From the Division of Clinical Biochemistry and
Experimental Diabetology, Department of Internal Medicine, University
Medical Center, CH-1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland, the ¶ Institute of
Medical Microbiology, University of Mainz, Hochhaus am Augustusplatz,
D-55101 Mainz, Germany, and the
Department of Biomedical
Sciences, National Center for Biomembranes, University of Padova,
I-35121 Padova, Italy
![]() |
ABSTRACT |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
The precise regulation of the
Ca2+ concentration in the endoplasmic reticulum
([Ca2+]er) is important for protein
processing and signal transduction. In the pancreatic Increases in cytosolic calcium concentration
([Ca2+]c)1
accompany diverse known cellular responses including hormone secretion. Ca2+ originates from two main sources, one of which
involves the entry of Ca2+ from the extracellular space
into the cell via Ca2+ channels in the plasma membrane. The
other that has generated much interest in the last decade revolves
around the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which plays a pivotal role in
the regulation of [Ca2+]c (1, 2).
One of the better understood pathways concerning Ca2+
release and uptake by the ER involves the application of hormones or
neurotransmitters that bind to cell surface receptors activating the
phospholipase C-mediated hydrolysis of polyphosphatidylinositol lipids
on the inner surface of the plasma membrane (3, 4). This leads to the
production of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3), the second messenger directly responsible for the release of
Ca2+ from the ER that occurs via the stimulation of
InsP3 receptors situated in the ER membrane (1). Another
mechanism by which Ca2+ is released from the ER implicates
the ryanodine receptor family. This process is activated by several
putative second messengers including Ca2+ itself (5). The
filled state and the reuptake of mobilized Ca2+ by the ER
is mediated by a Ca2+-ATPase of the sarco/endoplasmic
reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) type, which pumps
Ca2+ back into the ER against the ionic gradient (6).
The Ca2+ concentration within the ER
([Ca2+]er) has been variously estimated to be
anywhere from the low micromolar to the high millimolar range depending
upon the cell type and the method of detection (7-16). The more widely
used fluorescent Ca2+ probes such as fura2 fail to
segregate specifically into intracellular organelles, and those that do
localize to the ER compartment are rapidly saturated, indicating that
there is a relatively high resting [Ca2+]er
(17). Other groups have reported the use of low affinity indicators to
measure [Ca2+]er including mag-fura2 and
mag-indo1 (18-20). Again, however, due to calibration irregularities,
it is difficult to measure the free lumenal
[Ca2+]er with certainty. This approach is
best suited for permeabilized cells or patch-clamped cells from which
the cytosolic indicator can be dialyzed (21) but has also been used
successfully in intact cells (20).
By exploiting the recombinant aequorin photoprotein technology it has
become possible to target aequorin directly to the ER, which overcomes
this problem and allows selective Ca2+ measurements to be
made. This targeting is achieved by incorporating part of the
immunoglobulin Ig It has been reported previously that the
[Ca2+]er plays a pivotal role in the
functioning of the pancreatic We have used an INS-1 cell line stably expressing the ER-targeted
aequorin to study directly the effects of agents that stimulate Ca2+ influx such as glucose, leucine, another nutrient
secretagogue, and depolarizing concentrations of KCl. These effects
were compared with those of the InsP3-producing agonists
carbachol and ATP. The INS-1 cell line used throughout this study is
morphologically similar to the native pancreatic Cell Culture--
INS-1 cells were cultured in RPMI 1640 medium
including 10% fetal calf serum and additions as described previously
(30, 32). Stable clones were made according to Kennedy et
al. (32). Briefly, 10 µg of mutated ER aequorin
(erAEQmut)/pcDNA1 (see Introduction and Ref. 10) and 2 µg pSV2neo
were transfected into INS-1 cells set on a 10-cm Petri dish. Selection
of clones stably expressing erAEQmut was made after several days with
0.4 µg/ml G418. The highest expresser, ER#18, was maintained in
medium containing 0.25 µg/ml G418. For the luciferase-expressing cell
line, the transfection was done in two separate steps using the
Ca2+-phosphate-DNA co-precipitation method as outlined in
Maechler et al. (33). Measurement of the resultant
luminescence was made as described previously (33).
