element named
BAT-1, resulting in the stimulation of the transcriptional
activities of opsin, IRBP, and several photoreceptor cell-specific gene
promoters (5, 6). Also within the opsin upstream region, more protein
binding sites were found: a sequence similar to the
Drosophila glass binding site (12), a putative site
Eopsin-1 for the basic helix-loop-helix transcription
factor Mash-1 (13), BAT-1 and XRS-1 sites (14), and Nrl response
element (an extended AP-1-like sequence) or AP-1 sites (15-18).
Despite the identification of these protein-binding elements, the
transcriptional regulatory mechanism that governs the
photoreceptor-specific expression of these genes is still not known. In
many cases the examination of these elements have only been done
in vitro.
Nocturnin is a retina-specific gene first identified in Xenopus
laevis by a differential display screen seeking circadian clock-regulated genes (19, 20). In situ hybridization
demonstrated that nocturnin was specifically expressed in the
photoreceptor layer within the retina (21). In both cyclic light and
constant darkness, nocturnin mRNA rises in early night (or
subjective night) and returns to low levels around midnight. The
mRNA rhythms are controlled by the retinal circadian clock at the
level of transcription (21). The precise spatial and temporal pattern
of gene transcription makes the nocturnin promoter an interesting
candidate for studies of transcriptional regulation.
The transgenic technique in Xenopus provides a unique
experimental method to address questions of specific gene expression in vivo (22, 23). The transgenic method results in animals that are not mosaic and can therefore be analyzed directly without breeding (24). Previous work has demonstrated that a GFP reporter can
be faithfully targeted to specific tissues using tissue-specific promoter/enhancers (22, 25, 26). To investigate the regulatory mechanism of the nocturnin gene, we analyzed the in vivo
expression patterns of GFP reporters driven by various portions of the
nocturnin 5'-flanking sequence in transgenic Xenopus. The
in vivo experiments, coupled with in vitro
binding studies, resulted in the identification of a novel element that
is sufficient to drive reporter gene expression specifically in retinal
photoreceptors. We have named this novel element PCE II.
Construction of GFP Reporter Plasmids
The transcription start site of nocturnin has been identified
previously using both primer extension and 5'-rapid amplification of
cDNA ends (21). Abbreviations of upstream sequences are based on
the sequence position relative to the transcription start site. For
example, XNP( XNP( XNP( XNP(
Primer
Primer
Downstream vector primer (GL primer 2; reverse):
5'-GAAATACAAAAACCGCAGAAGG-3' (Promega).
PCR was performed as described below. These two resulting PCR fragments
were each subcloned into the pCR2.1-TOPO vector using the TOPO-TA kit
(Invitrogen) and then transferred into the pEGFP vector at the
XhoI and HindIII sites.
XNP(
XNP(
Mut-PCE:
5'-CCCTCGAGGGGTTGAGTCGGCTTATAGGTGAGTCGGCTTATATCTGGTGAGTCGGCTTATATCTGCCAAGCTTCC-3'
(added XhoI and HindIII sites are
underlined; mutated sites are bold).
