From the Membrane Transport Research Group, Departments of
Physiology, § Oncology, and
Biological
Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada and
the ** School of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,
University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
Received for publication, August 24, 2000, and in revised form, October 5, 2000
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ABSTRACT |
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The human concentrative
(Na+-linked) plasma membrane transport proteins hCNT1
and hCNT2 are selective for pyrimidine nucleosides (system
cit) and purine nucleosides (system cif),
respectively. Both have homologs in other mammalian species and belong
to a gene family (CNT) that also includes hfCNT, a newly identified broad specificity pyrimidine and purine Na+-nucleoside
symporter (system cib) from the ancient marine vertebrate, the Pacific hagfish (Eptatretus stouti). We now report the
cDNA cloning and characterization of cib homologs of
hfCNT from human mammary gland, differentiated human myeloid HL-60
cells, and mouse liver. The 691- and 703-residue human and mouse
proteins, designated hCNT3 and mCNT3, respectively, were 79% identical
in amino acid sequence and contained 13 putative transmembrane
helices. hCNT3 was 48, 47, and 57% identical to hCNT1, hCNT2,
and hfCNT, respectively. When produced in Xenopus oocytes,
both proteins exhibited Na+-dependent
cib-type functional activities. hCNT3 was electrogenic, and
a sigmoidal dependence of uridine influx on Na+
concentration indicated a Na+:uridine coupling ratio of at
least 2:1 for both hCNT3 and mCNT3 (cf 1:1 for hCNT1/2).
Phorbol myristate acetate-induced differentiation of HL-60 cells led to
the parallel appearance of cib-type activity and hCNT3
mRNA. Tissues containing hCNT3 transcripts included pancreas, bone
marrow, trachea, mammary gland, liver, prostrate, and regions of
intestine, brain, and heart. The hCNT3 gene mapped to chromosome 9q22.2
and included an upstream phorbol myristate acetate response element.
Most nucleosides, including those with antineoplastic and/or
antiviral activities (1, 2), are hydrophilic, and specialized plasma
membrane nucleoside transporter
(NT)1 proteins are required
for uptake into or release from cells (3, 4). NT-mediated transport is
therefore a critical determinant of metabolism and, for nucleoside
drugs, their pharmacologic actions (5). NTs also regulate adenosine
concentrations in the vicinity of cell surface receptors and have
profound effects on neurotransmission, vascular tone, and other
processes (6, 7).
Seven nucleoside transport
processes2 that differ in
their cation dependence, permeant selectivities and inhibitor
sensitivities have been observed in human and other mammalian cells and
tissues. The major concentrative systems (cit,
cif, and cib) are inwardly directed
Na+-dependent processes and have been primarily
described in specialized epithelia such as intestine, kidney, liver,
and choroid plexus, in other regions of the brain, and in splenocytes,
macrophages, and leukemic cells (3, 4). Concentrative NT transcripts have also been found in heart, skeletal muscle, placenta, and pancreas.
The equilibrative (bidirectional) transport processes (es
and ei) have generally lower substrate affinities and occur in most, possibly all, cell types (3, 4). Epithelia (e.g. intestine and kidney) and some nonpolarized cells (e.g.
leukemic cells) coexpress both concentrative and equilibrative NTs,
whereas other nonpolarized cells (e.g. erythrocytes) exhibit
only equilibrative NTs (3, 4). Systems cit and
cif are generally pyrimidine nucleoside selective and purine
nucleoside selective, respectively, whereas systems cib,
es, and ei transport both pyrimidine and purine
nucleosides. System ei also transports nucleobases.
Molecular cloning studies have isolated cDNAs encoding the human
and rat proteins responsible for four of these NT processes (cit, cif, es, and ei)
(8-17). These proteins and their homologs in other mammalian species
comprise two previously unrecognized families of integral membrane
proteins (CNT and ENT) with quite different predicted architectural
designs (3, 4). The relationships of these NT proteins to the processes
defined by functional studies are: CNT1 (cit), CNT2
(cif), ENT1 (es), and ENT2 (ei).
Although the NT protein(s) responsible for mammalian cib
have remained elusive, we have recently identified a CNT protein with
cib-type transport activity from the ancient marine
vertebrate, the Pacific hagfish (Eptatretus stouti)
(18).3 The CNT family also
includes the Escherichia coli proton/nucleoside symporter
NupC (19). Human and rat CNT1 (650 and 648 residues, 71 kDa),
designated hCNT1 and rCNT1, respectively, are 83% identical in amino
acid sequence (8, 11) and contain 13 putative TMs with an exofacial
glycosylated tail at the carboxyl terminus
(18).4 hCNT2 (658 residues)
(12, 13) is 83% identical to rCNT2 (659 residues) (9, 10) and 72%
identical to hCNT1 (11). The hagfish transporter hfCNT (683 residues)
(18) is 50-52% identical to h/rCNT1/2 and has a similar predicted
membrane topology. NupC (19), in contrast, is a smaller protein with
27% identity to mammalian CNTs, with the major difference being the
absence of the equivalents of TM 1-3 and the amino- and
carboxyl-terminal regions of the other proteins.
In structure/function studies, the characteristics of hCNT1/2 chimeras
and sequence comparisons between h/rCNTs and hfCNT have identified two
sets of adjacent residues in TMs 7 and 8 of hCNT1 that, when converted
to the corresponding residues in hCNT2, changed the specificity of the
transporter from cit to cif (18). Mutation of the
two residues in TM 7 alone produced a protein with intermediate,
cib-like activity. In this cit/cib
conversion, mutation of hCNT1 Ser319 to Gly was sufficient
to enable transport of purine nucleosides, whereas mutation of the
adjacent residue Gln320 to Met (which had no effect on its
own) augmented this transport. TMs 7 and 8 have also been identified as
potential determinants of substrate selectivity in rCNT1/2 (21), and
mutation of rCNT1 Ser318 (the rat counterpart of hCNT1
Ser319) resulted in a cib-type phenotype similar
to that seen with the hCNT1 Ser319 mutation (22).
Although an earlier study had identified a member of the SGLT glucose
transporter family, SNST1, as a candidate cib-type
transporter (23), its nucleoside-transport activity is very low, and we hypothesized that the missing mammalian concentrative NT was more likely to be a CNT transporter. Following a search for additional mammalian CNT isoforms, we now report the cDNA cloning of new human
and mouse members of the CNT transporter family. The encoded proteins,
designated hCNT3 and mCNT3, respectively, exhibit strong cib-type functional activity when expressed in
Xenopus oocytes and have primary structures that place them
together with hfCNT in a CNT subfamily separate from h/rCNT1/2.
Molecular Cloning of hCNT3--
BLAST searches of CNT sequences
in the GenBankTM data base identified overlapping human
ESTs from mammary gland (AI905993) and colon adenocarcinoma (AW083022)
different from established members of the CNT transporter family.
Together, they formed a composite cDNA fragment 807 bp in length
with an open reading frame of 245 residues followed by 69 bp of
3'-untranslated sequence. The cDNA was 62% identical in nucleotide
sequence to corresponding regions of the hCNT1 (U62968) and hCNT2
(AF036109) cDNAs and 68% identical to the hfCNT (AF132298)
cDNA. The encoded amino acid sequence was 79% identical to the
carboxyl terminus of hfCNT and 58 and 62% identical, respectively, to
hCNT1 and hCNT2.
These indications of a novel human CNT distinct from hCNT1 and hCNT2
were tested by RT-PCR in a panel of total RNA samples from human
mammary gland, small intestine, kidney (CLONTECH,
Palo Alto, CA), and liver (13). Because the close sequence similarity between the EST composite sequence and hfCNT suggested that the new CNT
might correspond to system cib, we also performed RT-PCR on
differentiated human myeloid HL-60 cells, a source of functional cib-type transport activity (see below). First strand
cDNA was synthesized using the Superscript Preamplification system
(Life Technologies, Inc.) and oligo(dT) as primer. The PCR
reaction (30 µl) contained 50 ng of template first-strand cDNA,
2.5 units of Taq-DeepVent DNA polymerase (100:1) and 10 pmol
each of the 5'- and 3'-oligonucleotide primers
5'-GAAACATGTTTGACTACCCACAG-3' and
5'-GTGGAGTTGAAGGCATTCTCTAAAACGT-3'. Amplification for one cycle
at 94 °C for 55 s, 54 °C for 55 s, and 72 °C for
70 s, two cycles at 94 °C for 55 s, 55 °C for 55 s, and 72 °C for 70 s, and 30 cycles at 94 °C for 55 s,
58 °C for 55 s, and 72 °C for 70 s (RobocyclerTM 40 Temperature Cycler, Stratagene, La Jolla, CA) generated visible PCR
products of the predicted size (480 bp) from four of the samples
(differentiated HL-60 cells, mammary gland, small intestine, and liver).