Aequorin Measurements--
Cells were seeded at a density of
4 × 105 cells/ml on 13-mm polyornithine-coated
coverslips and kept for 2-3 days prior to the experiments. Before the
measurement of divalent cation in the ER could be made, the ER store
had to be depleted of Ca2+ as described previously (10,
14). This was done by a series of incubations as follows: (i) cells
were washed twice briefly in Ca2+-free KRBH (135 mM NaCl, 3.6 mM KCl, 2 mM
NaHCO3, 0.5 mM NaH2PO4, 0.5 mM MgSO4, 2.8 mM glucose, and
10 mM Hepes, pH 7.4); (ii) cells were then incubated for 5 min in Ca2+-free KRBH containing 3 mM EGTA;
(iii) following this, the ER stores were emptied for 5 min in
Ca2+-free KRBH containing 3 mM EGTA and 10 µM cyclopiazonic acid (CPA; Sigma) which, like
thapsigargin, acts as an inhibitor of the Ca2+-ATPase; (iv)
finally, the erAEQmut was reconstituted with 5 µM coelenterazine n (Molecular Probes, Amsterdam, The Netherlands) in
Ca2+-free KRBH containing 0.1 mM EGTA and 10 µM CPA for approximately 60 min. Coelenterazine is the
prosthetic group for apoaequorin (34), and the coelenterazine n
synthetic analog displays significantly reduced Ca2+
sensitivity (12).
For the permeabilized cell experiments, cells were plated on
extracellular matrix-coated coverslips as described by Maechler et al. (33). The ER Ca2+ stores were emptied as
above, and the erAEQmut was reconstituted with coelenterazine n.
Following this procedure, cells were permeabilized with
Staphylococcus
For both intact and permeabilized cells, the coverslips were placed in
a thermostatted chamber at 37 °C 5 mm from the photomultiplier apparatus (model EMI 9789, Thorn EMI Electron Tubes Ltd., Middlesex, UK) and perifused constantly at a rate of 1 ml/min in the appropriate buffer. In the case of intact cells the perifusion conditions were
changed sequentially as follows. First, cells were exposed to continued
0.1 mM EGTA and 10 µM CPA. After 100 s,
the CPA was removed, and the perifusion proceeded in the absence of CPA
for a further 5 min to ensure complete removal of the
Ca2+-ATPase inhibitor. Calcium was then added to the cells
in a stepwise manner commencing in 0.1 mM Ca2+
for 60 s before increasing the concentration to 1.5 mM. This pre-exposure to low calcium concentrations was
found to slow the consumption of aequorin (possibly because it prevents
an overshoot in [Ca2+]c during
Ca2+ repletion) and thereby to facilitate a prolongation of
the steady state in [Ca2+]er. Data were
collected every second with a photon counting board (EMI 660) and
calibrated according to Montero et al. (11, 12). It has
previously been reported that 1-5% of erAEQmut protein is missorted,
which biases the calibrated [Ca2+]er (11).
Therefore, 2-4% of the total photon emission at the end of each trace
was subtracted from the cumulative total before calibration.
Immunofluorescence Studies--
ER#18 cells were plated at a
density of 50 × 103/ml on polyornithine-coated glass.
For immunofluorescence studies, cells were fixed in 4%
paraformaldehyde and permeabilized as described previously (32). The
12CA5 antibody that recognizes the hemaggluttinin tag (10, 32)
incorporated in the erAEQmut construct was kindly donated by Dr. S. Arkinstall (Ares Serono, Geneva, Switzerland). The antibody raised
against the ER lumenal protein, calreticulin, was kindly donated by Dr.
M. Michalek (Toronto, Canada). All other antibodies were from Pierce.
Immunofluorescence was observed using a Zeiss laserscan 460 confocal microscope.
Insulin Secretion Measurements--
Cells were seeded at a
density of 4 × 105 in 24-well plates and allowed to
settle for 2-3 days. Cellular Ca2+ stores were then
emptied according to the above protocol where necessary. All cells were
then preincubated for 30 min in KRBH as detailed above and subsequently
stimulated for 15 min. Rat insulin in buffers and in acid-ethanol
extracts of cells was measured by radioimmunoassay using rat insulin as
standard (30) and an anti-insulin antibody from Linco (St. Louis, MO).
Statistical Analyses--
Values are given as the means ± S.E., and the significance of differences was assessed by Student's
t test for unpaired data except for rises in
[Ca2+]er in Fig. 4, where the paired test was applied.