The two complementary XNP(
All constructs were verified by sequencing after subcloning. For
transgenic experiments, constructs XNP( Producing Transgenic Xenopus Tadpoles
Transgenic Xenopus embryos were produced as described
previously (22, 23), with modifications as shown below. Briefly, eggs
were squeezed from human chorionic gonadotropin-stimulated frogs
and rinsed in 1 × MMR (0.1 M NaCl, 2 mM
KCl, 1 mM MgCl2, 2 mM
CaCl2, 5 mM HEPES, pH 7.5) for 10 min followed
by dejellying in 3 mM dithiothreitol. Restriction
enzyme-mediated integration reaction (4 µl of nuclei (100 nuclei/nl),
1 µl of linearized DNA, 9 µl of sperm dilution buffer (250 mM sucrose, 75 mM KCl, 0.5 mM
spermidine trihydrochloride, 0.2 mM spermine
tetrahydrochloride), 100 mM MgCl2, 1.5-2 µl
of oocyte extract, and 0.5 µl of restriction enzyme (1:5 dilution in
sperm dilution buffer)) was incubated at room temperature for 10 min
and then diluted into MOH (10 mM KPO4, pH 7.2, 125 mM potassium gluconate, 5 mM NaCl, 0.5 mM MgCl2, 250 mM sucrose, 0.25 mM spermidine, and 0.125 mM spermine). The restriction enzyme-mediated integration was diluted to a final concentration of three sperms/5 nl, and this dilution was injected into
unfertilized eggs (about 5 nl/egg), which has been empirically determined to result in one functional sperm nucleus being delivered to
the majority of eggs. Embryos were maintained in 0.25 × NAM (110 mM NaCl, 2.0 mM KCl, 1.0 mM
Ca(NO3)2, 1.0 mM MgSO4,
0.1 mM EDTA, 2.0 mM sodium phosphate, pH 7.5, 1.0 mM NaHCO3) plus 50 mg/liter gentamicin
(Life Technologies, Inc.) for 2-3 days, and then the tadpoles were
transferred to dechlorinated water. They were maintained at 21 °C in
a 12-h light:12-h dark cycle.
Microscopy
Tadpoles (10-14 days old) were fixed overnight in 4%
paraformaldehyde in phosphate buffered saline. The samples were
equilibrated in 30% sucrose in phosphate-buffered saline, embedded in
O.C.T. compound (Ted Pella, Inc.), and frozen sections (12-µm
thickness) were prepared. Images were obtained on an Olympus IX70
inverted microscope and digitized by OlymPix camera system. A
fluorescein isothiocyanate/enhanced GFP long pass filter cube
(41012, Chroma) was used for fluorescent images. Some images were
generated using confocal microscopy (Nikon Eclipse TE200, KECK Center
for Cellular Imaging, University of Virginia). Green fluorescent images
were generated using 488 nm blue argon. Three-dimensional images were obtained using serial optical sections with the C.Imaging software (Compix, Inc.). Each image of the Z-series composite is 20 µm thick.
Identification of Transgenic Tadpoles by PCR
Tails of the tadpoles were cut (~0.5 cm), and genomic DNA was
isolated using DNeasy Tissue Kit (Qiagen). PCR primers used to amplify
nocturnin were: (forward) 5'-ATGGGAAACAGCACCAGCAGAC-3' and (reverse)
5'-GCCAGAATGTTCCACTGCATCAC-3'. PCR primers used to amplify GFP were:
(GFP 219-forward) 5'-CAAGCTGACCCTGAAGTTCATCTG-3' and (GFP 602-reverse)
5'-CGGATCTTGAAGTTGACCTTGATC-3'. The reaction mixture for PCR included
60 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.5, 15 mM ammonium sulfate,
1.25 mM MgCl2 for GFP (2.5 mM for
nocturnin), 1 mM each dNTP, 5 ng/µl of each primer, and
1.5 unit of AmpliTaq-Gold (PerkinElmer Life Sciences). The PCR profile
was as follows: 10 min at 95 °C followed by 30 cycles of 94 °C
for 40 s, 55 °C for 1 min (for GFP, 50 °C for nocturnin),
and 72 °C for 1 min, followed by a final 10 min at 72 °C. PCR
results were analyzed on 1% agarose gels.
Isolation of Retinal Nuclear Extracts
Adult frogs were maintained on 12-h light:12-h dark cycles.
Adult eyes were dissected at Zeitgeber time (ZT) 2 and ZT 11.5, in
which ZT 0 is defined as the time of light onset (dawn) and ZT 12 as
dark onset (dusk). Brain, muscle, liver, and heart were dissected at ZT
11.5. Nuclear extracts for EMSA were prepared from adult
Xenopus retinas and other tissues using the method modified
from (27). Tissues were homogenized and pelleted in phosphate-buffered
saline and then quickly resuspended in hypotonic buffer (10 mM HEPES, pH 7.9, 10 mM KCl, 0.1 mM
EDTA, 0.1 mM EGTA, 0.5 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl
fluoride, 1 mM dithiothreitol) with 10% Igepal (Fisher) at
4 °C for 15 min. After centrifugation at 15,000 rpm, the pellet was
dissolved in high salt buffer (20 mM HEPES, pH 7.9, 25%
glycerol, 0.4 M NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM EGTA, 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 1 mM dithiothreitol). The nuclei were extracted for 20-30
min on a shaking platform at 4 °C and then centrifuged at 15,000 rpm. The supernatant was quickly frozen in aliquots and then stored at
EMSA
Oligonucleotides used as probes in EMSA are listed in Fig.