We extended the partial EST cDNA sequence by 5'-rapid amplification
of cDNA ends amplification of mRNA from differentiated HL-60
cells using the FirstChoice RLM-RACE kit (Ambion, Austin, TX).
Poly(A)+-selected RNA was treated with calf intestinal
phosphatase to degrade 5'-truncated transcripts, followed by tobacco
acid pyrophosphatase to remove cap from the remaining full-length
mRNAs. A synthetic RNA adaptor from the kit was then ligated to the
full-length 5'-monophosphate transcript population using T4 RNA ligase,
followed by first strand cDNA synthesis with oligo(dT) as primer.
For the initial PCR, the 5'-primer was the outer adaptor primer
provided by the kit and the gene-specific 3'-primer was
5'-GATATATATTGCTGCACACCGTTTACAA-3'. Amplification by
Taq-DeepVent DNA polymerase (100:1) was for 40 cycles at
94 °C for 55 s, 65 °C for 55 s, and 72 °C for 3 min and 1 cycle at 72 °C for 10 min, the reaction mixture being heated to 94 °C for 1 min before addition of the Taq-DeepVent
DNA polymerase mixture. The PCR reaction mixture was resolved on a 1%
agarose gel, and faint bands between 1.5 and 2.0 kb in size were
isolated and purified (QIAEX II Gel Extraction kit; Qiagen Inc.). This product was then reamplified by nested PCR (35 cycles at 94 °C for
55 s, 65 °C for 55 s, and 72 °C for 3 min and 1 cycle
at 72 °C for 10 min) using an inner 5'-primer from the kit and the
gene-specific 3'-primer 5'-TTAGCTCAAAACTCAGCTGTGGGTAGTC-3'. A defined
band of ~1.7 kb was isolated, cloned into pGEM-T (Promega, Madison,
WI), and sequenced by Taq DyeDeoxyterminator cycle
sequencing using an automated model 373A DNA Sequencer (Applied
Biosystems, Foster City, CA). The inset overlapped the 807-bp EST
sequence by 114 bp and generated an additional 1633 bp of upstream
sequence. The new composite 2440-bp sequence was 66% identical to the
hfCNT cDNA and contained an open reading frame of 691 amino acids.
cDNAs containing the complete coding sequence were then obtained by RT-PCR from differentiated HL-60 cells and mammary gland, as described previously, using 5'- and 3'-primers flanking the open reading frame
(5'-CTAAATGAAGAGCGCTTGGGACCT-3' and
5'-AGCATCTGTACTTCAGAGTTCCACTGG-3'). The resulting ~2.2-kb
products were ligated into pGEM-T and sequenced in both directions to
give identical 691-residue open reading frames flanked by 92 bp of
5'-untranslated nucleotide sequence and 41 bp of 3'-untranslated sequence.
As expected from their identical nucleotide and predicted amino acid
sequences, there was no difference in hCNT3 transport function between
cDNA clones isolated from HL-60 cells or mammary gland.
Radioisotope transport studies reported in this paper were performed
with the HL-60 clone in pGEM-T.
Molecular Cloning of mCNT3--
BLAST searches of mouse ESTs in
the GenBankTM data base identified 630- and 635-bp
sequences from two mammary gland IMAGE clones with 73 and 83% sequence
identity to parts of the hCNT3 cDNA sequence. IMAGE clone 1514965 aligned with the 5'-coding region, whereas 1515408 ended 54 bp short of
the predicted stop codon. Both clones were obtained from the IMAGE
Consortium through the American Type Culture Collection (Manassas, VA).
PCR showed that they were incomplete, and sequencing of 1515408 gave an
additional 85 bp of sequence to complete the 3'-end of the open reading
frame. A cDNA with the complete coding sequence was then obtained
by RT-PCR from mouse liver RNA (Jackson Laboratories, Bar Harbor, ME)
with 5'-primer 5'-AGGATGTCCAGGGCAGACCCGGGAAAGA-3' and 3'-primer
5'-AGATCACAATTTATTAGGGATCCAATTG-3'. First strand cDNA was
synthesized using the Thermoscript RT-PCR System (Life Technologies,
Inc.), and amplification by Taq-DeepVent DNA polymerase
(100:1) was for 2 cycles at 94 °C for 2 min, 64 °C for 1 min, and
72 °C for 2.5 min, 2 cycles at 94 °C for 1 min, 62 °C for 1 min, and 72 °C for 2.5 min, 30 cycles at 94 °C for 1 min,
60 °C for 1 min, and 72 °C for 2.5 min, and one final extension cycle for 10 min at 72 °C. The resulting ~2.0-kb product was
ligated into pGEM-T and subcloned into the enhanced Xenopus
expression vector pGEM-HE (24). Each was sequenced in both directions, giving identical 703-amino acid residue open reading frames flanked by
short 3-bp regions of 5'-untranslated or 3'-nucleotide sequence. By
providing additional 5'- and 3'-untranslated sequences from a
Xenopus Expression of Recombinant hCNT3 and mCNT3 in Xenopus
Oocytes--
hCNT3 and mCNT3 plasmid DNAs were linearized with
NotI (pGEM-T) or NheI (pGEM-HE) and transcribed
with T7 polymerase mMESSAGE mMACHINETM (Ambion). Stage VI
oocytes of Xenopus laevis (8) were microinjected with 20 nl
of water or 20 nl of water containing capped RNA transcripts (20 ng)
and incubated in modified Barth's medium (changed daily) at 18 °C
for 72 h prior to the assay of transport activity.
hCNT3 and mCNT3 Radioisotope Flux Studies--
Transport was
traced using the appropriate 14C/3H-labeled
nucleoside, nucleoside drug, or nucleobase (Moravek Biochemicals, Brea, CA or Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) at a concentration of 1 and 2 µCi/ml for 14C-labeled and 3H-labeled
compounds, respectively. [3H]Gemcitabine
(2',3'-difluorodeoxycytidine) was a gift from Eli Lilly Inc.
(Indianapolis, IN). Radiochemicals were 98-99% pure (see HL-60
transport studies). Flux measurements were performed at room
temperature (20 °C) as described previously (8, 11) on groups of 12 oocytes in 200 µl of transport medium containing 100 mM
NaCl, 2 mM KCl, 1 mM CaCl2, 1 mM MgCl2, and 10 mM HEPES, pH 7.5. Except where otherwise indicated, the nucleoside concentration was 20 µM. At the end of the incubation period, extracellular label was removed by six rapid washes in ice-cold transport medium, and
individual oocytes were dissolved in 5% (w/v) SDS for quantitation of
oocyte-associated radioactivity by liquid scintillation counting (LS
6000 IC; Beckman). Initial rates of transport (influx) were determined
using an incubation period of 5 min (8). Choline replaced sodium in
Na+ dependence experiments, and the transport medium for
adenosine uptake contained 1 µM deoxycoformycin to
inhibit adenosine deaminase activity. The flux values shown are the
means ± S.E. of 10-12 oocytes, and each experiment was performed
at least twice on different batches of cells. Kinetic
(Km and Vmax) and
Na+ activation parameters (K50 and
Hill coefficient) ± S.E. were determined using ENZFITTER
(Elsevier-Biosoft, Cambridge, UK) and SigmaPlot (SPSS Inc., Chicago,
IL) software, respectively.
Measurement of hCNT3-induced Sodium Currents--
Oocytes were
voltage clamped using the two-electrode voltage clamp. Membrane
currents were measured at room temperature by use of a GeneClamp 500B
oocyte clamp (Axon Instruments, Foster City, CA). The microelectrodes
were filled with 3 M KCl and had resistances that ranged
from 1-2.5 M HL-60 Cell Culture and Differentiation--
The human
promyelocytic cell line, HL-60, obtained from the American Type Culture
Collection, was propagated as suspension cultures in RPMI 1640 medium,
supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum using reagents purchased from
Life Technologies, Inc. Stock cultures were maintained in 5%
CO2 without antibiotics at 37 °C, subcultured every 3-4
days and demonstrated to be mycoplasma-free. Cell numbers were
determined using a Coulter Counter model Z2 (Coulter Electronics Inc.,
Luton, UK).
To induce differentiation, HL-60 cells (3 × 106)
growing in logarithmic phase were placed in 10-cm Falcon Primaria
tissue culture plates (Becton Dickinson) in the presence of phorbol
12-myristate 13-acetate (200 ng/ml) (Sigma) freshly dissolved in
acetone. After 48 h, the plates were washed once with transport
buffer (see below) to remove nonadherent cells and then incubated for
15 min in the presence or absence of 100 µM dilazep.