Using an insulin-secreting INS-1 cell line that stably expresses
aequorin targeted to the ER, we have studied the effects of several
agents on the filling and the release of Ca2+ from this
organelle. Thirty-three G418 resistant INS-1 cell clones were kept and
of these twenty-seven expressed aequorin, nine of which displayed high
expression levels. The clone ER#18, which contained the highest level
of aequorin, had a total photon emission of 4.5 × 106
counts/coverslip and was used throughout the study. This gives an
approximate concentration of 4.4 ng of aequorin/106 cells
or 1 µl of cell volume. Taking the ER as 10% of the cell volume this
results in a concentration of approximately 2 µM in this
organelle, a level not expected to affect
[Ca2+]er by buffering the ion. Indeed,
transient transfection protocols that yield variable expression levels
in HeLa cells result in negligible variations of steady state
[Ca2+]er (36).
Fig. 1A shows the
immunolocalization of the hemaggluttinin epitope-tagged aequorin
expressed in the ER using an anti-hemaggluttinin antibody. The pattern
of staining is identical to that observed when the cells were exposed
to anti-calreticulin antibody (Fig. 1B). This protein is
known to be located in the lumen of the ER (37). Fig. 1C
reveals the co-localization of the two proteins. Using this technique,
no obvious missorting of the ER targeted aequorin to other cellular
compartments could be detected.
-cell,
dysregulation of [Ca2+]er may cause impaired
insulin secretion. The Ca2+-sensitive photoprotein aequorin
mutated to lower its Ca2+ affinity was stably expressed in
the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of rat insulinoma INS-1 cells. The
steady state [Ca2+]er was 267 ± 9 µM. Both the Ca2+-ATPase inhibitor
cyclopiazonic acid and 4-chloro-m-cresol, an activator of
ryanodine receptors, caused an almost complete emptying of ER
Ca2+. The inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate generating agonists,
carbachol, and ATP, reduced [Ca2+]er by
20-25%. Insulin secretagogues that raise cytosolic
[Ca2+] by membrane depolarization increased
[Ca2+]er in the potency order K+
glucose > leucine, paralleling their actions in the
cytosolic compartment. Glucose, which augmented
[Ca2+]er by about 25%, potentiated the
Ca2+-mobilizing effect of carbachol, explaining the
corresponding observation in cytosolic [Ca2+]. The
filling of ER Ca2+ by glucose is not directly mediated by
ATP production as shown by the continuous monitoring of cytosolic ATP
in luciferase expressing cells. Both glucose and K+
increase [Ca2+]er, but only the former
generated whereas the latter consumed ATP. Nonetheless, drastic
lowering of cellular ATP with a mitochondrial uncoupler resulted in a
marked decrease in [Ca2+]er, emphasizing the
requirement for mitochondrially derived ATP above a critical threshold
concentration. Using
-toxin permeabilized cells in the presence of
ATP, glucose 6-phosphate did not change [Ca2+]er, invalidating the hypothesis that
glucose acts through this metabolite. Therefore, insulin secretagogues
that primarily stimulate Ca2+ influx, elevate
[Ca2+]er to ensure
-cell homeostasis.
INTRODUCTION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
2b heavy chain gene upstream of the aequorin
cDNA as described by Montero et al. (10). Furthermore, this targeting is specific to the ER due to the interaction between the
immunoglobulin heavy chain domain CH1 and the ER lumenal protein, BiP.
In B lymphocytes and plasma cells this interaction will be dissociated
by the arrival of the immunoglobulin light chain, but in cells that do
not synthesize immunoglobulin this retention can be expected to remain
unperturbed. To allow measurements in a high [Ca2+]
compartment, a mutated ER-targeted aequorin was constructed that
introduced a point mutation into the protein. This Asp119
Ala mutation, previously shown to reduce the Ca2+
affinity of the photoprotein (22), effectively shifts the detectable [Ca2+] from the 0.1 to 10 µM range to the
submillimolar range anticipated in the ER. Furthermore, Montero
et al. (12) and Barrero et al. (14) have
introduced the use of an altered prosthetic group to facilitate the use
of Ca2+ rather than the Ca2+ surrogate,
Sr2+, in such experiments. Coelenterazine n displays lower
oxidation rates than the wild type following Ca2+ binding
to apoaequorin.
-cell. As in other cell types,
InsP3-generating receptor agonists mobilize
Ca2+ from the ER (23). The pancreatic
-cells also
express the ryanodine receptor, as low levels of mRNA for the type
2 receptor were reported recently (24). Miura et al. (25)
have demonstrated a small capacitative entry into murine
-cells
facilitated by the emptying of intracellular Ca2+ stores.