8B (Life Technologies, Inc. and MWG Biotech, Inc.).
Two complementary oligonucleotides were annealed in the polynucleotide
kinase buffer by heating to 65 °C for 10 min and then cooling slowly
to room temperature. Double-stranded oligonucleotides were end labeled with [ In the studies presented here, our goal was to define the portion
of the nocturnin promoter/enhancer responsible for correct spatial
expression of the nocturnin gene. Previous analysis of the endogenous
nocturnin mRNA by Northern blot showed that nocturnin mRNA can
be detected only in the retina and is not evident in brain, heart,
kidney, skeletal muscle, or liver (19). In situ hybridization demonstrated that within the Xenopus retina
the expression of the nocturnin mRNA is spatially restricted to the retinal photoreceptor cells (19).
A portion of a Xenopus nocturnin genomic clone containing
~2.6 kb of 5'-flanking sequence and 20 bp of transcribed sequence was
isolated. A portion of the most proximal (
INTRODUCTION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
2.6kb/+20bp)-GFP refers to the construct of GFP driven
by the Xenopus nocturnin promoter from 2.6 kb
upstream to 20 bp downstream of the transcription start site.
2.6kb/+20bp)-GFP--
A Xenopus nocturnin
genomic clone was cut with SacI and BsmBI to
generate a fragment extending from ~2.6 kb upstream of the transcription start site to 20 bp downstream. This fragment was cloned
into the SacI and SmaI sites of the pGEM7 vector
and named p42B2. This ~2.6-kb fragment was then excised with
SacI and HindIII and cloned into the
SacI/HindIII sites of the pEGFP vector
(CLONTECH).
398/+20bp)-GFP--
The p42B2 clone was digested with
SpeI and HindIII and then cloned into the
NheI and HindIII sites of the pGL2-basic vector (Promega), XNP(
398/+20bp)-Luc. This fragment was then excised with SacI and HindIII and transferred into the
pEGFP vector.
161/+20bp)-GFP and XNP(
108/+20bp)-GFP--
Specific PCR
primers were designed to amplify these smaller 5'-upstream fragments
from XNP(
398/+20bp)-Luc.
161/
140bp (forward):
5'-GGAAAGTTGTAACTATGTGCGGCATTTACA-3';
108
88bp (forward): 5'-GACTGTGACGTGGCTTCTTTCT-3';
77/
18bp)-GFP and Mut-PCE-GFP--
Complementary
oligonucleotides containing three repeats of the PCE II (
77/
18bp)
and mutant PCE II (Mut-PCE) elements were synthesized (Life
Technologies, Inc. and MWG Biotech, Inc.) flanked with
restriction enzyme cutting sites.
77/
18bp):
5'-CCGAGCTCGAGGGGGTCAGACAGGCTTATAGGCAGACAGGCTTATATCTGGCAGACAGGCTTATATCTGCCAGATCTCC-3'
(SacI/XhoI and BglII; underlined).
77/
18bp) oligonucleotides were annealed
as described in the EMSA method (below) and cloned into the
SacI and BglII sites of the pGL2-basic vector. It
was then excised by XhoI and HindIII and
transferred into the pEGFP vector. The two complementary Mut-PCE
oligonucleotides were annealed and then directly subcloned into the
XhoI and HindIII sites of the pEGFP vector.
2.6kb/+20bp)-GFP, XNP(
398/+20bp)-GFP, XNP(
77/
18bp)-GFP, and the GFP vector with no
promoter were linearized using XhoI; XNP(
161/+20bp)-GFP
using SalI; XNP(
108/+20bp)-GFP and Mut-PCE-GFP using
BglII. Linear DNA was precipitated and brought to a final
concentration of 150-200 ng/µl in H2O.