Transport assays were performed on the remaining adherent cells. Total
RNA and mRNA were prepared from exponentially growing parent and
adherent HL-60 cells using the RNeasy Mini Protocol (Qiagen) and Fast
Track 2.0 Isolation kit (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA), respectively.
HL-60 Radioisiotope Flux Studies--
Nucleoside uptake by
differentiated HL-60 cells was measured as described previously (25) by
exposing replicate cultures at room temperature to
3H-labeled permeant (10 µM, 1 µCi/ml) in
sodium or sodium-free transport medium (130 mM NaCl or 130 mM NMDG/HCl and 3 mM
K2HPO4, 2 mM CaCl2, 1 mM MgCl2, 20 mM Tris/HCl, and 5 mM glucose, pH 7.4). Radiochemicals (Moravek Biochemicals)
were 98-99% pure as assessed by high performance liquid
chromatography using water-methanol gradients on a C18 reverse phase
column, and transport for timed intervals of 1-6 min was terminated by
immersion of the culture dish in an excess volume of ice-cold transport
solution. Assays to detect concentrative transport were performed in
the presence of 100 µM dilazep (a gift from Hoffman La
Roche & Co., Basel, Switzerland) to block equilibrative transport of
the test nucleoside. Transport by nonadherent parental HL-60 cells was
performed as described previously (26) using the inhibitor oil stop
method. Values are presented as the means of triplicate
measurements ± S.D.
Tissue and Cell Distribution of hCNT3 mRNA--
A human
multiple tissue expression (MTETM) RNA array
(CLONTECH) and dot blots of mRNA (0.5 µg)
from parent and differentiated HL-60 cells on BrightStar-Plus nylon
transfer membrane (Ambion) were incubated with a cDNA probe
corresponding to hCNT3 amino acid residues 359-549 labeled with
32P using the T7QuickPrime kit (Amersham
Pharmacia Biotech). Hybridization at high stringency (68 °C) was
performed using ExpressHyb hybridization solution
(CLONTECH) and 100 µg/ml of sheared herring sperm
DNA. Wash conditions were as described in the
CLONTECH ExpressHyb user manual. Signals on exposed
blots were converted to a high resolution tiff image
(Hewlett Packard ScanJet 4C) and quantified using the public domain NIH
Image program, version 1.60. For Northern analysis, 5-µg
samples of mRNA from human pancreas, bone marrow, trachea, intestine, liver, brain, heart, and kidney
(CLONTECH) were separated on a 0.8%
formaldehyde-agarose gel, blotted on to BrightStar-Plus nylon transfer
membrane, and hybridized with the same hCNT3 probe (residues 359-549)
under identical high stringency conditions.
Possible cross-hybridization between CNT family members was tested on
dot blots of dilutions (0.5 µg-5 ng RNA) of hCNT1, hCNT2, and hCNT3
in vitro transcripts. Three identical series of blots were
incubated either with hCNT3 probe or with equivalent probes for hCNT1
or hCNT2. The hCNT3 probe, which was 63 and 58% identical in
nucleotide sequence to the corresponding regions of hCNT1 and hCNT2,
respectively, showed no cross-hybridization with hCNT1 or hCNT2
transcripts. Similarly, there was no cross-reactivity between the hCNT1
and hCNT2 probes and hCNT3 RNA. Some cross-hybridization was seen
between the hCNT1 and hCNT2 probes (73% nucleotide sequence identity)
and their respective transcripts at RNA loadings Quantitative Real Time RT-PCR--
In TaqManTM
quantitative RT-PCR (Applied Biosystems), an oligonucleotide probe,
labeled with a fluorescent tag at the 5'-end and a quenching molecule
at the 3'-end, is located between two PCR primers. The 5'-nucleotidase
activity of Taq polymerase cleaves the fluorescent dye from
the probe during each PCR cycle. The fluorescent signal generated is
monitored in real time and is proportional to the amount of starting
template in the sample.
RNA from parent or differentiated HL-60 cells was reverse transcribed
using the TaqManTM Gold RT-PCR kit (Applied Biosystems) and
subjected to real time PCR using an Applied Biosystems PRISM 7700 Sequence Detection System and TaqManTM Universal PCR Master
Mix kit. Amplification conditions were a single cycle at 50 °C for 2 min and 95 °C for 10 min, followed by 40 cycles at 95 °C for
15 s and 1 min at 60 °C using hCNT3 probe and primers designed
using Primer Express software (Applied Biosystems). The hCNT3
probe
5'-6-carboxy-fluorescein-CGGACTCACATCCATGGCTCCTTC-6-carboxy-tetramethyl-rhodamine-3' was purchased from Applied Biosystems, whereas the 5'- and
3'-primers were 5'-GGGTCCCTAGGAATCGTGATC-3' and
5'-CGAGGCGATATCACGCTTTC-3', respectively. GADPH and 18 S
ribosomal RNA probes and primers, used as internal controls, were
purchased as a TaqManTM RNA Control Reagent kit. Relative
quantification of hCNT3 message was determined as described previously
(27).
Chromosomal Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization--
Analysis of
normal human lymphocyte metaphase chromosomes was performed by methods
described previously (28) using a PCR probe corresponding to hCNT3
amino acid residues 86-685. Chromosomal localization of the gene was
also determined by screening an RPCI-11 human male BAC library
(29).
Membrane transport studies in various human and other mammalian
cell and tissue preparations have produced evidence that concentrative (Na+-linked) cellular uptake of nucleosides and nucleoside
drugs is mediated by at least three distinct mechanisms (3, 4). Systems cit and cif are found primarily in specialized
epithelia such as intestine, liver, and kidney and have characteristic,
overlapping substrate specificities for pyrimidine and purine
nucleosides, respectively. As well, a broadly selective transport
activity for both pyrimidine and purine nucleosides (system
cib) has been described (3, 4). Expression cloning and other
recombinant DNA strategies have recently established that systems
cit and cif are mediated by isoforms of the CNT
transporter family, designated in humans as hCNT1 and hCNT2,
respectively (8-13). In the present study, we report the molecular
identification and characterization of the human and mouse
cib transporters and demonstrate that they represent a new
mammalian isoform of the CNT transporter family (hCNT3 and mCNT3, respectively).
Molecular Identification of hCNT3 and mCNT3--
The possibility
that cib might be a CNT transporter (18) led to
identification of ESTs encoding partially overlapping regions at the
carboxyl terminus of a new, previously unrecognized human CNT distinct
from hCNT1 or hCNT2. The full-length cDNA obtained by 5'-rapid
amplification of cDNA ends/RT-PCR amplification of phorbol
12-myristate 13-acetate-differentiated human myeloid HL-60 cells and by
RT-PCR of human mammary gland encoded a 691-residue protein (77 kDa),
designated here as hCNT3.5
Differentiated HL-60 cells represent a functionally defined source of
cib transport activity (see below), whereas human mammary
gland was the origin of one of the carboxyl terminus ESTs. The hCNT3 sequence enabled us, in turn, to identify ESTs from mouse mammary gland
encoding the amino- and carboxyl terminus ends of a mouse homolog. The
corresponding full-length mouse cDNA, obtained by RT-PCR from liver
(also a source of hCNT3 transcript), encoded a 703-residue protein
designated here as mCNT3.5
hCNT3 and mCNT3 Amino Acid Sequences--
hCNT3 was 57% identical
in amino acid sequence to hfCNT and 48 and 47% identical to hCNT1 and
hCNT2, respectively (Fig. 1A). Protein structure algorithms predicted a topology for hCNT3 similar to
that of hfCNT and hCNT1/2 (20), with relatively large extramembraneous amino and carboxyl termini (carboxyl terminus external) linked by 13 TMs and short hydrophilic sequences (
Since we first identified rCNT1 from rat jejunum by expression
selection in Xenopus oocytes in 1994, more than 40 members of the CNT protein family have been identified from mammals, lower vertebrates, insects, nematodes, pathogenic yeast, and bacteria. As
shown in Fig. 1C, phylogenetic analysis identified discrete clusters of proteins, including two for bacteria and one for vertebrate transporters. hCNT3 and mCNT3 were placed together with hfCNT in a
different vertebrate CNT subfamily from the human and other mammalian
CNT1 and CNT2 proteins. Characteristically conserved motifs of the CNT
transporter family present in hCNT3 and mCNT3 included
GX21GX2FXFG
between TMs 5 and 6, (G/A)XKX3(N/T)E(F/Y)(V/F/T)(A/G/S)(Y/M/F) between TMs 11 and 12, and
(G/S)F(A/S)N(F/I/P)(S/G)(S/T)X(G/A) in TM 12. In common with
other CNTs, hCNT3 and mCNT3 also contained multiple consensus sites for
N-linked glycosylation, grouped at the carboxyl terminus
(hCNT3 Asn636 and Asn664, mCNT3
Asn648 and Asn676). The extracellular location
of this region has been confirmed by mutagenesis of rCNT1, which is
glycosylated at Asn605 and Asn643 (20).
