Editing of Glutamate Receptor Subunit B Pre-mRNA by
Splice-site Variants of Interferon-inducible Double-stranded
RNA-specific Adenosine Deaminase ADAR1*
Yong
Liu
and
Charles E.
Samuel
§¶
From the
Department of Molecular, Cellular and
Developmental Biology and § Interdepartmental Graduate
Program of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of
California, Santa Barbara, California 93106
 |
ABSTRACT |
The interferon-inducible RNA-specific
adenosine deaminase (ADAR1) is an RNA-editing enzyme that
catalyzes the deamination of adenosine in double-stranded RNA
structures. Three alternative splice-site variants of ADAR1 (ADAR1-a,
-b, and -c) occur that possess functionally distinct double-stranded
RNA-binding motifs as measured with synthetic double-stranded RNA
substrates. The pre-mRNA transcript encoding the B subunit of
glutamate receptor (GluR-B) has two functionally important editing
sites (Q/R and R/G sites) that undergo selective A-to-I conversions. We
have examined the ability of the three ADAR1 splice-site variants to catalyze the editing of GluR-B pre-mRNA at the Q/R and R/G sites as
well as an intron hotspot (+60) of unknown function. Measurement of
GluR-B pre-mRNA editing in vitro revealed different
site-specific deamination catalyzed by the three ADAR1 variants. The
ADAR1-a, -b, and -c splice variants all efficiently edited the R/G site and the intron +60 hotspot but exhibited little editing activity at the
Q/R site. ADAR1-b and -c showed higher editing activity than ADAR1-a
for the R/G site, whereas the intron +60 site was edited with
comparable efficiency by all three ADAR1 splice variants. Mutational
analysis revealed that the functional importance of each of the three
RNA-binding motifs of ADAR1 varied with the specific target editing
site in GluR-B RNA. Quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain
reaction analyses of GluR-B RNA from dissected regions of rat brain
showed significant expression and editing at the R/G site in all brain
regions examined except the choroid plexus. The relative levels of the
alternatively spliced flip and flop isoforms of GluR-B RNA varied among
the choroid plexus, cortex, hippocampus, olfactory bulb, and striatum,
but in all regions of rat brain the editing of the flip isoform was greater than that of the flop isoform.
 |
INTRODUCTION |
RNA editing by site-selective conversion of adenosine to inosine
(1, 2) plays a significant role in generating functional diversity of
ionotropic glutamate receptor channel subunits
(GluR)1 (3, 4). Multiple
glutamate receptor forms have been identified that mediate rapid
excitatory neurotransmission in the vertebrate central nervous system
(5). Within the non-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor family, including the AMPA
(
-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-isoxazole-4-propionate) and kainate
receptor subtypes, a total of eight adenosine positions so far have
been identified that undergo A-to-I editing in five different receptor
subunit genes. These editing events result in altered RNA coding and
subsequently altered biophysical properties of the receptor proteins
(3, 4).
The AMPA subtype of the glutamate receptors consists of four subunits,
GluR-A, -B, -C, and -D, that associate in homomeric and heteromeric
combinations (6, 7). Each GluR subunit possesses four hydrophobic
domains predicted to either span (TM1, TM3, and TM4) or loop into (TM2)
the cytoplasmic membrane (8). Alternative splicing of a 38-amino acid
region between TM3 and TM4, termed the flip/flop module specified by
exons 14 and 15 of the GluR-B gene (9), generates two
distinct receptor isoforms that differ from each other in the amplitude
and kinetics of glutamate-gated responses (10). A genome-encoded
glutamine (Q) codon (CAG) in exon 11, located in TM2 of AMPA receptor
subunits, has been identified as a key residue that controls
Ca2+ permeability (11, 12). The CAG codon is a target for
A-to-I editing of the GluR-B subunit (13). Since an arginine (R) CIG codon is generated by editing, the site is designated as the Q/R site
(1, 2). Editing at the Q/R site occurs almost completely in GluR-B
transcripts (>99%), as demonstrated by RT-PCR analysis of brain RNA
isolated from adult rats (14). Q/R site editing results in reduced
permeability to Ca2+ ions of AMPA receptors containing the
GluR-B subunit (11, 15). A second A-to-I editing site, termed the R/G
site due to a conversion of an arginine (R) codon (AGA) to a glycine
(G) codon (IGA), occurs in the GluR-B, -C, and -D subunits; the R/G
site is the last codon of exon 13, immediately upstream of the
flip/flop module (9, 16). Editing at the R/G site controls the kinetic
properties of AMPA receptor channels because alteration of this single
amino acid leads to faster recovery rates from receptor desensitization (16).