Moreover, studies on the proteolytic processing and intracellular transport of proinsulin and prohormone convertases in isolated rat
pancreatic islets suggest that the Ca2+ required for these
events originates from the ER (26). It has been proposed that the
nutrient secretagogue, glucose, elicits Ca2+ sequestration
by the ER in experiments using 45Ca2+ (Refs. 27
and references therein). In addition, the muscarinic receptor agonist,
carbachol, and its second messenger InsP3, caused greater
Ca2+ mobilization in broken cells (27) and a higher
[Ca2+]c rise in
-cells pretreated with
high glucose concentrations compared with low glucose concentrations
(28, 29). However, direct measurements of fluctuations of
[Ca2+]er during the stimulation of insulin
secretion are not yet available.
-cell sharing
enzymatic and secretory profiles with the primary cells (30-32). We
show here that INS-1 cells stably expressing high levels of mutated
(Asp119
Ala) aequorin targeted to the ER retain
glucose-induced insulin secretion and provide information on the
regulation of [Ca2+]er in this secretory cell system.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-toxin (1 µg/4-5 × 105 cells) for 8 min. As in our previous studies (33, 35)
the cells were perifused with an intracellular type buffer adjusted to
approximately 100 nM free calcium (140 mM KCl,
5 mM NaCl, 7 mM MgSO4, 20 mM Hepes, pH 7.0, 10 mM ATP, 10.2 mM EGTA, 1.65 mM CaCl2), 500 nM free calcium (idem except 6.67 mM
CaCl2), and 1.3 µM free calcium
(idem except 10.0 mM CaCl2).
RESULTS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
View larger version (19K):
[in a new window]
Fig. 1.
Co-localization of ER-targeted aequorin with
the ER lumenal protein, calreticulin, by immunofluorescence confocal
microscopy. In A the aequorin immunofluorescence was
detected with a primary antibody directed against the hemaggluttinin
epitope incorporated into the aequorin construct and visualized in the
rhodamine fluorescence channel (red). In B the
immunofluorescence from the ER lumenal protein calreticulin was
detected in the fluorescein isothiocyanate fluorescence channel
(green). C shows in orange-yellow the
regions of virtual co-localization of the two antigens.
The calibrated [Ca2+]er values shown in Fig.
2A indicate, however, that a
minor degree of missorting does occur. In particular upon readdition of
Ca2+ to depleted cells, the apparent kinetics of
Ca2+ concentration in the ER lumen (Fig. 2A,
thin line) was biphasic, the rapid uptake being followed by
a slow decrease that eventually reached levels similar to those of
depleted cells. This kinetic behavior was observed previously by
Montero et al. (11) and was shown to be due to a small
(1-5%) fraction of aequorin missorted into a low Ca2+
compartment. A close inspection of the kinetics of aequorin consumption in fact revealed that, as in the case of Montero et al.
(11), the decrease in the calibrated [Ca2+]er
occurred when over 80% of total aequorin content had been consumed
(data not shown). A simple, practical solution to avoid the calibration
artifact due to missorted aequorin is the elimination from the final
algorithm of 2-4% of the total light emission. With this simple
trick, the calibrated kinetics of Ca2+ refilling (Fig.
2A, thick line) are as expected, i.e.
rapid uptake followed by a prolonged steady state plateau. It is worth
stressing that the plateau level is almost identical to the peak of
[Ca2+]er measured without the correction and
that no significant elevation in steady state
[Ca2+]er is generated if the fraction of
missorted aequorin is varied between 2-5% of total (data not shown
and see Ref. 11). The plateau phase of
[Ca2+]er occurs at around 300 µM (267 ± 9 µM; n = 20 independent experiments) and can last for several minutes,
particularly if the temperature at which the experiment is performed is
lowered to 22 °C (data not shown). The kinetics of the filling of
the ER as well as the level of the observed steady state is influenced
by the extracellular [Ca2+] as illustrated in Fig.
2B.
|
The localization of the aequorin to InsP3-sensitive stores
shown in Fig. 1 is further substantiated by the results obtained with
receptor agonists known to activate phospholipase C and to raise
[Ca2+]c in this cell system (32, 38).
Carbachol (100 µM) elicits Ca2+ mobilization
from the ER as evidenced by a marked decrease in the
[Ca2+]er (Fig.
3A, thin line).
This effect is mediated by the activation of muscarinic receptors
because the addition of atropine not only prevented the carbachol
effect (data not shown) but also caused a more rapid refilling of the
stores than occurs after simple removal of the agonist (Fig.