Previously (18), we have identified two adjacent pairs of residues
(Ser319/Gln320 and
Ser353/Leu354) in the TM 7-9 region of hCNT1
that, when mutated together to the corresponding residues in hCNT2
(Gly313/Met314 and
Thr347/Val348), converted hCNT1
(cit) into a transporter with cif-type functional characteristics. An intermediate broad specificity cib-like
transport activity was produced by mutation of the two TM 7 residues
alone; mutation of Ser319 to Gly allowed for transport of
purine nucleosides, and this was augmented by mutation of
Gln320 to Met. Mutation of Ser353 in TM 8 to
Thr converted the cib-like transport of the TM 7 double mutant into one with cif-like characteristics but with
relatively low adenosine transport activity. Mutation of
Leu354 to Val increased the adenosine transport capability
of the TM 7/8 triple mutant, producing a full cif transport
phenotype. On its own, mutation of Ser353 converted hCNT1
into a transporter with novel uridine-selective transport properties.
The sequences of hCNT3 and mCNT3 at these positions were intermediate
between hCNT1 and hCNT2, one member of each pair of residues being
identical to the corresponding residue in hCNT1 and the other to that
in hCNT2. These sequences in hCNT3 and mCNT3 were identical to hfCNT
(Gly340/Gln341 and
Ser374/Val375 in the case of hCNT3).
Functional Expression and Substrate Specificity of Recombinant
hCNT3 and mCNT3--
hCNT1 and hCNT2 display cit- and
cif-type Na+-dependent nucleoside
transport activities (11, 13). Therefore, although both hCNT1 and hCNT2
transport uridine and certain uridine analogs, they are otherwise
selective for pyrimidine (hCNT1) and purine (hCNT2) nucleosides (except
for modest transport of adenosine by hCNT1). hfCNT, in contrast,
exhibits cib-type Na+-dependent
nucleoside transport activity and is broadly selective for both
pyrimidine and purine nucleosides.
Fig. 2A shows a representative
transport experiment in Xenopus oocytes measuring uptake of
uridine and a panel of other radiolabeled pyrimidine and purine
nucleosides (cytidine, thymidine, adenosine, guanosine, and inosine)
and nucleobases (uracil and hypoxanthine) in cells injected with water
alone (control) or with water containing hCNT3 transcripts. Uptake of
uridine (20 µM, 30-min flux) by hCNT3-expressing oocytes
was Na+-dependent (60.7 ± 4.5 and
6.1 ± 0.7 pmol/oocyte in Na+ and choline medium,
respectively) and concentrative (60.7 pmol/oocyte corresponds to an
in-to-out concentration ratio of ~3:1, calculated assuming an oocyte
water content of 1 µl). In Na+ medium, uridine uptake in
control water-injected oocytes was only 0.5 ± 0.1 pmol/oocyte,
giving a mediated flux (uptake by RNA-injected oocytes minus
uptake in water-injected oocytes) of 60.2 pmol/oocyte and a
mediated-to-basal flux ratio of 120:1. Consistent with
cib-type functional activity, each of the other pyrimidine
and purine nucleosides tested (cytidine, thymidine, adenosine,
guanosine, and inosine) gave similar mediated fluxes. mCNT3 (Fig.
2B) exhibited a similar pattern of
Na+-dependent cib-type functional
activity, and neither protein transported uracil or hypoxanthine.
Fig. 3 compares the differences in
substrate specificity between hCNT3, mCNT3, hfCNT, hCNT1, and hCNT2 by
measuring the mediated uptake of three diagnostic nucleoside permeants
(uridine, thymidine, and inosine). All five proteins transported
uridine. However, hCNT1 (cit) exhibited pyrimidine
nucleoside selective characteristics (marked thymidine uptake, low
inosine transport), whereas hCNT2 (cif) was purine
nucleoside selective (low thymidine uptake, marked inosine transport).
hCNT3, mCNT3, and hfCNT exhibited similar cib-type profiles,
with marked transport of both thymidine and inosine. Subsequent in
depth transport experiments focussed on the human transporter
hCNT3.
Kinetic Properties and Inhibitor Sensitivity of Recombinant
hCNT3--
Fig. 4 shows representative
concentration dependence curves for uridine, cytidine, thymidine,
adenosine, guanosine, and inosine, measured as initial rates of
transport (5-min flux) in hCNT3-expressing oocytes and in control
water-injected cells. Kinetic constants for the hCNT3-mediated
component of influx are presented in Table I. Km values varied
between 15 and 53 µM (cytidine, adenosine < uridine, thymidine < guanosine, inosine) and were within the
range expected for native cib-type transporters (30-32) and
for hfCNT in oocytes (17-54 µM).3 They were
also similar to Km values obtained previously for
permeants of recombinant mammalian CNT1/2 transporters. For example,
the hCNT3 Km for uridine was 22 µM
compared with 37-45 µM for hCNT1, rCNT1, and hCNT2 (8,
11, 13). hCNT3 Km values for thymidine and inosine
were 21 and 53 µM, respectively, compared with 13 µM for thymidine transport by rCNT1 (33) and 20 µM for inosine transport by rCNT2 (21). hCNT3
Vmax values were in the range 24 and 51 pmol/oocyte.5 min
In addition to the three major mammalian concentrative nucleoside
transport systems cit, cif, and cib,
there are two minor Na+-dependent nucleoside
transport processes, csg and cs, which have been
described only in leukemic cells (34, 35). Although their permeant
preferences have not been well defined, the csg process (34)
accepts guanosine, and the cs process (35) accepts adenosine analogs as permeants. In contrast to cit, cif,
and cib, both are inhibited by nanomolar concentrations of
NBMPR (34, 35). hCNT3 was unaffected by NBMPR or other equilibrative
nucleoside transport inhibitors, dipyridamole and dilazep, at
concentrations up to 10 µM (100 µM for
dilazep, which is more soluble), eliminating hCNT3 as a possible
contributor to csg or cs transport activity (Fig.
5).
hCNT3 Na+:Nucleoside
Cotransport--
Na+/nucleoside coupling ratios of 1:1
have been described for various cit and cif
transport activities in different mammalian cells and tissues (reviewed
in Ref. 3). In contrast, a coupling ratio of 2:1 has been reported for
system cib in choroid plexus and microglia (30, 31). In Fig.
6 (A and C), we
show for both hCNT3 and mCNT3 that the relationship between uridine
influx (10 µM) and Na+ concentration was
sigmoidal. Fitting the data to the Hill equation, v = Vmax·[Na+]n/(K50n + [Na+]n), gave Hill coefficients (n)
of 2.2 ± 0.2 (hCNT3) and 2.3 ± 0.1 (mCNT3), indicating a
Na+/nucleoside coupling ratio of at least 2:1. Similar
values of n (2.0 ± 0.2 and 2.0 ± 0.1, respectively) were determined from the slopes of Hill plots of the data
(Fig. 6, B and D), and in five independent
experiments, Hill plot transformations gave a mean hCNT3 Hill
coefficient of 2.1 ± 0.3. Because rCNT1 exhibited a Hill
coefficient of 1 in similar experiments (10), our data establish, for
the first time, that the stoichiometry of Na+/nucleoside
coupling is different in different CNT family members. In this respect,
the CNTs resemble the SGLT glucose transporter family, where examples
of proteins with 2:1 and 1:1 Na+/sugar coupling ratios
(SGLT1 and SGLT2, respectively) have been described (36-39).
Similarly, the PepT2 and PepT1 proton-linked peptide transporters have
2:1 and 1:1 H+/peptide coupling ratios, respectively (40).
There was an interesting difference in K50
values for Na+ activation between hCNT3 and mCNT3 (16 ± 1 and 7 ± 1 mM, respectively), although both
transporters were fully saturated with Na+ at cation
concentrations approaching the physiological concentration range (Fig.
6, A and C).