Elucidation of the RNA elements dictating the GluR-B editing
specificity at the Q/R site revealed a unique cis-acting
inverted repeat sequence located in the proximal portion of intron 11, which is predicted to form an imperfect duplex structure with the exon
11 sequence spanning the Q/R site (13, Fig. 1A). Similar duplex RNA structures also exist within exon 13 containing the R/G site
and the proximal portion of intron 13 in the genes of the GluR-B, -C,
and -D subunits (Fig. 1A) but are absent in the gene
encoding GluR-A subunit (16). Mutational analyses established that
these exon-intron dsRNA structures are absolutely essential for
efficient editing at the Q/R and R/G sites (13, 16). In addition,
multiple editing sites within intron 11 have been identified that also
undergo A-to-I modification; these are referred to as hotspots (13,
17). The dsRNA structure requirement for the editing of GluR subunit
transcripts suggested the involvement of RNA-specific adenosine
deaminases (ADAR) (18) as the candidate editing enzymes.
ADAR deaminase, originally identified as an RNA unwinding activity,
catalyzes the C-6 deamination of adenosine in double-stranded (ds)
structures present within viral RNAs and cellular pre-mRNAs as well
as synthetic dsRNA substrates (19-24). Molecular cloning studies
established that the ADAR deaminases constitute a multi-gene family of
enzymes (18). So far two human ADAR genes, ADAR1 and ADAR2, have been shown to encode functional deaminases (18, 25-28). We isolated ADAR1 as an interferon-inducible enzyme (25, 29)
that possesses both dsRNA binding and Z-DNA binding properties (30-32). The ADAR1 cDNA specified a 1226-amino acid protein that contains in the central region three functionally distinct copies of
the highly conserved double-stranded RNA-binding motif (dsRBM), designated as dsRBMI, dsRBMII, and
dsRBMIII. These dsRBM copies constitute the RNA-binding
domain (dsRBD) and are implicated in the recognition of dsRNA
structures within the substrate RNAs (25-27). The core amino acid
residues of the dsRBM, the prototype of which was first described in
the interferon-inducible RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR
(33), are essential for the dsRNA binding activity of PKR (34, 35).
These residues are exactly conserved in each of the three repeated
dsRBM copies found in ADAR1 (25, 32). Interestingly, characterization
of ADAR1 and PKR genomic clones revealed that the codon phasing is
precisely conserved at the junctions of the three exons that specify
the three dsRBM copies of ADAR1 and the junctions of the two exons that
specify the two dsRBM copies of PKR (36). A repeated domain present in
the N-terminal region of ADAR1, homologous to the N-terminal region of
the vaccinia virus E3L protein (25), specifies two Z-DNA binding
domains within ADAR1 designated as Z
and Z
(37). Two
immunologically related forms of the human ADAR1 deaminase that differ
in size, intracellular location, and interferon inducibility are
present in a variety of human cell lines; an interferon-inducible ~150-kDa protein is present in both the cytoplasm and nucleus, and a
constitutively expressed ~110-kDa truncated protein is present predominantly if not exclusively in the nucleus (25). The gene encoding
these ADAR1 proteins maps to human chromosome 1q21.1-21.2 (38). A
second ADAR gene, ADAR2, maps to human chromosome 21q22.3 (39, 40) and encodes an ~80-kDa protein (28, 41). Unlike ADAR1, ADAR2
has a shorter N-terminal region and only two dsRNA-binding subdomains
encoded by one single large exon (39).
Multiple ADAR1 and ADAR2 deaminase isoforms are generated by
alternative splicing. For human ADAR1, we described three naturally occurring splice variant isoforms that show tissue-specific expression (36). In comparison to the full-length 1226 amino acid ADAR1 protein
(25-27), designated ADAR1-a, ADAR1-b is a 5'-splice-site variant that
has a 26-amino acid deletion within exon 7 between the
dsRBMIII motif and the catalytic (C) domain. The ADAR1-c
variant has an additional deletion of 19 amino acids within exon 6 located between dsRBMII and dsRBMIII resulting
from an alternative 3'-splice-site selection (36). Although the three
ADAR1 isoforms exhibit comparable deaminase activity measured with a
synthetic dsRNA substrate, site-directed mutagenesis revealed that the
three dsRBM copies of the ADAR1 variants are functionally distinct
(36). Similar to ADAR1, multiple splice variant isoforms of ADAR2 have
been identified, some of which show altered deaminase activities (28). In contrast to the case of ADAR1, the alternative splice-site variants
identified for ADAR2 differ within the catalytic deaminase domain by
insertion of an Alu-like sequence, or at the C terminus (28, 39, 42)
and the N terminus (43), rather than in the central RNA-binding region
as seen for ADAR1.