3A, thick line). The addition of extracellular
ATP that activates P2Y receptors in insulin-secreting cells
(39) also causes a sustained decrease in the levels of [Ca2+]er (Fig. 3B). It has been
reported previously that 4-chloro-m-cresol raises
[Ca2+]c in HIT-T15 cells (40). That this
effect is exerted through activation of ryanodine receptors in the ER
(24) is suggested by the results in Fig. 3C. At 500 µM, 4-chloro-m-cresol caused an almost
complete and irreversible emptying of
[Ca2+]er. In the presence of 0.1 mM 4-chloro-m-cresol the lowering of
[Ca2+]er was slower, but the steady state
reached was similar to that observed with 0.5 mM (data not
shown). As expected, the SERCA inhibitor, CPA, efficiently lowered
[Ca2+]er. Removal of the inhibitor results in
an almost complete refilling because a new steady state similar to that
observed before the addition of CPA is reached again after
approximately 3 min (Fig. 3D). It should be noted that the
initial phase of emptying of the ER Ca2+ store was more
rapid with the InsP3-generating agent carbachol than with
CPA, because 20% lowering of [Ca2+]er was
50% slower with the latter agent. This is in accordance with
observations using histamine in HeLa cells (12).
|
Although it has been established that ER refilling after
Ca2+ mobilization is due to Ca2+ influx from
the extracellular medium, it is less clear whether Ca2+
entry invariably causes filling of the ER compartment. To investigate this, the insulin secretagogues glucose, leucine, and KCl were used,
which all raise [Ca2+]c in -cells by
membrane depolarization and opening of voltage-sensitive Ca2+ channels (23, 32), thereby promoting Ca2+
influx from the extracellular space. Glucose caused an average increase
in [Ca2+]er of 35 ± 13 µM
(p < 0.02; n = 12). These experiments
comprised two cell preparations displaying either negligible or large
responses. Considering only the latter experiments, the glucose-induced
[Ca2+]er rise was 64 ± 19 µM (p < 0.02; n = 6;
Fig. 4A). The increased [Ca2+]er induced by glucose results in a
larger Ca2+ mobilization evoked by 100 µM
carbachol as shown in Fig. 4B. Carbachol decreases
[Ca2+]er in control cells (2.8 mM
glucose) by 63.8 ± 5.5 µM (n = 4) and by 91.6 ± 6.7 µM (n = 8) in
cells stimulated with 10 mM glucose (p < 0.05).
|
Leucine, which acts like glucose (41), also causes a small increase in [Ca2+]er as shown in Fig. 4C (incremental increase 41 ± 4 µM; p < 0.001; n = 6). This response had a more rapid onset time than that of glucose. KCl (20 mM) causes a rapid and pronounced increase in the [Ca2+]er by approximately 100 µM (Fig. 4D). This increase is transient, and there is only a small sustained elevation despite the continued presence of KCl. This result might be expected from the known biphasic effect of KCl on [Ca2+]c in these cells (32). The lag times for the onset of the [Ca2+]er rises after the addition of the stimulus were calculated: glucose, 184 ± 12 s; leucine, 66 ± 11 s; and KCl, 12 ± 1 s. These values in part reflect the difference between the asynchronous metabolic stimulation of the cells with glucose and leucine and the synchronous stimulation with KCl. Because of artifactual decreases in [Ca2+]er when rapid stimulus application was used, the lag times cannot be compared with those calculated in our previous study for the rises in cytosolic and mitochondrial [Ca2+] (32).
The increase in [Ca2+]er evoked by glucose
and leucine could theoretically be secondary to an increase in
intracellular ATP (33, 42). Fig.
5A shows that 10 mM glucose causes a rapid increase in the cytosolic [ATP]
monitored in living INS-1 cells stably expressing cytosolic luciferase.
The increase in ATP, however, is not the cause of the
[Ca2+]er rise because in the absence of
extracellular Ca2+ glucose elicits the same increase in
cytosolic [ATP] (Fig. 5B) but has no effect on
[Ca2+]er. As to the elevation in [ATP],
this is not caused by the [Ca2+]c rise given
that depolarizing concentrations of KCl, which raise [Ca2+]c to levels higher that 1 µM (32), actually decrease [ATP] by approximately 10%
(Fig. 5A). It appears that basal ATP levels in resting cells
efficiently ensure Ca2+ pumping into the ER and that the
[Ca2+]c rise but not increased ATP generation
underlie the filling of the ER Ca2+ stores.
|
A series of experiments was performed in ER aequorin-expressing INS-1
cells permeabilized with Staphylococcus -toxin
to gain further insight into the regulation of
[Ca2+]er. This approach allows the clamping
of the concentration of ions, nucleotides, and glucose metabolites (33,
35) while leaving the organelle structures unperturbed. Fig.