In addition to radioisotope flux studies, we also used the
two-electrode voltage clamp technique to investigate the
Na+ dependence of hCNT3-mediated nucleoside transport. As
shown in Fig. 7, external application of
uridine, thymidine, and inosine (200 µM) to oocytes
expressing recombinant hCNT3 induced inward currents for all three
nucleosides that returned to baseline upon removal of permeant. No
currents were seen in water-injected oocytes or when Na+ in
the extracellular medium was replaced by choline, demonstrating that
hCNT3 functions as a broad specificity electrogenic
Na+/nucleoside symporter. In parallel with the radioisotope
transport data shown in Fig. 6 (A and C), there
was a sigmoid relationship between uridine-evoked current and
Na+ concentration (data not shown). In preliminary
experiments to determine directly the Na+/nucleoside
coupling ratio by simultaneous measurement of Na+ currents
and [14C]uridine influx under voltage clamp conditions,
as described previously for the SDCT1 rat kidney dicarboxylate
transporter (41), we have confirmed that hCNT3 has a
Na+/nucleoside coupling ratio hCNT3-mediated Transport of Anticancer and Antiviral Nucleoside
Drugs--
The difference in substrate specificity between CNT1 and
CNT2 for physiological pyrimidine and purine nucleosides is reflected in their complementary roles for transport of pyrimidine and purine antiviral and anticancer nucleoside drugs. For example, we have used
Xenopus oocyte expression to establish that mammalian CNT1/2 proteins transport antiviral dideoxynucleosides: h/rCNT1 transports the
AIDS drugs 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine (AZT) and
2',3'-dideoxycytidine but not 2',3'-dideoxyinosine, whereas hCNT2
transports only 2',3'-dideoxyinosine (8, 11, 13, 42). Gemcitabine, a
cytidine analog used in therapy of solid tumors, is a good hCNT1
permeant but is not transported by hCNT2 either in oocytes (43) or in
transfected HeLa cells (44). As shown in Fig.
8, hCNT3, a cib-type NT,
efficiently transported both pyrimidine (5-fluorouridine,
5-fluoro-2'-deoxyuridine, zebularine, and gemcitabine) and purine
(cladribine and fludarabine) anticancer nucleoside drugs. Lower, but
still significant, uptake was observed for pyrimidine (AZT and
2',3'-dideoxycytidine) and purine (2',3'-dideoxyinosine) antiviral
nucleoside drugs, the magnitudes of the fluxes being similar to those
found previously for hCNT1 (AZT and 2',3'-dideoxycytidine) and hCNT2
(2',3'-dideoxyinosine) (11, 13). Only ganciclovir, an antiviral drug
with an acyclic ribose moiety, was not transported. Therefore, by
virtue of its ability to transport both pyrimidine and purine
nucleosides, hCNT3 is capable of transporting a broader range of
therapeutic nucleosides than either hCNT1 or hCNT2. Consistent with the
present results, thymidine transport by the microglial cib
transporter was inhibited by AZT (31).
Tissue and Cell Distribution--
The cib process has
been described functionally in rabbit choroid plexus (30), rat MSL-9
microglia cells (31), Xenopus oocytes injected with rat
jejunal mRNA (32), human leukemic (45) and colorectal carcinoma
CaCo cells (46) and, after induction of differentiation, in human HL-60
cells (see below). The human and mouse ESTs that led to the
identification of h/mCNT3 were from human/mouse mammary gland and human
colon adenocarcinoma, whereas the full-length transporter cDNAs
were isolated from differentiated HL-60 cells and mammary gland (hCNT3)
and liver (mCNT3). Fig. 9 shows a
multiple tissue expression RNA array for 76 human tissues and cells
probed with hCNT3 cDNA (a second commercial RNA array from the same
supplier gave essentially identical results). As described under
"Experimental Procedures," this analysis was performed under
conditions of high stringency where there was no cross-hybridization between hCNT3 and hCNT1 or hCNT2. The distribution pattern of hCNT3
transcripts, although selective, was surprisingly widespread. Highest
levels were found in a number of normal tissues, including mammary
gland, pancreas, bone marrow, and trachea, with substantial levels in
various regions of the intestine (but very much less in kidney) and
more modest levels in liver, lung, placenta, prostrate, testis, and
other tissues, including some regions of the brain and heart. hCNT3
transcripts were generally present in fetal tissues but were low in
various cultured cell lines, including K562, HeLa, and undifferentiated
HL-60 (see also below). In contrast, h/rCNT1 and h/rCNT2 transcripts
are found primarily in specialized epithelia, including small
intestine, kidney, and liver (8-13). Other reported sources of h/rCNT1
and h/rCNT2 transcripts include brain, spleen, heart, pancreas, and
skeletal muscle (9, 12, 47). A systematic analysis of CNT1/2 transcript
distribution similar to that shown in Fig. 9 for hCNT3 would be helpful
to more fully characterize the different expression patterns of the
three transporters.
In parallel with the multiple tissue expression RNA array, we also
investigated the distribution of hCNT3 transcript in selected tissues
by Northern blotting. This less sensitive technique detected hCNT3
transcripts in pancreas, bone marrow, and trachea but not in intestine,
liver, brain, or heart (Fig. 10).
Kidney, as expected from Fig. 9, was also negative. In pancreas, bone
marrow, and trachea, three bands were apparent: a major 5.3-kb
transcript and secondary bands at 6.5 and 4.8 kb. Although two of the
bands were similar in size to the major transcripts of hCNT1 (3.4 kb) and hCNT2 (4.5 -kb) (13), the blot was probed at high stringency under
conditions where there was no cross-reactivity with hCNT1/2 (see
"Experimental Procedures"). It is likely, therefore, that they
represent alternate hCNT3 gene transcripts rather than
cross-hybridization with other CNT family members. The absence of bands
in kidney, which contains transcripts for both hCNT1 and hCNT2 (13), is further evidence of the specificity of the hCNT3 probe. The same tissues (plus mammary gland) were also analyzed by TaqManTM
quantitative RT-PCR using hCNT3-specific primers as described below for
HL-60 cells. Relative levels of hCNT3 transcript by this method were
pancreas > bone marrow, trachea, intestine > mammary gland
HL-60 Cells (Functional Studies)--
The human promyelocytic
leukemia cell line HL-60 can be induced to differentiate into adherent
monocyte/macrophage-like cells treatment with phorbol esters (48, 49).
Upon differentiation, the cells exhibit a decrease in equilibrative,
Na+-independent nucleoside transport that is accompanied by
an increase in concentrative, Na+-dependent
transport of both pyrimidine and purine nucleosides (50). To rigorously
identify the concentrative transport process(es) contributing to this
uptake, we first determined the uridine transport profile of parent and
phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate-treated HL-60 cells under conditions
previously shown to be optimal for induction of the concentrative
transport activity (50). Equilibrative transport was measured by
replacing Na+ in the transport medium with NMDG, and
concentrative transport was determined in the presence of
Na+ but with the addition of dilazep (100 µM)
to inhibit equilibrative transport activity. We have shown that this
concentration of dilazep has no effect on hCNT3 transport activity
(Fig. 5). Although previous studies have reported a small amount of
Na+-dependent transport activity in untreated
HL-60 cells (50, 51), our assays did not detect any concentrative
transport in the parent cell line, which exhibited only equilibrative
uptake of 10 µM uridine (Fig.
11A). However, there was a
notable increase in Na+-dependent uridine
transport in differentiated, adherent HL-60 cells (Fig.
11B). Uptake of thymidine and formycin B (a nonmetabolized analog of inosine) was then used to define which of the concentrative transport processes (cit, cif, cib)
was active in differentiated HL-60 cells (Fig. 11, C and
D). Both nucleosides were taken up by the concentrative
process(es) of differentiated HL-60 cells. Transport of thymidine was
totally inhibited by unlabeled thymidine, inosine, and uridine, whereas
formycin B uptake was reciprocally inhibited by thymidine. Thus,
cib (rather than cit + cif) was the
dominant concentrative transport activity in differentiated HL-60
cells. Consistent with this result, concentrative uridine transport was
inhibited by uridine, thymidine, and inosine (data not shown). Dot blot
analysis (Fig. 9A) and nonquantitative RT-PCR (Fig.
12A) established that the
appearance of cib functional activity correlated with
substantially increased levels of hCNT3 transcripts in differentiated
versus parent HL-60 cells, the latter exhibiting only small
amounts of hCNT3 mRNA. In RT-PCR experiments, parent and
differentiated HL-60 cells were negative for hCNT2 mRNA and expressed only very small amounts of hCNT1 mRNA, most likely as a
consequence of bleed-through transcription (data not shown). These
results provided further evidence that the concentrative nucleoside
transport activity seen in differentiated HL-60 cells was mediated by
cib and not by (cit + cif).
HL-60 Cells (TaqManTM Quantitative Real Time
RT-PCR)--
The relative levels of hCNT3 transcripts in HL-60 parent
and differentiated cells were determined by quantitative real time RT-PCR (Fig. 12B). Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
and hCNT3 were demonstrated to amplify with equal efficiency, and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase was therefore used as the
internal control to normalize levels of expression of hCNT3 mRNA
between samples. To compare samples, a threshold line was set at the
phase of the PCR reaction during which the fluorescent signal
accumulated exponentially. As shown in Fig. 12B, there was a
substantial difference between the HL-60 parent and differentiated samples in the PCR cycle numbers at the threshold line, and three independent experiments gave a mean (± S.E.) ratio of 4.08 ± 0.09, indicating (because PCR amplification is an exponential process) that there was 16.9 ± 1.05 more hCNT3 mRNA in differentiated
versus parent HL-60 cells. Similar results were obtained
when the data were normalized to 18 S gene expression (data not shown).