70 °C until use. Protein concentrations were tested using the
standard method of Dc protein assay (Bio-Rad).
-32P]ATP (NEN Life Science Products) by T4
polynucleotide kinase (New England Biolabs) and purified by NucTrap
columns (Stratagene). Binding reaction mixtures included the following:
2-4-µg nuclear extracts (for retinas it was a mixture of extracts
isolated at ZT 2 and ZT 11.5), 8 mM HEPES, 60 mM KCl, 2 mM EDTA, 4 mM spermidine, 1 µg of salmon sperm, 1 µg of poly(dI-dC), 0.1 µg/µl bovine
serum albumin, 0.03% Nonidet P-40, 0.5% Ficoll, 10% glycerol, 1 mM dithiothreitol, and ~1 ng of radiolabeled probe.
Binding reactions (15 µl) were incubated for 0.5 h at room
temperature. For competition assays, 50- and 200-fold unlabeled
oligonucleotides were added and incubated for 20-30 min at room
temperature before the addition of radiolabeled probe. A 6%
polyacrylamide gel (29:1 acrylamide:bisacrylamide) was
preelectrophoresed in 0.5 × TBE (44.5 mM Tris, 44.5 mM boric acid, 1.25 mM EDTA, pH 8.3) for at
least 1 h at 4 °C. Samples were electrophoresed at a constant
voltage of 210 V at 4 °C for 2 h. Dry gels were exposed to film
for 1-12 h at room temperature.
RESULTS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
398/+20bp) of this sequence
is shown in Fig. 1A. There are
several putative protein binding sites in this region, including an
E-box-like element, CRX-like elements, and three perfect repeats of a
previously unidentified element (labeled PCE II). Serial deletions
(constructs 1-5) and a mutant (construct 6) of
the 5'-flanking sequence were made as shown in Fig. 1B. GFP
reporters driven by different lengths of the nocturnin 5'-flanking
sequence were used to generate transgenic tadpoles for examination of
the resulting GFP expression patterns.
View larger version (34K):
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Fig. 1.
Panel A, sequence of the
nocturnin 5'-flanking region, XNP( 398/+20bp). Numbers on
the top of the sequence are the relative positions before
(
) and after (+) the transcription start site, which is designated as
+1. Putative protein binding sites are shown in bold and
labeled on the top of the sequence. The sequences used as
the PCR primers to produce smaller fragments of the nocturnin promoter
are underlined. Panel B, diagram showing the
XNP-GFP reporter constructs used in these experiments. Relative
positions of restriction enzyme sites are shown on the top.
Arrows refer to the PCR primer sites. The approximate
positions of two putative protein binding sites, E-box-like element and
the three repeats of the PCE II, are shown. (1),
XNP(
2.6kb/+20bp)-GFP; (2), XNP(
398/+20bp)-GFP;
(3), XNP(
161/+20bp)-GFP; (4),
XNP(
108/+20bp)-GFP; (5), XNP(
77/
18bp)-GFP;
(6), Mut-PCE-GFP; (7), GFP only with no
promoter.
Analysis of Transgenic-positive Tadpoles by PCR--
All resulting
tadpoles were genotyped by PCR, using genomic DNA isolated from clipped
tails. Endogenous nocturnin was amplified (~250-bp band) to monitor
the quality of genomic DNA, and GFP coding sequence was amplified
(~480-bp band) to examine whether XNP-GFP constructs had been
integrated into the tadpole genome. Fig. 2
shows the PCR results from the various samples of transgenic-positive tadpoles (tadpoles 2-7), and a nontransgenic tadpole (tadpole 1) is
exhibited in Figs. 3 to 7. Endogenous
nocturnin bands were seen in all of the tadpoles, whereas the GFP bands
were observed only in the transgenic-positive tadpoles.
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The probability of survival after transgenesis in our hands varies from 3 to 15% of total eggs injected. Our PCR results confirmed that 40-80% of the living tadpoles resulting from these injections have GFP constructs integrated into their genome with variable copy numbers (data not shown). For each construct tested for our experiments, at least three independent PCR-positive tadpoles were examined.