The ADAR1 and ADAR2 deaminases show different activities for GluR-B RNA
transcripts as indicated by editing analyses in vitro (28,
41). Recombinant ADAR1-a enzyme possesses little editing activity at
the Q/R site but efficiently modifies the intron hotspot adenosine at
the +60 site of GluR-B pre-mRNA (Fig. 1A). In contrast, recombinant ADAR2 enzyme efficiently edits the Q/R site of GluR-B transcripts (28, 41). Both ADAR enzymes are capable of editing the R/G
site of GluR-B pre-mRNA (28, 41).
We previously demonstrated, using a synthetic dsRNA substrate, that the
three dsRNA-binding motifs of ADAR1 are functionally distinct within
the three splice-site variant isoforms (36). Here we describe the
site-dependent editing of GluR-B RNA in vitro by
the splice variant isoforms of ADAR1 and the editing patterns in
vivo in RNA from dissected brain regions. Although the three recombinant ADAR1 variants a, b, and c were comparably active in
vitro for editing the intron +60 hotspot of GluR-B pre-mRNA, none was active for the adjacent Q/R exon site. The R/G exon site was
edited by all three variants, but ADAR1-b and -c displayed higher
editing activity than ADAR1-a. Quantitative reverse transcription (RT)-PCR analyses of the RNA transcripts from different rat brain regions revealed differential expression levels of the GluR-B flip and
flop receptor isoforms, with region-specific differences in editing
efficiency at the R/G site.
 |
MATERIALS AND METHODS |
Expression and Analysis of Recombinant ADAR1
Proteins--
Construction of ADAR1 expression vectors in pcDNA
I/Neo was as described previously (31, 32, 36), including the
full-length (FL) form in which ADAR1 translation initiates at Met-1 or
the N-terminally truncated (M296) form which initiates at Met-296. Wild-type FL and M296 constructs included the three naturally occurring
splice-site variants ADAR1-a, -b, and -c (36). Mutant ADAR1-b
constructs likewise have been described (32, 36), both in the FL and
M296 form, in which the dsRBM motifs possess a site-directed amino acid
substitution at a highly conserved and critical lysine residue required
for RNA binding. These substitution mutants include the three single
mutants, each with one of the three dsRBM motifs mutated:
dsRBMI(K554E), dsRBMII(K665E), or dsRBMIII (K776E) designated as the RI,
RII or RIII mutant, respectively (32). A double
substitution mutant of ADAR1 deficient in catalytic activity,
designated as the "C" mutant and constructed in the M296 form of
ADAR1-b, possesses H910Q and E912A substitutions within the highly
conserved CHAE sequence of the C-terminal deaminase catalytic domain
(32).
Monkey kidney COS-1 cells, maintained in monolayer culture in
Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (HyClone), were transfected with wild-type or mutant cDNA expression vectors by the DEAE-dextran-chloroquine phosphate method for the expression of ADAR1 proteins (44). Recombinant ADAR1
proteins were prepared from cytoplasmic extracts as described previously (31, 36). ADAR1 protein levels were monitored by Western
immunoblot analysis carried out with antiserum (1:500 dilution)
generated against recombinant ADAR1 protein expressed in
Escherichia coli as described previously (25).
Antibody-antigen complexes were subsequently detected with
125I-labeled protein A (0.05 mCi/ml; ICN) by
autoradiography, and quantitation was done using a molecular imager
system (Bio-Rad GS-525). The dsRNA-specific adenosine deaminase
activity of the expressed recombinant ADAR1 proteins was routinely
measured with a 32P-labeled synthetic dsRNA substrate as
described previously (25, 31, 36). Conversion of adenosine to inosine
was analyzed by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) on cellulose NM 300 glass plates (Macherey & Nagel) to separate IMP and AMP, following
hydrolysis of the deaminated RNA product with nuclease P1 (Amersham
Pharmacia Biotech). Quantitation was carried out with the molecular
imaging system.
Oligonucleotides--
The following oligonucleotides were used
for subcloning and construction of mouse GluR-B minigenes
(9, 13, 16) that span the Q/R or R/G editing sites and for the primer
extension assays (Fig. 1B). The oligonucleotides derived
from exons 13, 14, and 15 were also used for quantitative RT-PCR
analysis of the alternatively spliced flip and flop isoforms of GluR-B
RNA transcripts from rat brain RNA since these sequences are identical between mouse and rat GluR-B genes.