The human tumor cell lines K562 (erythroleukemia) and HeLa (cervical carcinoma) were also tested in this assay (data not shown) and gave
signals that were close to background levels (see also Fig. 9A). These results, taken with those of the transport
experiments, indicated that the small amount of hCNT3 transcription in
the HL-60 parent cells did not result in enough protein to be
functionally detected, whereas the differentiated cells that expressed
16-fold more hCNT3 mRNA had a readily measurable cib
transport process. Because the analyses were performed on exponentially
growing parent and differentiated cells, the difference in transcript
levels between parent and differentiated HL-60 cells could not be
attributed to cell proliferation.
Chromosomal Localization of the hCNT3 Gene--
Although the genes
encoding hCNT1 and hCNT2 have both been mapped to chromosome 15 (15q25-26 (11) and 15q15 (13), respectively), fluorescence in
situ hybridization analysis localized the hCNT3 gene to
9q22.2. The same chromosomal band location was determined by screening
a human BAC library. Searches of the Sanger Center human genomic
sequence data base, and the Unfinished High Throughput Genomic Sequence
GenBankTM data base identified two chromosome 9 clones
(GenBankTM accession numbers AL356134 and AL353787)
containing multiple hCNT3 genomic fragments that, when aligned,
revealed 27.3-kb of composite hCNT3 gene sequence containing 74% of
the hCNT3 coding sequence. The coding sequence that was obtained was an
exact match with corresponding regions of the hCNT3 cDNA
sequence.5 Analysis of hCNT3 5'-genomic sequence in the
potential upstream promoter region of the gene revealed the presence of
a eukaryotic phorbol myristate acetate (ester) response element
(52) with the sequence 5'-TGAGTCA-3' that may potentially contribute to the transcriptional regulation of hCNT3 seen in HL-60 cells. Studies are in progress to compare the organization of the hCNT3 gene with that
for hCNT1 (32 kb), which has been determined to contain 18 exons
separated by 17 introns (GenBankTM accession numbers
187967-187978).
Conclusions--
The CNT protein family in humans is represented
by three members, hCNT1, hCNT2, and the presently described hCNT3.
Searches of the Unfinished High Throughput Genomic Sequence
GenBankTM data base have so far revealed no other closely
related members of this family in humans.6 hCNT3 is a
transcriptionally regulated electrogenic transport protein that, unlike
hCNT1 and hCNT2, has a broad permeant selectivity for pyrimidine and
purine nucleosides and nucleoside drugs. Hill-type analysis of the
relationship between uridine influx and Na+ concentration
indicated a Na+:uridine coupling ratio of at least 2:1,
compared with 1:1 for hCNT1/2. These characteristics and the induction
of hCNT3 mRNA in HL-60 cells following phorbol ester treatment
identified hCNT3 as the physiological human cib transporter.
A mouse homolog of hCNT3 (mCNT3) was also cloned, suggesting that CNT3
is widely distributed in mammals.
A candidate cib-type transporter SNST1 that is related to
the Na+-dependent glucose transporter SGLT1 was
identified in 1992 in rabbit kidney (23). There is no sequence
similarity between SNST1 and either the CNT or ENT protein families.
Although recombinant SNST1, when expressed in oocytes, stimulated low
levels of Na+-dependent uptake of uridine that
was inhibited by pyrimidine and purine nucleosides (i.e.
cib-type pattern), the function of this protein remains
unclear because the rate of uridine transport in oocytes was only
2-fold above endogenous (background) levels, whereas a >100-fold
stimulation was observed with h/mCNT3. It is likely that the true
physiological substrate of SNST1 is a low molecular weight metabolite
for which there is overlapping permeant recognition with nucleosides.
hCNT3 and mCNT3 are more closely related to the hagfish transporter
hfCNT than to mammalian CNT1/2 and thus form a separate CNT subfamily.
Hagfish diverged from the main line of vertebrate evolution about 550 million years ago and represent the most ancient class of extant
vertebrates. The high degree of amino acid sequence similarity between
h/mCNT3 and hfCNT in the TM 4-13 region (67% sequence identity) may
indicate functional constraints on the primary structure of this domain
and suggests that cib-type concentrative NTs fulfill
important physiological functions. The tissue distribution of hCNT3
transcripts was more widespread than anticipated from previous studies
of cib functional activity and is different from that of
either CNT1 or CNT2. Although transcripts for mammalian CNT1 and CNT2
have been described in jejunum, kidney, liver, and brain (CNT1) and
jejunum, kidney, liver, spleen, heart, skeletal muscle, and pancreas
(CNT2), the highest levels of hCNT3 transcripts were found in pancreas,
bone marrow, trachea, mammary gland, and duodenum. Clinically, hCNT3
may be expected to contribute to the concentrative cellular uptake of
both anticancer and antiviral nucleoside drugs. Future studies of the
transcriptional regulation of the hCNT3 gene will enhance our
understanding of its physiological function(s) and therapeutic potential.
INTRODUCTION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-globin gene, the pGEM-HE construct gave greater
functional activity and was used in subsequent transport
characterization of the mouse protein. pGEM-HE was also used for
electrophysiological studies of hCNT3.
. The GeneClamp 500B was interfaced to a
computer via a Digidata 1200 A/D convertor and controlled by
Axoscope software (Axon Instruments, Foster City, CA). Current signals
were filtered at 20 Hz (four-pole Bessel filter) and sampled at
intervals of 20 ms. For data presentation, the signals were further
filtered at 0.5 Hz by use of pCLAMP software (Axon Instruments). Cells
were not used if resting membrane potentials were unstable or less than
30 mV. For measurements of hCNT3-generated currents, oocyte membrane
potentials were clamped at
50 mV. Oocytes were perfused with the same
medium used for radioisotope flux studies, and transport assays were
initiated by changing the substrate-free solution to one containing
nucleoside (200 µM). In experiments examining
Na+ dependence, sodium in the medium was replaced by choline.
50 ng. Under the
conditions of high stringency used in our experiments, the hCNT3 probe
was therefore specific.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
22 residues), with the exception
of larger extracellular loops between TMs 5-6, 9-10, and 11-12 (Fig.
1B). Residues within TMs 4-13 were particularly highly
conserved between hCNT3 and hfCNT (67% sequence identity), whereas TMs
1-3 and the amino and carboxyl termini were much more divergent. The
conserved TM 4-13 domains of hCNT3 and hfCNT corresponded closely to
the predicted membrane architecture of the shorter E. coli
CNT proton/nucleoside cotransporter NupC (19), suggesting that these
regions represent the functionally important core structure of the
proteins. We engineered an amino-terminal truncated form of rCNT1 and
established that the TM 1-3 region is not required for transport
activity.6 mCNT3 contained
additional amino acids at the amino terminus (Fig. 1A) and
was 78% identical in sequence to hCNT3, 57% identical to hfCNT, and
48% identical to mCNT2 (AF079853), the other known mouse CNT.
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Fig. 1.
hCNT3 and mCNT3 are members of the CNT family
of nucleoside transporters. A, alignment of the
predicted amino acid sequences of hCNT3 (GenBankTM
accession number AF305210) and mCNT3 (GenBankTM
accession number AF305211) with those of hCNT1 (GenBankTM
accession number U62968), hCNT2 (GenBankTM accession
AF036109), and hfCNT (GenBankTM accession number AF132298)
using the GCG PILEUP program. Potential membrane-spanning -helices
are numbered. Putative glycosylation sites in predicted
extracellular domains of hCNT3, mCNT3, hCNT1, hCNT2, and hfCNT are
shown in lowercase (n), and their positions are
highlighted by an asterisk above the aligned sequences.
Residues in hCNT3 identical to one or more of the other transporters
are indicated by black boxes. B, topological model of hCNT3
and hfCNT. Potential membrane-spanning
-helices are
numbered, and putative glycosylation sites in predicted
extracellular domains in hCNT3 and hfCNT are indicated by
solid and open stars, respectively. Residues
identical in the two proteins are shown as solid circles.