6A illustrates that in the
continued presence of the SERCA inhibitor CPA, an increase in the
ambient free [Ca2+] from 0.1 µM to 1.3 µM only causes a small elevation in the
[Ca2+]er. This gives a further functional
indication of the ER localization of the recombinant aequorin. After
removal of CPA, [Ca2+]er rapidly rises to a
new steady state value of approximately 180 µM. As in
intact cells, the action of the SERCA inhibitor is thus reversible
albeit not completely with this short wash period. This is demonstrated
by comparing Fig. 6A with the steady state value of 457 ± 59 µM (n = 4) observed in the presence
of 1.3 µM Ca2+ and 10 mM ATP
(Fig. 7B). When the permeabilized cells were perifused with
0.1 µM Ca2+ and 10 mM ATP, the
resulting average [Ca2+]er was 215 ± 20 µM (n = 4). As expected, 5 µM InsP3 elicits a pronounced emptying of the
ER Ca2+ store (Fig. 6B). This response was
almost as potent as that seen with CPA, although the agents were tested
at a slightly different [Ca2+].
|
The rate-limiting reaction in glucose metabolism in the -cell is the
high Km glucose phosphorylating enzyme, glukokinase. Its product, glucose 6-phosphate, has been suggested to promote Ca2+ sequestration by directly stimulating Ca2+
uptake by the ER in pancreatic islets (43). To investigate whether the
effect of glucose on the [Ca2+]er is mediated
by glucose 6-phosphate, this metabolite (1 mM) was tested
in the permeabilized cell system at ambient [Ca2+] of 500 nM. There was no significant effect on the filling of the
ER (Fig. 6C).
Next we examined the impact of carbonyl cyanide
m-chlorophenyl hydrazone (FCCP), which dissipates the
mitochondrial proton gradient and thereby inhibits ATP production and
Ca2+ uptake via the Ca2+ uniporter of these
organelles (33, 41, 44, 45). As shown in Fig.
7, exposure of the intact cells to 1 µM FCCP evokes a pronounced loss of Ca2+ in
the ER resulting in a new steady state that remained higher than the
corresponding steady state reached in the presence of 10 µM CPA (Fig. 3D). This effect appears to be
exerted on the InsP3-sensitive ER store because the
addition of carbachol failed to alter further the
[Ca2+]er (Fig. 7A), although a
diminished pool of the phosphoinositide lipid precursor of
InsP3 cannot be excluded. In addition, FCCP does not change
the ATP-dependent filling of the ER in the permeabilized cells, which suggests that the effect of the protonophore is at the
level of the mitochondria rather than on the ER itself (Fig. 7B). The action of FCCP is reversible because the
[Ca2+]er rapidly increases upon its
removal.
|
Finally, it was felt important to examine whether the conditions for the emptying of the ER Ca2+ stores alter the physiological response of INS-1 cells. This can be seen in Table I. Glucose (10 mM) or KCl (20 mM) still cause significant increases in insulin secretion after emptying/refilling of the ER Ca2+ stores. It should be noted that later protocol results in elevated basal insulin secretion (+42%, p < 0.001).