MBE11(+)BglII, 5'-gacAGATCTGGATGTGCATTGTG-3' (nt
186-167 upstream of the Q/R site in exon 11, with the A at the Q/R
site referred to as 0 position); MBI11(
)XbaI,
5'-gacTCTAGATATGTGTGATCAAC-3' (nt 535-554 downstream of
the Q/R site in intron 11); MBE13(+)BglII, 5'-gcagAGATCTAAAATTGCAGTG-3' (nt 1-18 of exon 13);
MBE14(
)StuI, 5'-GTCCAACAGGCCTTGTTC-3' (nt
35-52 of exon 14); MB(
)Q/R, 5'-CCTTGGCGAAATATCGCATCCTTG-3' (nt 2-25
downstream of the Q/R site); MB(
)HS,
5'-GACACCATGAATATCCACTTGAG-3' (nt 64-86 downstream of the
Q/R site); MB(
)R/G, 5'-GCATATTGTTATACTATTCCACCC-3' (nt 3-26 of
intron 13); and MBE15(
), 5'-CACTGAGTTTCAATACTGC-3' (nt 17-35 of exon
15). The symbol (+) indicates the sense primer, and (
) the antisense
primer. The underlined sequences indicate the restriction sites
utilized, and the lowercase sequences were included to facilitate
restriction digestion.
Construction of GluR-B Minigenes and RNA Editing Assays--
A
741-nt GluR-B genomic DNA fragment spanning 211 nt of exon 11 containing the Q/R site and 530 nt of the proximal sequence of intron
11 has been shown to be editing-competent (13). This fragment was
amplified by PCR with Taq DNA polymerase (Fisher) under
conditions supplied by the manufacturer from a mouse genomic DNA
library () using primers
MBE11(+)BglII and MBI11(
)XbaI. After digestion
by BglII and XbaI, the PCR product was subcloned into pcDNA I/Neo vector that had been digested with
BamHI and XbaI to generate GluR-B-Q/R
minigene. Likewise, an approximately 1.1-kilobase pair GluR-B genomic
fragment spanning the R/G site and the entire intron 13 was amplified
with primers MBE13(+)BglII and MBE14(
)StuI. The
PCR product digested with BglII and StuI was
subcloned into pcDNA I/Neo vector that had been cut by
BamHI and EcoRV and subsequently used as
GluR-B-R/G minigene. GluR-B RNA transcript was made by
in vitro transcription and used as the substrate of editing
assays. Briefly, XbaI-linearized plasmid DNA (5 µg) with
the GluR-B-Q/R or -R/G minigenes was transcribed in vitro using phage T7 RNA polymerase (New England Biolabs)
according to the manufacturer's instructions. The RNA transcript was
recovered by precipitation with ethanol after extraction with phenol
and chloroform. In a standard editing assay, the GluR-B RNA transcript was incubated at a final concentration of about 1 nM in 100 µl of reaction mixture containing recombinant ADAR1 protein from the
cytoplasmic fraction of transfected COS cells. An equivalent amount of
wild-type ADAR1 deaminase activity was added for each isoform as
measured previously with a synthetic dsRNA substrate; the wild-type
ADAR1-a, -b, and -c splice variants possess comparable specific
deaminase activity on the dsRNA substrate (36). For the ADAR1
substitution mutant proteins with altered enzymatic activity, an
equivalent amount of mutant protein determined by Western blot assay to
that of the wild-type protein was added. After incubation in the
presence of 20 units of RNase inhibitor (Promega) for 3 h at
30 °C, the edited RNA was recovered again and subjected to
quantification of editing by primer extension analysis.
Primer Extension Analysis of GluR-B Editing by Reverse
Transcription (RT)--
The edited GluR-B RNA containing the Q/R site
or the R/G site was directly subjected to primer extension analysis
using a reverse transcription (RT) reaction as shown in Fig.
1B. Three primers, MB(
)Q/R, MB(
)HS, and MB(
)R/G, which
were 5'-end-labeled by T4 polynucleotide kinase (New England Biolabs)
using [
-32P]ATP (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech), were
annealed to edited GluR-B RNA by heating at 70 °C for 10 min and
gradually cooling to 42 °C. Three extension reactions were
established as indicated in Fig. 1B to measure the editing
efficiency at the Q/R site, the intron hotspot +60 site, and the R/G
site, using avian myeloblastosis virus-reverse transcriptase according
to the manufacturer's instructions (Promega). Each reaction contained
a combination of dideoxythymidine 5'-triphosphate at 1 mM
and the other three deoxynucleoside 5'-triphosphates (dNTPs) each at
0.1 mM. After incubation at 42 °C for 40 min, extended
products were resolved on denaturing 16% polyacrylamide gels with 7 M urea and quantified using a molecular imaging system.
Quantitative Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction
(RT-PCR)--
The GluR-B RNA transcripts edited in vivo at
the R/G site for the alternatively spliced flip and flop isoforms and
their expression levels were analyzed using the total RNA isolated from
dissected rat brain regions (kindly provided by Dr. R. B. Emeson,
Vanderbilt University) by quantitative RT-PCR with Taq DNA
polymerase (Fisher) under conditions recommended by the manufacturer.