Residues corresponding to insertions in the sequence of hCNT3 or hfCNT
are indicated by circles containing + and
signs,
respectively. C, phylogenetic tree showing relationships
between hCNT3 and mCNT3 and other eukaryotic and prokaryotic members of
the CNT transporter family. In addition to those listed in
A, these are: rCNT1 (rat CNT1, GenBankTM
accession number U10279); pkCNT1 (pig kidney CNT1,
GenBankTM accession number AF009673); rCNT2 (rat CNT2,
GenBankTM accession number U25055); mCNT2 (mouse CNT2,
GenBankTM accession number AF079853); rbCNT2 (rabbit CNT2,
GenBankTM accession number AF161716); F27E11.1
(Caenorhabditis elegans, GenBankTM accession
number AF016413); CG11778_DROME (Drosophila melanogaster,
GenBankTM accession number AAF58996); CG8083_DROME
(D. melanogaster, GenBankTM accession number
AAF58997); F27E11.2 (C. elegans, GenBankTM
accession number AF016413); YEIM_HAEIN (Hemeophilus
influenzae, Swissprot accession number P44742); HP1180_HELPY
(Helicobacter pylori, GenBankTM accession number
AE000623); YEIM_ECOLI (E. coli, Swissprot accession number
P33024); YEIJ_ECOLI (E. coli, Swissprot accession number
P33021); YXJA_BACSU (Bacillus subtilis, Swissprot accession
number P42312); NUPC_ECOLI (E. coli, Swissprot accession
number P33031); NUPC_BACSU (B. subtilis, Swissprot accession
number P39141); HI0519_HAEIN (H. influenzae,
GenBankTM accession number U32734); YUTK_BACSU (B. subtilis, GenBankTM accession number Z99120);
VC2352_VIBCH (Vibrio cholerae, GenBankTM
accession number AAF95495); VC1953_VIBCH (V. cholerae,
GenBankTM accession number AAF95101); VCA0179_VIBCH
(V. cholerae, GenBankTM accession number
AAF96092); UNKNOWN_STREP (Streptococcus pyogenes, open
reading frame (284) present in contig0001 from the S. pyogenes genome sequencing project, Oklahoma University);
UNKNOWN_YERPE (Yersinia pestis, open reading frame present in contig971 from the Y. pestis genome sequencing project, Sanger Center); UNKNOWN_YERPE
(Y. pestis, open reading frame present in contig976 from the
Y. pestis genome sequencing project, Sanger Center);
UNKNOWN_SALTY (Salmonella typhi, open reading frame present
in contig18 (CT18) from the S. typhi genome sequencing
project, Sanger Center); UNKNOWN_BACAN (Bacillus anthracis,
open reading frame in contig1985 from the B. anthracis
genome sequencing project, TIGR); UNKNOWN_BACAN (B. anthracis, open reading frame in contig1745 from the B. anthracis genome sequencing project, TIGR); UNKNOWN_CAUCR
(Caulobacter crescentus, open reading frame present in
contig12574 from the C. crescentus genome sequencing
project, TIGR); UNKNOWN_STAAU (Staphylococcus aureus, open
reading frame present in contig6185 from the S. aureus
genome sequencing project, TIGR); UNKNOWN_STAAU (S. aureus,
open reading frame present in contig6213 from the S. aureus
genome sequencing project, TIGR); UNKNOWN_STAAU (S. aureus,
open reading frame present in contig6186 from the S. aureus
genome sequencing project, TIGR); UNKNOWN_SHEPU (Shewanella
putrefaciens, open reading frame present in contig6401 from the
S. putrefaciens genome sequencing project, TIGR);
UNKNOWN_SHEPU (S. putrefaciens, open reading frame present
in contig6410 from the S. putrefaciens genome sequencing
project, TIGR); UNKNOWN_SHEPU (S. putrefaciens, open reading
frame present in contig6413 from the S. putrefaciens genome
sequencing project, TIGR); UNKNOWN_SHEPU (S. putrefaciens,
open reading frame present in contig6438 from the S. putrefaciens genome sequencing project, TIGR); PM1292_SHEPU
(Pasteurella multocida, open reading frame gene product
PM1292 from the P. multocida genome sequencing project,
University of Minnesota); UNKNOWN_CANAL (Candida albicans,
open reading frame present in contig5-2704 from the C. albicans genome sequencing project, Stanford); and UNKNOWN_HAEDU
(Hemeophilus ducreyi, open reading frame present in
contig730 from the H. ducreyi genome sequencing project,
University of Washington). The phylogenetic tree was constructed from a
multiple alignment of the 43 CNT sequences using ClustalX version 1.81 for Windows (50) and KITSCH, PHYLIP version 3.57c (51) software (20,
53). The CNT3/hfCNT and CNT1/2 subfamilies are
highlighted.
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Fig. 2.
Uptake of
14C/3H-labeled nucleosides and nucleobases by
recombinant hCNT3 and mCNT3 expressed in Xenopus
oocytes. Uptake of nucleosides and nucleobases (20 µM, 20 °C, 30 min) in oocytes injected with RNA
transcripts or water alone was measured in transport medium containing
100 mM NaCl or 100 mM choline chloride
(ChCl).
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Fig. 3.
Nucleoside selectivity of recombinant hCNT3,
mCNT3, hCNT1, hCNT2, and hfCNT. Transporter-mediated nucleoside
uptake (20 µM, 20 °C, 30 min) was measured in
transport medium containing 100 mM NaCl. Mediated transport
was calculated as uptake in RNA-injected oocytes minus uptake in
water-injected oocytes.
1 (uridine, thymidine < cytidine,
adenosine < guanosine, inosine), giving
Vmax:Km ratios of 0.9-2.1
(Table I). These data support the cib-type specificity
profile of hCNT3 shown in Fig. 2A and demonstrate that hCNT3
transports different pyrimidine and purine nucleosides with very
similar efficiencies. For all of the nucleosides tested (Fig. 4),
influx in water-injected oocytes was linear with concentration,
consistent with nonmediated simple diffusion through the lipid
bilayer.
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Fig. 4.
Kinetic properties of recombinant hCNT3.
A-F, initial rates of nucleoside uptake (5-min fluxes, 20 °C) in
oocytes injected with RNA transcripts (solid circles) or
water alone (open circles) were measured in transport medium
containing 100 mM NaCl. Kinetic parameters
calculated from the mediated component of transport (uptake in
RNA-injected oocytes minus uptake in water-injected oocytes)
are presented in Table I.
Kinetic properties of hCNT3
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Fig. 5.
Recombinant hCNT3 is not inhibited by NBMPR,
dipyridamole, or dilazep. Initial rates of transporter-mediated
uridine uptake (20 µM, 20 °C, 5 min) were measured in
transport medium containing 100 mM NaCl in the absence or
presence of 1-10 µM NBMPR and dipyridamole or 1-100
µM dilazep. Oocytes were incubated with inhibitor for 30 min before the addition of permeant. Mediated transport was calculated
as uptake in RNA-injected oocytes minus uptake in
water-injected oocytes (uptake of uridine by water-injected oocytes was
unaffected by NBMPR, dipyridamole, or dilazep).
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Fig. 6.
Sodium dependence of influx of uridine
mediated by recombinant hCNT3 and mCNT3. Initial rates of
transporter-mediated uptake of uridine (10 µM, 20 °C,
5 min) by hCNT3 (A) and mCNT3 (C) were measured
in transport medium containing 0-100 mM NaCl using choline
chloride to maintain isosmolality. Mediated transport was calculated as
uptake in RNA-injected oocytes minus uptake in
water-injected oocytes (uptake of uridine by water-injected oocytes was
not Na+-dependent). B and
D are Hill plots of the hCNT3 and mCNT3 data, respectively.
K50 values and Hill coefficients (n)
are given in the text. Broken lines in B and
D correspond to n values of 1.
2:1, whereas for hCNT1 the
ratio is 1:1.6 A two-Na+/one-nucleoside
symporter will have a greater ability to transport permeant against its
concentration gradient than a one-Na+/one-nucleoside
symporter, and they may have evolved to transport nucleosides under
different conditions. Experiments are in progress with hfCNT, mCNT3,
and other CNTs to determine whether the 2:1 stoichiometry is limited to
members of the CNT3/hfCNT subfamily (Fig. 2A) or has a more
widespread distribution.
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Fig. 7.
Sodium currents induced by exposure of
recombinant hCNT3 to nucleoside permeants. Upper left
panel, inward currents caused by perfusing an hCNT3-expressing
oocyte at room temperature with 200 µM inosine, uridine,
or thymidine in Na+-containing transport medium
(NaCl). Upper right panel, the same oocyte
perfused with 200 µM inosine, uridine, or thymidine in
transport medium with Na+ replaced by choline
(ChCl). No inward currents were generated. Lower
panels, the same experiments described for upper panels
above but with a control water-injected oocyte. No inward currents were
generated.
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Fig. 8.
Uptake of 3H-labeled anticancer
and antiviral nucleoside drugs by recombinant hCNT3 expressed in
Xenopus oocytes. Uptake of nucleoside drugs (20 µM, 20 °C, 30 min) in oocytes injected with RNA
transcripts or water alone was measured in transport medium containing
100 mM NaCl. ddC, 2',3'-dideoxycytidine;
ddI, 2',3'-dideoxyinosine.