|
![]() |
DISCUSSION |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
An insulin-secreting cell line was established that stably expresses aequorin in the ER. The measurement of Ca2+ within this organelle could shed light on the maintenance of calcium levels within the secretory cell as well as on putative interactions between organelles involved in Ca2+ homeostasis. The measurement of [Ca2+]er with aequorin is more complicated than the corresponding measurements in the mitochondria and the cytosol because of the higher [Ca2+] in the former compared with the latter compartments. Because the consumption of the prosthetic group, coelenterazine, is avid in a high calcium environment, the calibration of [Ca2+]er without the corrective procedure shown in Fig. 2 appears bell-shaped rather than reaching a steady state phase. Taking this approximately 2-4% missorted aequorin into account, steady state [Ca2+]er levels around 300 µM were consistently observed in the INS-1 cell that lasted for about 5 min before the aequorin luminescence became limiting. This corresponds well to the values observed using the same method of detection in several cell types (12, 14). However, others employing a different chimeric aequorin that lacked the mutation in one of the Ca2+-binding pockets have reported values in the low micromolar range in an embryonal kidney cell line (13). Single cell estimates of [Ca2+]er employing targeted "cameleon" calmodulin-containing fusion proteins have yielded resting values of 60-400 µM (46). The low affinity fluorescence indicator, mag-fura2, has also been used in various cell types to measure [Ca2+]er. This approach has yielded estimates of [Ca2+]er also in the range of 300 µM (21, 47, 48). In permeabilized hepatocytes, a value of 500 µM has been reported under optimal conditions using fluorescent indicators (49). Thus our estimate of steady state [Ca2+]er nicely agrees with those obtained in several cell types and further argues in favor of the idea that the very low values of [Ca2+]er initially measured with recombinant aequorin were due to calibration artifacts (7, 9, 48).
The aequorin-containing ER compartment was potently emptied after
treatment of permeabilized INS-1 cells with the SERCA inhibitor CPA, or
InsP3 by approximately 90%. In earlier work from this laboratory, the SERCA inhibitor thapsigargin caused a much greater release of Ca2+ than InsP3 as measured with
fluo-3 in the incubation medium of electropermeabilized INS-1 cells
(38). The reason for this discrepancy is unknown but may relate to the
different detection procedures and the more disruptive permeabilization
method used in the earlier study. The resting levels of the
[Ca2+]er in the permeabilized
aequorin-expressing INS-1 cells were not dissimilar (<20% lower) to
values recorded in intact cells but depended on the prevailing ATP and
Ca2+ concentrations. The conditions imposed for both of
these parameters corresponded to the concentration ranges suggested to
occur in intact cells (32, 33). A recent study employing the low
affinity Ca2+ indicator furaptra in digitonin-permeabilized
ob/ob mouse -cells reported
[Ca2+]er in the range 200-500
µM (50), in good agreement with the present results in
INS-1 cells.
In intact cells the InsP3-generating agonists carbachol and ATP used at maximal concentrations (39, 51) were efficient in causing Ca2+ mobilization. Carbachol, shown to exert its effect through muscarinic receptors, was the more potent of the two agonists. It should be noted that even in the presence of 100 µM carbachol only approximately 35% of the releasable Ca2+ is mobilized compared with the almost complete emptying seen in the presence of the SERCA inhibitor, CPA. Judging from the aforementioned data on permeabilized cells, this is not due to a subcompartment of the aequorin-containing ER being devoid of InsP3 receptors but probably due either to low InsP3 production or to its compartmentalization in intact cells.
In contrast to the InsP3-mobilizing agents, the nutrient
secretagogues glucose and leucine elicited Ca2+
sequestration by the ER. This effect was more pronounced with depolarizing concentrations of KCl. The nutrients promote
Ca2+ influx following closure of ATP-sensitive
K+ channels and gating of voltage-sensitive
Ca2+ channels in the plasma membrane (23). Both glucose and
leucine generate ATP by driving oxidative phosphorylation in the
mitochondria (33, 42). KCl does not activate cellular metabolism but
directly promotes voltage-dependent Ca2+
influx. Therefore, the rise in [Ca2+]er
cannot be explained by an increase in ATP generation that in the
resting state is sufficient to ensure efficient Ca2+
sequestration. This was substantiated by the measurements of cytosolic
ATP showing a large increase in ATP in the presence of glucose but a
slight decrease upon addition of KCl. This latter phenomenon probably
reflects ATP consumption by the Ca2+-ATPases in both ER and
plasma membranes. Such consumption is to be expected with KCl, which
raises cytosolic [Ca2+] to levels in excess of 1 µM in contrast to the 3-4-fold lower levels reached with
glucose and leucine (32, 52). This confirms the reported lowering of
the ATP/ADP ratio in K+-stimulated mouse pancreatic islets
(53). The pattern of Ca2+ uptake by the ER reflects the
potency order for cytosolic [Ca2+] rises with KCl
glucose > leucine. This nicely confirms the role of the ER in
Ca2+ homeostasis in
-cells.