The total RNA from dissected brain areas of adult 8-12-week-old adult
rats (24) included choroid plexus, cortex, hippocampus, olfactory bulb, and striatum. Reverse transcription was carried out at 37 °C with random hexamer oligonucleotides using Moloney murine leukemia virus-reverse transcriptase (New England Biolabs) for the brain-derived RNA. Limiting amounts of the resultant cDNA were then subjected to
PCR analyses, using end-labeled primer MBE13(+)BglII and
primer MBE14(
)StuI to detect the flop isoform or primer
MBE15(
) the flip isoform of GluR-B (Fig. 4A). The sequence
containing the R/G site constitutes an MseI restriction site
(TTAA) and is absent in the RT-PCR products after A-to-I
editing (TTAG) (45). Therefore, a cleavage assay by
MseI was used to determine the editing efficiency at the R/G
site, with an additional MseI site present downstream in
exon 14 (flop isoform) serving as an internal control. As a standard
control for expression levels,
-tubulin was quantified using the
end-labeled primers
-T(+)313 and
-T(
)STOP (generously provided
by Dr. S. Feinstein, University of California, Santa Barbara). The
RT-PCR products were resolved on native 6% polyacrylamide gels, and
end-labeled 1-kilobase pair DNA ladder (New England Biolabs) was used
as the marker.
 |
RESULTS |
Site-selective Editing of GluR-B RNA in Vitro by the ADAR1-a, -b,
and -c Proteins--
To understand better the basis of the site
selectivity of the GluR-B editing process (Fig.
1A), we examined the ability
of the three isoforms of the interferon-inducible ADAR1 protein to catalyze the site-specific editing of the GluR-B RNA substrate in
vitro. A primer extension strategy was employed as shown in Fig.
1B to measure GluR-B editing. Oligonucleotide primer
MB(
)Q/R was used to measure editing at the Q/R site, primer MB(
)HS
for the +60 intron hotspot, and primer MB(
)R/G for the R/G site.

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Fig. 1.
Editing of the GluR-B RNA. A,
schematic diagrams showing the two sites of editing (Q/R and R/G)
located in exons 11 and 13, respectively, of the GluR-B pre-mRNA.
The +60 editing hotspot in intron 11, relative to the Q/R site, defined
as position 0, is also shown. The predicted dsRNA structure formed
between the exon sequence spanning the editing site and the proximal
intron sequence also is indicated in the schematic for both the Q/R and
the R/G regions of the pre-mRNA (3, 16, 46). B,
schematic illustration of the primer extension strategy used to analyze
editing of the GluR-B RNA at the Q/R, R/G, and +60 sites using minigene
substrates and reverse transcriptase in the presence of
dideoxythymidine 5'-triphosphate as indicated. The sense sequence is
shown for the GluR-B RNA spanning the region of the three editing
sites. End-labeled antisense primer ( )Q/R was used to measure the
editing efficiency at the Q/R site, primer ( )HS at the hotspot +60
site, and ( )R/G at the R/G site. The predicted extension products,
with sizes (nt) given in parentheses, are shown for RNAs
that possessed edited or non-edited sites as indicated.
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The three recombinant ADAR1 proteins were all capable of modifying the
two GluR-B RNA substrates in vitro in a site-selective fashion (Fig. 2A). The
ADAR1-a, -b, and -c isoforms all showed a preference for the intron
hotspot +60 site of the 741-nt exon 11-intron 11 GluR-B RNA (Fig.
2B). None of the three ADAR1 splice variants were able to
efficiently edit the exon 11 Q/R site (data not shown). However, the
R/G site of the ~1100-nt exon 13-intron 13-exon 14 GluR-B RNA served
as an effective substrate for all three ADAR1 variant proteins (Fig.
2A). When the specific editing activities obtained for the
hotspot +60 and the R/G site were normalized to the deaminase activity
observed with dsRNA as the substrate, the quantitation revealed that
the three ADAR1 splice variants (either in the FL or the M296 form) all
catalyzed editing of the +60 hotspot with comparable efficiency.
However, the three ADAR1 variants displayed differential editing
activities for the R/G site. ADAR1-b and -c edited the R/G site more
efficiently than ADAR1-a. Similar to our earlier findings with dsRNA as
the substrate (36), the Z-DNA binding domain Z
(25, 37) in the
N-terminal region of ADAR1 was not required for editing of GluR-B RNA
substrates in vitro. The editing activities of the truncated
M296-ADAR1-a, -b, and -c proteins were comparable to those displayed by
the full-length ADAR1 proteins (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2.
Measurement of GluR-B RNA editing catalyzed
by ADAR1 splice-site variants in vitro.