XNP(2.6kb/+20bp) Directs GFP Expression to Retinal
Photoreceptors--
We first produced transgenic tadpoles using the
construct containing 2.6 kb of 5'-flanking sequence,
XNP(
2.6kb/+20bp)-GFP (Fig. 3). Careful examination of the living
tadpoles generally revealed no expression in any nonocular tissue. In
one tadpole (out of more than 20 examined), low level GFP expression
was observed in pineal gland and olfactory epithelium (data not shown),
possibly because of the position effect on the inserted transgene.
We sectioned tadpoles carrying this transgene and examined retinal
expression. In the phase-contrast images at low magnification (Fig.
3A), the sections of the tadpoles show the structures of the
eyes as well as some other body tissues. In the corresponding fluorescence image, GFP expression is observed only in the outer lamina
of the retina, with no detectable GFP expression in other retinal cell
layers, lens, or nonocular tissues. With higher magnification, it is
clear that GFP is expressed in the cell bodies of the photoreceptor cells but not in outer segments of photoreceptor cells or other retinal
cells (Fig. 3A). An image of the retina from a sibling tadpole that did not have the XNP(2.6kb/+20bp) construct (the PCR-negative tadpole 1, Fig. 2) exhibits only a low level of background autofluorescence at the bottom of the outer segments of the
photoreceptor cells, and no detectable GFP is observed in the cell
bodies (Fig. 3A). The tadpole produced using linearized GFP
vector with no promoter also does not exhibit any GFP expression in any
of the examined tissues (Fig. 3B) and is identical to the
PCR-negative tadpole in Fig. 3A. This same pattern of very
low background autofluorescence right at the inner and outer segment
junction is also observed in wild-type embryos (data not shown) and is
clearly distinguishable from the GFP fluorescence observed in the
transgenic retinas.
It is difficult to determine whether all cells in the photoreceptor
layer are expressing GFP using traditional microscopy because the cells
within the photoreceptor layer are organized in a somewhat staggered
pattern. Therefore, only a subset of the cells is in focus at once. To
examine more closely the photoreceptor cells that express GFP, confocal
microscopy was used to generate a Z-series of optical sections (see
"Experimental Procedures"). Confocal images through cryosections of
fixed eyes from transgenic-positive tadpoles again showed that GFP
expression is limited to photoreceptor cells. Within the photoreceptor
layer, the combined Z-series show that both rod and cone cells express
GFP (Fig. 4). These results are consistent
with the expression patterns of the endogenous nocturnin, suggesting
that the XNP(2.6kb/+20bp) is sufficient to target the GFP reporter to
photoreceptor cells appropriately.
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Deletion of the Nocturnin Promoter to
XNP(108/+20bp)--
Further deletions were made from the 2.6-kb
fragment to narrow the region of the nocturnin promoter which is
responsible for proper spatial expression. The GFP expression pattern
did not change with the deletion of the nocturnin promoter from
XNP(
2.6kb/+20bp) to XNP(
398/+20bp), although the GFP signals seem
to be generally weaker in the latter case (Fig.
5). Therefore, further deletions of the
nocturnin promoter were performed to detect whether the spatial
expression pattern of the GFP reporter would change. In tadpoles
produced using both XNP(
161/+20bp)-GFP and XNP(
108/+20bp)-GFP, GFP
can again only be observed in the photoreceptor layer, not in other
retinal cells or other tissues (Fig. 5). These results indicate that
elements sufficient for photoreceptor-specific expression must be
contained within the
108/+20bp sequence.
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GFP Reporter Is Only Expressed in Fully Differentiated
Photoreceptor Cells--
The ciliary marginal zone (CMZ) is the region
at the peripheral edge of the retina and contains undifferentiated
retinal progenitor cells. The youngest cells and stem cells are closest
to the periphery, the proliferative retinoblasts in the middle, and the
cells that have stopped dividing at the central stage (28). In
amphibians, the retina grows throughout life by adding new cells of all
types from the CMZ. Fig. 6 shows that the GFP
reporter directed by the XNP(108/+20bp) is targeted only to the
mature photoreceptor cells. Those cells in the CMZ which have not
differentiated to photoreceptors do not exhibit any detectable GFP
(Fig. 6). The same pattern has been observed in the other GFP
constructs directed by longer nocturnin promoters (data not shown).