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Fig. 9.
Tissue distribution of hCNT3
mRNA. A and B, a commercial human
multiple tissue expression RNA array probed with a
32P-labeled cDNA corresponding to hCNT3 amino acid
residues 359-549. The inset in A is a dot blot
of mRNA (0.5 µg) from suspension parent and adherent
differentiated HL-60 cells probed with the same cDNA. The numbered
samples are: 1, leukemia (undifferentiated HL-60);
2, HeLa S3; 3, leukemia (K-562); 4,
leukemia (MOLT-4); 5, Burkitt's lymphoma (Raji);
6, Burkitt's lymphoma (Daudi); 7, colorectal
adenocarcinoma (SW480); 8, lung carcinoma (A549);
9, whole brain; 10, cerebral cortex;
11, frontal lobe; 12, parietal lobe;
13, occipital lobe; 14, temporal lobe;
15, paracentral gyrus of cerebral cortex; 16,
pons; 17, cerebellum (left); 18, cerebellum
(right); 19, corpus callosum; 20, amygdala;
21, caudate nucleus; 22, hippocampus;
23, medulla oblongata; 24, putamen;
25, substantia nigra; 26, accumbens nucleus;
27, thalamus; 28, pituitary gland; 29,
spinal cord; 30, esophagus; 31, stomach;
32, duodenum; 33, jejunum; 34, ileum;
35, ilocecum; 36, appendix; 37, colon
(ascending); 38, colon (transverse); 39, colon
(descending); 40, rectum; 41, heart;
42, aorta; 43, atrium (left); 44,
atrium (right); 45, ventricle (left); 46,
ventricle (right); 47, interventricular septum;
48, apex of the heart; 49, kidney; 50,
skeletal muscle; 51, spleen; 52, thymus;
53, peripheral blood leukocyte; 54, lymph node;
55, bone marrow; 56, trachea; 57,
lung; 58, placenta; 59, bladder; 60,
uterus; 61, prostrate; 62, testis; 63,
ovary; 64, liver; 65, pancreas; 66,
adrenal gland; 67, thyroid gland; 68, salivary
gland; 69, mammary gland; 70, fetal brain;
71, fetal heart; 72, fetal kidney; 73,
fetal liver; 74, fetal spleen; 75, fetal thymus;
76, fetal lung; 77, human DNA (100 ng);
78, human DNA (500 ng).
liver, brain, heart > kidney (data not shown).
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Fig. 10.
High stringency Northern analysis of
mRNA from human tissues probed with 32P-labeled hCNT3
cDNA. Samples of human tissue mRNA (5 µg) were separated
on a 0.8% formaldehyde-agarose gel and blotted on to BrightStar-Plus
nylon transfer membrane. Hybridization with a radiolabeled cDNA
probe for the coding sequence of hCNT3 amino acid residues 359-549 was
performed under high stringency conditions where there was no
cross-reactivity with hCNT1 or hCNT2. Arrows indicate the
positions of three bands in pancreas, bone marrow with sizes of 3.5, 4.2, and 6.5 kb.
View larger version (27K):
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Fig. 11.
Time courses of 3H-labeled
uridine, thymidine, and formycin B uptake by HL-60 cells.
A and B, uptake of 10 µM uridine
(20 °C) by suspension parent (A) and adherent
differentiated (B) HL-60 cells. Total transport
(square, no inhibitor, Na+-containing medium)
was compared with equilibrative transport (upward triangle,
no inhibitor, NMDG-containing medium), concentrative transport
(downward triangle, 100 µM dilazep,
Na+-containing medium), and diffusion (diamond,
100 µM dilazep, NMDG-containing medium). C and
D, uptake of 10 µM thymidine (C)
and formycin B (D) by the concentrative transport process in
adherent differentiated HL-60 cells. Uptake of each permeant was
measured at 20 °C to demonstrate total transport (square,
no inhibitor, Na+-containing medium), equilibrative
transport (upward triangle, no inhibitor, NMDG-containing
medium), concentrative transport (downward triangle, 100 µM dilazep, Na+-containing medium), and
diffusion (diamond, 100 µM dilazep,
Na+-containing medium). In addition, concentrative
transport, in the presence of Na+ and 100 µM
dilazep, of each permeant was assessed in the presence of competing
unlabeled nucleosides including 1 mM thymidine
(circle), 1 mM inosine (open downward
triangle), and 1 mM uridine (open upward
triangle).
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Fig. 12.
Nonquantitative RT-PCR and
TaqManTM quantitative RT-PCR of hCNT3 transcripts in HL-60
cells. A, RNA from suspension parent
(HL60-P, lane 1) and adherent differentiated
(HL60-D, lane 2) cells in exponential growth was
subjected to RT followed by PCR using hCNT3 primers flanking the hCNT3
open reading frame (see "Experimental Procedures"), and the
products were run on an ethidium bromide-stained agarose gel.
hCNT3-specific PCR products migrated at the expected size of ~2.2 kb
(arrow). The negative controls were RNA preparations from
differentiated HL-60 cells that were subjected to PCR but not RT
(RT( ), lane 3) and that did not contain
template (NTC, lane 4). A predominant band was
amplified from the HL-60 differentiated cells (lane 2),
whereas a faint band of the same size was amplified from the HL-60
parent sample (lane 1). The RT-free (lane 3) and
template-free (lane 4) preparations were both negative.
B, real time quantitative PCR was performed on cDNA from
HL-60 parent (P, upward triangles) or
differentiated (D, downward triangles) cells in
exponential growth using primers and probes specific for either hCNT3
(solid symbols) or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
(open symbols). The
Rn, or change in
reporter fluorescence normalized to the cycle-to-cycle signal from a
passive reference dye, is plotted against the PCR cycle number. The
cycle threshold, Ct, values were assessed at the
point at which
Rn values crossed the threshold
value, which was above background and within the exponential phase of
the reaction. The values plotted are from representative samples. The
results of three experiments, each with duplicate samples, were used to
calculate the difference in hCNT3 transcript expression between the two
cell populations (see "Results and Discussion"). The template-free
control values were at background levels.
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FOOTNOTES |
---|
* This work was supported in part by the National Cancer Institute of Canada, with funds from the Canadian Cancer Society, the Alberta Cancer Board, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Wellcome Trust, and the Medical Research Council of the United Kingdom. Fluorescence in situ hybridization mapping and BAC library screening were performed at the Centre for Applied Genomics at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
The nucleotide sequence(s) reported in this paper has been submitted to the GenBankTM/EMBL Data Bank with accession number(s) AF305210 and AF305211.
¶ Supported by a studentship from the Alberta Heritage Foundation for Medical Research.
Heritage Scientist of the Alberta Heritage Foundation for
Medical Research. To whom correspondence and requests for reprints should be addressed: Dept. of Physiology, 7-55 Medical Sciences Bldg.,
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada. Tel.: 780-492-5895; Fax: 780-492-7566; E-mail:
james.young@ualberta.ca.
Published, JBC Papers in Press, October 13, 2000, DOI 10.1074/jbc.M007746200
2 The abbreviations used in transporter acronyms are: c, concentrative; e, equilibrative; s and i, sensitive and insensitive to inhibition by NBMPR, respectively; f, formycin B (nonmetabolized purine nucleoside); t, thymidine; g, guanosine; b, broad selectivity.
3 S. Y. M. Yao, A. M. L. Ng, S. K. Loewen, C. E. Cass, and J. D. Young, manuscript in preparation.
4 S. R. Hamilton, S. Y. M. Yao, M. P. Gallagher, P. J. F. Henderson, C. E. Cass, J. D. Young, and S. A. Baldwin, manuscript in preparation.
5 GenBankTM /EBI Data Bank accession numbers AF305210 and AF305211.
6 M. W. L. Ritzel, A. M. L. Ng, S. Y. M. Yao, K. Graham, S. K. Loewen, K. M. Smith, R. G. Ritzel, D. A. Mowles, P. Carpenter, X.-Z. Chen, E. Karpinski, R. J. Hyde, S. A. Baldwin, C. E. Cass, and J. D. Young, unpublished observation.
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ABBREVIATIONS |
---|
The abbreviations used are:
NT, nucleoside
transporter;
AZT, 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine;
BAC, bacterial artificial
chromosome;
CNT, concentrative nucleoside transporter;
bp, base pair(s);
ENT, equilibrative nucleoside transporter;
kb, kilobase(s);
NBMPR, nitrobenzylthioinosine
(6-[(4-nitrobenzyl)thio]-9--D-ribofuranosylpurine);
NMDG, N-methyl-D-glucamine;
PCR, polymerase
chain reaction;
RT-PCR, reverse transcriptase-PCR;
TM, putative
transmembrane helix;
EST, expressed sequence tag;
contig, group of
overlapping clones.
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