A, autoradiogram showing the primer extension products
derived from the 741-nt exon 11-intron 11 GluR-B RNA substrate and the
~1100-nt exon 13-intron 13-exon 14 GluR-B RNA substrate after
incubation with recombinant ADAR1-a, -b, and -c proteins. The
full-length (FL) and N-terminally truncated (M296) versions of the
three splice variants (a, b, and c)
were expressed in transfected COS cells. The extension products are
indicated for each primer in the presence of dideoxythymidine
5'-triphosphate mixture as outlined in Fig. 1B. Lanes
1-7, 32P-labeled ( )HS primer used to analyze the
extent of editing at the hotspot +60 site; lanes 8-14,
32P-labeled ( )R/G primer used to measure the extent of
editing at the R/G site. B, quantitation of the efficiency
of editing catalyzed by the ADAR1 splice variants at the intron hotspot
+60 and R/G sites measured by the primer extension assay. The
specific editing activity observed for each ADAR1 protein has been
normalized to its deaminase activity measured with a synthetic dsRNA
substrate because all wild-type ADAR1 splice variants
possessed comparable specific deaminase activity on dsRNA
substrate (36). S.E. was obtained from two independent
experiments.
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Functionally Distinct RNA Binding and Catalytic Domains of ADAR1
Associated with Editing of GluR-B RNA--
Site-directed mutagenesis
earlier revealed that the three copies of the dsRBM motif and the
catalytic deaminase domain are functionally distinct from each other in
ADAR1 (32) and that the functional importance of each individual dsRBM
varies among the three ADAR1 splice-site variants when synthetic dsRNA
is the substrate (36). By using the recombinant ADAR1-b splice variant, we examined the effect of equivalent single substitution mutations introduced into each of the three dsRBM motifs and the double substitution mutation in the catalytic domain on editing activity determined with the natural GluR-B RNA substrate as compared with a
fully complementary synthetic dsRNA substrate. For each of three dsRBM
mutants, RI, RII, and RIII, the
highly conserved critical lysine residue within the dsRBM core was
mutated (32, 36). Consistent with earlier observations obtained with a
synthetic [32P]dsRNA substrate, the dsRBMIII
motif of ADAR1-b was the most important of the three motifs for
dsRNA deamination, and the dsRBMII motif was dispensable
for enzyme activity. The functional significance of the
dsRBMI motif was intermediate between that of the
dsRBMII motif and dsRBMIII motif measured with
dsRNA (Fig. 3A).

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Fig. 3.
Effects of mutation of ADAR1 RNA-binding
domains and catalytic domain on editing of synthetic dsRNA and GluR-B
RNA substrates. The specific activity was determined for the
wild-type (WT) and mutant ADAR1-b proteins that possess a
single substitution in one of the three RNA-binding motifs
(dsRBMI(K554E), dsRBMII(K665E), or
dsRBMIII (K776E)) of the dsRBD or a double substitution in
the catalytic (C) domain (H910Q, E912A). FL,
full-length 1200 amino acid ADAR1-b; M296, the N-terminally
truncated 905 aa ADAR1-b. A, synthetic dsRNA substrate.
B, editing of the intron hotspot +60 site of GluR-B
substrate RNA. C, editing of the R/G site of GluR-B
substrate RNA. S.E. was determined from two independent
experiments.
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When the GluR-B RNA substrates were tested, the relative functional
importance of each of the three dsRBM motifs was found to be dependent
upon the particular editing site examined. Mutation of any one of the
three dsRBM motifs of ADAR1 significantly reduced editing at the intron
+60 hotspot (Fig. 3B). However, for editing at the R/G site,
the dsRBMIII motif was the most important of the three
dsRBM motifs, and the dsRBMI and dsRBMII motifs
were much less important (Fig. 3C), similar to earlier
findings obtained with a synthetic dsRNA substrate (32, 36). Curiously,
mutation of the dsRBMII motif resulted in an increased
editing efficiency at the R/G site, especially with the FL form of the
protein (Fig. 3C). Comparison of our results obtained with
different substrates revealed that the dsRBMI and
dsRBMII motifs of ADAR1-b were more important for editing
the +60 hotspot than for editing either the R/G site or for deamination
of synthetic dsRNA. The double substitution mutation introduced into
the catalytic domain in the M296 form of ADAR1-b protein abolished
deaminase activity for synthetic dsRNA substrate (32), and also
resulted in the loss of editing activity for the +60 hotspot and the
R/G site of the GluR-B RNA substrate (Fig. 3).
Expression and Editing Patterns of GluR-B RNA Flip and Flop
Isoforms in Dissected Rat Brain Regions--
Alternative splicing of
the GluR-B transcript characterized by skipping either exon 14 or exon
15 produces two functionally different GluR-B isoforms, designated flip
and flop (10), as illustrated by the schematic diagram shown in Fig.