These results indicate that the transcription of nocturnin is a feature
of the fully differentiated photoreceptor cells (see
"Discussion").
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The GFP Expression Pattern Is Maintained in the Transgenic Tadpoles
Produced by XNP(77/
18bp)--
Within the
108/+20bp sequence, we
noticed several elements of interest. One was a sequence with high
similarity to an E-box, the other was three nearly perfect repeats of a
novel sequence (Fig. 1A). To determine whether the
E-box-like element was involved in directing spatial expression of
nocturnin, we deleted this element to generate a XNP(
77/
18bp)
fragment which only contains the three repeated elements. The GFP
expression levels from this shorter promoter fragment are low in some
of the photoreceptor cells (Fig.
7A), but from the confocal image
it appears that the GFP is still expressed in both rod and cone cells
(Fig. 7B). No cells were found within the photoreceptor
layer that did not express GFP, although the levels of expression were
variable.
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PCE II Was Identified by EMSA--
To determine the protein
binding sequences within XNP(77/
18bp), EMSAs were performed using
nuclear extracts isolated from Xenopus retina (Fig.
8). As mentioned previously, we had observed three perfect repeats of 5'-CAGACAGGCTTATA-3' within the proximal promoter of the nocturnin gene (Fig. 8A), suggesting that
the repeated sequence may be the protein binding site. One prominent shifted band was detected when this element with flanking sequences was
used as a probe (lane 2, Fig. 8B). The addition
of excess unlabeled oligonucleotides identical to the radiolabeled
probe resulted in a dosage-dependent inhibition of the DNA
binding activity (lanes 2-4), whereas the addition of the
nonspecific competitor poly(dI-dC) (lanes 26-28) had no
effect, suggesting that the binding activity is specific. The binding
was not inhibited by competition with oligonucleotides that were
mutated in any part of the sequence of 5'-CAGACAGGCTATA-3' (lanes
11-22), suggesting that this sequence is involved in the
DNA-protein interaction. However, the competitors with mutations
outside of the recognition site still resulted in a
dosage-dependent inhibition (lanes 5-10,
23-25), which is similar to that seen when using competitor
identical to the probe.
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The flanking sequences of the different competitors of the PCE II probe are similar but not identical, and the results of the competition assays (lanes 5-10 and 23-25) demonstrate that they are probably not critical for the DNA-protein interactions. In addition, when wild-type short oligonucleotides (like M3-M6, only with the wild-type 14-bp core sequence) were used as probes, we observed the same prominent shift as that using the longer PCE II oligonucleotides as probes (data not shown). In fact, no changes in the flanking sequence, outside the 14-bp core, had any detectable effect on protein binding. Therefore, the protein-binding element is defined as CAGACAGGCTTATA. Because this sequence appears to be a novel protein binding site involved in photoreceptor-specific expression, we have named it PCE II.
Tissue specificity of PCE II was also tested using nuclear extracts isolated from Xenopus brain, muscle, liver, and heart (lanes 29-34). The results show that, as before, there is a strong and specific shift with nuclear extracts from retinas. A similar complex is seen with nuclear extracts from brains, but it is much weaker than seen in retinal extracts. There also may be low levels of complex formation in extracts from other tissues, but again the levels are much weaker than seen in retinal extracts. These results confirm that the protein complex that binds to PCE II is enriched in retina.