Measurements of [Ca2+]c in native -cells
have suggested that glucose could facilitate an increase in the calcium
levels of the ER (28, 29, 54) that had previously been proposed from experiments using 45Ca2+ (27, 43, 55). We
tested directly the proposal that the sequestering effect of glucose is
mediated by its immediate metabolite glucose 6-phosphate (43). However,
glucose 6-phosphate had no significant effect on
[Ca2+]er when tested at 500 nM
Ca2+ in the permeabilized INS-1 cell. This, taken together
with the sequestering activities of KCl and leucine (which do not
generate glucose 6-phosphate) precludes a role for this metabolite in
[Ca2+] homeostasis in the
-cell.
It is of interest that, in a previous study from this laboratory, it was shown that in INS-1 cells stably expressing aequorin in the mitochondria, glucose not only increased the mitochondrial calcium concentration per se but that its preaddition could significantly augment the response to carbachol (32). That this phenomenon occurs can now, at least in part, be explained by the observed filling of the ER by glucose. We have now demonstrated that carbachol induces a more marked lowering of [Ca2+]er in the presence of 10 mM compared with 2.8 mM glucose. This confirms measurements of cytosolic [Ca2+] that have anticipated these findings (28, 29). If, as has been shown for other cell types, mitochondria lie in close proximity to the ER release sites (44, 56), the elevated concentration of calcium will participate in the augmentation of oxidative metabolism during the potentiation of nutrient-induced insulin secretion (23).
Lowering of the cytosolic [ATP] with the mitochondrial uncoupler FCCP (33) caused a pronounced emptying of the ER Ca2+ store (approximately 60-70%). This is not due to a direct effect of FCCP on the ER because the uncoupler had no effect under conditions of clamped ATP in permeabilized INS-1 cells (Fig. 7B) or BHK-21 cells (20). The mobilizing effect of FCCP in intact BHK-21 cells and INS-1 cells is, therefore, the consequence of a lowering of the ATP/ADP ratio below a critical threshold, impairing the function of the SERCA-mediated uptake mechanism (20). This further demonstrates the intimate connection between mitochondrial metabolism and Ca2+ handling by the ER.
In many cell types calcium itself promotes Ca2+
mobilization from the ER by activation of ryanodine receptors (1, 5). In the -cell and derived cell lines ryanodine, which can both activate and block its receptors, did not raise
[Ca2+]c (24, 40). However, other activators
such as caffeine (24), NO (57), and 4-chloro-m-cresol (40)
as well as related compounds (24) have been reported to raise
[Ca2+]c. In the present study,
4-chloro-m-cresol indeed potently emptied the ER
Ca2+ stores. This result and the presence of mRNA for
type 2 ryanodine receptors in islets (24) suggest the implication of
this Ca2+ release mechanism in the
-cell under certain
physiological situations (24).
In conclusion we have established an insulin-secreting cell line in
which it is possible to investigate changes in the lumenal [Ca2+] in the ER and found that glucose enhances filling
of the ER Ca2+ store under conditions of stimulated insulin
secretion. This may have implications in the treatment of
noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus because it has been
shown that the Ca2+ uptake and SERCA expression is lowered
in the ER in pancreatic islets from two animal models of this disease
(58, 59). The application of the targeted aequorin technology to
-cells from normal and diabetic animals should help clarify whether
defective Ca2+ handling by the ER is a primary cause of
impaired insulin secretion associated with diabetes mellitus. The
feasibility of such measurements has become tangible in view of
successful monitoring of intramitochondrial [Ca2+] in
native rat islet cells (35).
![]() |
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
---|
We thank Daniella Harry for excellent technical assistance. We also thank Dr. Mayte Montero and Dr. Sarino Rizzuto for helpful discussions.
![]() |
FOOTNOTES |
---|
* The work was supported by Swiss National Science Foundation Grants 32-32376.91 and 32-49755.96), by a European Network grant (to T. P. and C. B. W.) (through the Swiss Federal Office for Education and Science), and by grant from the Silva-Casa Foundation attributed through the AETAS Foundation for Research on Aging (Geneva) (to C. B. W.)The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
§ These authors contributed equally to this work.
** To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel.: 41-22-702-55-48; Fax: 41-22-702-55-43; E-mail: claes.wollheim{at}medecine.unige.ch.
![]() |
ABBREVIATIONS |
---|
The abbreviations used are: [Ca2+]c, cytosolic calcium concentration; [Ca2+]er, endoplasmic reticulum calcium concentration; CPA, cyclopiazonic acid; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; erAEQmut, mutated ER aequorin; FCCP, carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone; InsP3, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate; KRBH, Krebs-Ringer bicarbonate-Hepes buffer; SERCA, sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase.
![]() |
REFERENCES |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|