4A. To assess the expression
patterns in the brain of the alternatively spliced flip and flop
isoforms of GluR-B RNA, quantitative RT-PCR was carried out utilizing
RNA isolated from five dissected rat brain regions
(24)2 including choroid
plexus, cortex, hippocampus, olfactory bulb, and striatum. The flip and
flop isoforms were differentially expressed in the five regions of the
brain examined (Fig. 4B). Relative to
-tubulin as an
internal standard, the lowest relative expression levels of both GluR-B
isoform transcripts were found in the choroid plexus. The flip isoform
was most efficiently expressed and more abundant than the flop isoform
in cortex and hippocampus, whereas the flop isoform was expressed at
comparable levels to the flip isoform in the choroid plexus, olfactory
bulb, and striatum.

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|
Fig. 4.
Expression of alternatively spliced flip and
flop isoforms of GluR-B receptor RNA in different regions of rat
brain. A, schematic representation showing the flip and
flop isoforms of alternatively spliced GluR-B receptor RNA. The
predicted RT-PCR products, with sizes (nt) in parentheses,
are shown for both versions of GluR-B RNA. M, the position
of the MseI restriction sites. B, quantitation of
the expression levels of the detected flip and flop isoforms of GluR-B
after normalization to -tubulin as an internal reference. S.E. was
determined from two independent experiments.
|
|
PCR analyses with primers specific for exon 14 and 15 sequences yielded
the two predicted products that correspond to the flop and the flip
isoforms of GluR-B. The identification of the products as flip and flop
was confirmed by mobility of the products following digestion by
MseI restriction endonuclease (Fig.
5A). By using the additional
MseI site present in the flop isoform as an internal control
for complete digestion (Fig. 5A), the efficiency of editing
at the R/G site was determined based on the fact that the non-edited
R/G site sequence constitutes an MseI restriction site
(TTAA). The efficiency of editing at the
R/G site was generally higher for the flip than for the flop
isoform in all five of the brain regions examined (Fig. 5B).
The lowest level of editing for the flop isoform was found in choroid
plexus (~10%) among the five dissected brain regions examined (Fig.
5B).

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|
Fig. 5.
Analysis of editing of alternatively spliced
flip and flop isoforms of GluR-B receptor RNA in different regions of
rat brain. A, autoradiograms showing the RT-PCR
products of the alternatively spliced flip and flop isoforms of GluR-B
RNA detected in the five dissected regions of rat brain following
incubation with MseI. The bands corresponding to the edited
and non-edited forms at the R/G site are indicated along with sizes
(nt) in parentheses. Lanes 1 and 6,
choroid plexus (CP); lanes 2 and 7,
cortex (Co); lanes 3 and 8,
hippocampus (Hi); lanes 4 and 9,
olfactory bulb (OB); lanes 5 and 10,
striatum (St). B, quantitation of the R/G site
editing for both the flip and flop isoforms of GluR-B, as measured by
cleavage with MseI. S.E. was determined from two
independent experiments.
|
|
 |
DISCUSSION |
The RNA-editing enzyme ADAR1 is an interferon-inducible,
double-stranded RNA-binding protein (25, 29, 47). Although the three
recombinant ADAR1 splice-site variants possess comparable adenosine
deaminase activity determined with a synthetic dsRNA substrate (36),
little is known regarding their editing preferences for the sites of
GluR-B pre-mRNA, one of the postulated natural substrates of ADAR
enzymes (1). Several important points emerge from our results reported
herein on the editing of the GluR-B pre-mRNA by ADAR1 splice site
variants in vitro and the expression and editing in
vivo of the flip and flop isoforms of GluR-B transcripts in
dissected regions from rat brain.
Recombinant ADAR1-a, -b, and -c splice-site variant proteins displayed
quantitatively different A-to-I modifying activities for the Q/R, R/G,
and intron +60 hotspot sites within GluR-B substrate RNAs in
vitro. All three of the human ADAR1 splice variants showed efficient editing activity for the +60 hotspot and R/G sites of GluR-B
but were nearly inactive for the Q/R site (Fig. 2). The inability of
ADAR1-a, -b, or -c to edit the Q/R site is consistent with the notion
that ADAR2 is most likely responsible for editing the Q/R site of
GluR-B (28, 41). Although the ADAR1-a, -b, and -c isoforms did not
display any significant difference in their ability to edit the +60
hotspot, they showed different editing activities for the R/G site
(Fig. 2B). Our finding that human ADAR1-a did catalyze
editing at the R/G site by the primer extension assay is consistent
with recent reports for the rat and human ADAR1-a proteins (41, 49),
the isoform that we and others initially cloned (18). However, among
the splice variants of ADAR1 that are now known (36), we observed that
the ADAR1-b and especially the ADAR1-c isoforms were substantially more
active than the ADAR1-a isoform for editing the exon R/G site but not the +60 intron hotspot in GluR-B substrates. These results suggest that
the two deletions introduced in the ADAR1-b and -c isoforms by
alternative splicing do not qualitatively affect the site selectivity of ADAR1 for editing the GluR-B RNA substrates in vitro, but
indeed do affect how efficiently an adenosine at a particular site is presented to the catalytic center of ADAR1 for subsequent deamination. Most likely the functional importance of the spacer region between the
RNA-binding domain and the catalytic domain of the ADAR1 splice-site isoforms depends upon the particular overall structure of the substrate
RNA bound by the dsRBM motifs.