Mutants of PCE II Failed to Target the GFP Reporter to
the Photoreceptor Cells--
A mutant PCE II was designed based on the
results from the competition assays of EMSAs: CAGACA was mutated to
TGAGTC (M3 and M4 in Fig. 8). These base changes should disrupt complex
formation. Three repeats of mutant PCE II were subcloned upstream of
the GFP reporter to generate the Mut-PCE-GFP construct and was used to
produce transgenic tadpoles. Six individual PCR-positive tadpoles are
examined, and results from three of them are shown in Fig. 9. One of the six tadpoles exhibited a very
low level of GFP in all tissues (data not shown). Within the retina,
GFP was seen in a few cells, but there was no evidence of photoreceptor
specificity (Fig. 9, tadpole 2). The other five PCR-positive tadpoles
did not show any GFP expression in any tissue, including photoreceptor cells. Note the autofluorescence in the inner and outer segment junctions (Fig. 9, tadpoles 1 and 3) as seen before in nontransgenic tadpoles (Fig. 3). Altogether, these results demonstrate that XNP(77/
18bp) contains sufficient information to direct GFP
expression to photoreceptor cells in vivo.
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DISCUSSION |
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We have isolated and characterized a Xenopus nocturnin promoter element capable of directing correct spatial expression. Transgenic experiments showed that a small portion of the nocturnin promoter was capable of driving reporter gene expression specifically to photoreceptors, a pattern identical to endogenous nocturnin expression. This small piece of nocturnin promoter contains three perfectly repeated sequences, and EMSAs defined the protein binding site as CAGACAGGCTATA. Photoreceptor specificity was abolished when mutations of PCE II were used to direct the GFP reporter in the transgenic experiments. Comparison of this sequence with elements that have been shown to regulate photoreceptor-specific expression of other genes revealed that this was a novel element, and we therefore designated it as PCE II.
Several promoter elements have been reported to be involved in the rod-specific (opsin and rod arrestin) or photoreceptor-specific (IRBP and nocturnin) control of transcription (Table I). These protein binding motifs were identified by EMSAs and DNase I footprinting assays from a number of different laboratories. Comparing these sequences with each other makes it obvious that even the binding motifs with the same name found from different genes or from different species are quite variable. However, PCE II, the novel element described here, has a unique sequence that is not similar to any of the elements described previously.
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Despite the work done investigating photoreceptor-specific
transcriptional regulation in a number of species, no clear general mechanism for photoreceptor-specific gene expression has yet emerged. It has been shown that Ret1 can direct gene expression in rod photoreceptors in transgenic rats (29). A 221-bp fragment of the mouse
opsin promoter which contains Ret1 and BAT-1 also directs expression specifically to the rod photoreceptors of transgenic mice
(4). A reporter gene driven by the 70-bp promoter of the murine IRBP
which contains Ret1/PCE I and CRX binding sites is active in cultures
of retinal cells and brain cells (30). A portion of the rod arrestin
promoter, including CRX and AP1 binding sites, directs expression of a
reporter gene only in rod cells in the transgenic X. laevis
(7). In this paper we showed that the XNP(77/
18bp) containing three
repeated PCE II is sufficient to target the GFP reporter to the
photoreceptors in X. laevis.
In several cases the transcriptional factors that bind to the retina-specific elements have been characterized (Table I) even though their interactions and in vivo functions are not yet well defined. Maf and Nrl can bind in vitro to AP-1 sites and form heterodimers with Fos and Jun (15, 31-33). The homeodomain protein RX has been shown to bind to the Ret1/PCE I site and activates the TATA-less arrestin and IRBP promoters (29, 34, 35). Because the nocturnin PCE II is novel, the photoreceptor protein(s) that bind to this sequence are unknown.
Several transcriptional factors are expressed in the developmental process in Xenopus which produce rod and cone photoreceptors, including genes that encode paired-type homeodomain proteins, such as PAX6, CHX10, RX, and NeuroD (36-42). PAX6 and CHX10 are expressed in the retinal progenitors and maintained in inner nuclear layer cells, but their expression is excluded from developing photoreceptor cells in zebrafish, mouse, and X. laevis (36, 38, 43). RX is also expressed in retinal progenitors in Xenopus and subsequently down-regulated in all cells upon differentiation (44). NeuroD is a member of the basic helix-loop-helix family usually expressed during and/or after the terminal mitosis of neuronal precursors in rodent (45). Its expression is maintained in a subset of mature photoreceptors (46). The hierarchical pathway of these transcriptional factors has been examined using double in situ hybridizations on cross-sections of the CMZ in Xenopus (28). However, the targets of these transcriptional factors during development are largely unknown, and most of their known roles are limited to early development. Therefore, it seems unlikely that these proteins control the PCE II-mediated photoreceptor-specific expression pattern because nocturnin expression is a feature of fully differentiated photoreceptor cells.
Another transcription factor that is known to be present in both developing and mature photoreceptor cells is CRX (5, 6). This otd/otx gene family encodes paired-like homeodomain proteins that are involved in the regulation of anterior head structure and sensory organ development (47). CRX expression is restricted to developing and mature photoreceptor cells (6). It has been shown that CRX binds the sequence TAATCA/A, resulting in transactivation of transcription. This element is found in the upstream sequence of several photoreceptor-specific genes (5, 6). The nocturnin 5'-flanking region has several sequences that are similar to CRX binding sites, but deletion of these elements does not alter spatial expression (Figs. 1A and 5). The Xenopus homolog of CRX has not been cloned. Therefore, the role of CRX in the regulation of nocturnin is unclear.
The transgenic technique in frogs is a powerful tool to investigate the
spatial expression pattern and regulation of genes of interest (7, 22,
25, 26). GFP has been commonly used as the reporter because of its
stability and ease of detectability for in vivo studies.
Compared with making transgenic mice, it is relatively easy and
inexpensive to generate these animals, and several hundreds of
transgenic embryos can be produced within 1 day. One limitation of the
transgenic technique in Xenopus is the difficulty in
controlling the levels of GFP because the copy numbers and positions of
the construct are randomly determined in the individual tadpoles. Among
those PCR-positive transgenic tadpoles in this study, there was
variability in the levels of GFP expression (Figs. 5 and 6). This
variability makes it difficult to make quantitative assessments of gene
expression levels. Although we observed generally lower GFP signals
from the XNP(398/+20bp)-GFP and XNP(
77/
18bp)-GFP constructs, this
needs to be confirmed using other methods. These questions can be
addressed by using a reporter gene such as luciferase, which is easier
to quantitate than GFP, and by raising lines of the transgenic animals
to provide a large number of tadpoles containing homogeneous copy
numbers and integration sites (24). These more quantitative methods will also be important in the temporal analyses of nocturnin expression because it will be necessary to compare expression levels at different times of day.
Xenopus offers a unique advantage of combining the rapid and
powerful transgenic approach with in vitro methods for the
study of cis-elements in controlling cell-specific
expression in vertebrates. Using these methods, we have demonstrated
that the nocturnin promoter PCE II is sufficient to drive
photoreceptor-specific expression in Xenopus. The novel
sequence of PCE II suggests that an as yet undescribed transcriptional
mechanism is driving photoreceptor-specific expression of nocturnin.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank Brooke Steenhard for advice on genotyping and Silvia LaRue for assistance with some of the subcloning. We thank Dr. Ammasi Periasamy and the staff of the Keck Center for Cellular Imaging for assistance with the confocal microscopy. We also thank Jianhua Cang, Julie Baggs, Haisun Zhu, and other laboratory members for many helpful comments on the manuscript.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was funded by Grant EY11489 from the NEI, National Institutes of Health (to C. B. G.) and by the Karl Kirchgessner Foundation (to C. B. G.).The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
To whom correspondence should be addressed: 264 Gilmer Hall, Dept.
of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904-4328. Tel.: 804-982-5436; Fax: 804-982-5626; Email:
cbg8b@virginia.edu.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, January 16, 2001, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M009970200
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ABBREVIATIONS |
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The abbreviations used are: EMSA(s), electrophoretic mobility shift assay(s); IRBP, interphotoreceptor retinoid binding protein; PCE, photoreceptor conserved element; CRX, cone rod homeobox; GFP, green fluorescent protein; kb, kilobase pair(s); bp, base pair(s); XNP, Xenopus nocturnin promoter; Luc, luciferase; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; ZT, Zeitgeber time; CMZ, ciliary marginal zone.
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