Previously we established by site-directed mutagenesis that the three
repeated copies of the dsRBM in ADAR1-b behaved in a functionally
distinct manner when enzyme activity was measured using a synthetic
dsRNA substrate (32, 36). Herein we observed, using minigene RNA
versions of the natural GluR-B substrate RNA, that all three dsRBM
copies of ADAR1-b were required for efficient editing of the +60 intron
hotspot. However, for editing at the R/G site, the dsRBMIII
motif was uniquely important among the three dsRBM copies; mutation of
the dsRBMI and dsRBMII motifs revealed that
they contributed far less relative to dsRBMIII for R/G
editing activity (Fig. 3). Thus, the relative functional importance of
the individual dsRBM motifs for editing at the R/G site appears comparable to their importance for editing a synthetic dsRNA substrate. The differences in behavior of the individual dsRBM copies for editing
at the +60 hotspot and the R/G site likely reflect the distinct
structural features of the GluR-B RNA surrounding the +60 hotspot and
R/G editing sites.
Quantitative RT-PCR analyses of RNA from dissected regions of rat brain
revealed that the expression of the alternatively spliced flip and flop
isoforms of GluR-B transcripts varied relative to one another in
different regions of brain. The lowest levels of GluR-B transcripts
were found in choroid plexus and the highest levels in the cortex and
hippocampus (Fig. 4B). Estimation of the editing efficiency
at the R/G site in different regions of rat brain, using an
MseI-cleavage method of analysis, revealed that the extent
of editing of the flip form was consistently higher than that of the
flop form (Fig. 5B). The lowest relative level of editing at
the R/G site was found in the choroid plexus, the region of lowest
GluR-B expression. The ADAR1and ADAR2 proteins are expressed in all
five of the rat brain regions.2
Our results obtained for GluR-B editing can be compared with those
observed for serotonin receptor 5-HT2CR RNA, which also undergoes A-to-I editing in the brain (24). Analysis of the mature
mRNA encoding 5-HT2CR as well as the
5-HT2CR pre-mRNA revealed a region-specific pattern of
expression and editing of 5-HT2CR in rat brain
(24).2 In contrast to the relatively low level of GluR-B
transcripts in the choroid plexus (Fig. 4B), the
5-HT2CR RNA transcripts were most abundant in choroid
plexus.2 But, similar to the low relative extent of editing
seen for the R/G site of GluR-B transcripts in choroid plexus, editing
of 5-HT2CR RNA at the A and B sites is also less efficient
in choroid plexus as compared with cortex, hippocampus, olfactory bulb,
and striatum regions (24).2 Most likely a large number of
RNA species serve as substrates for ADAR-catalyzed editing in the
brain, based on a recent estimate from analysis of inosine-containing
RNA transcripts that one adenosine out of every 17,000 nucleotides in
mRNA from the brain undergoes A-to-I editing (50). Some of these
RNAs likely encode GluR subunits other than GluR-B (3, 4), but the vast
majority of the I-containing mRNAs are as yet unidentified. Other
than the induction of ADAR1 by the cytokine interferon (25, 29, 47),
little is known about the basis of regulation of ADAR gene expression
and modulation of the amount of ADAR enzyme activity in the context of
the total pool of potential RNA substrates that includes the GluR-B and 5-HT2CR pre-mRNAs. Both biochemical analyses in
vitro and transfection studies in vivo show that ADAR1
is capable of efficiently editing the A and B sites of the
5-HT2CR pre-mRNA (24).2 Curiously, the
expression levels of the ADAR1-a and -b isoforms relative to
-tubulin are highest in the choroid plexus2 even though
editing at the R/G site of the GluR-B RNA (Fig. 5B) and the
A and B sites of the 5-HT2CR RNA (24)2 was the
lowest in choroid plexus relative to other brain regions. This suggests
the possible involvement of trans-acting factors in choroid
plexus that modulate the editing of both GluR-B and 5-HT2CR
RNAs by ADAR1. Such factors could include either RNAs (51) or proteins
(49) that modulate ADAR1 activity. Alternatively, an enzyme other than
ADAR1 may be primarily responsible for editing the R/G site of GluR-B
pre-mRNA and the A and B sites in 5-HT2C receptor
pre-mRNA under certain conditions in the brain.
The results shown herein that the wild-type ADAR1-a, -b, and -c
variants and the dsRBM motif mutants of the ADAR1-b variant differ in
their ability to edit the natural cellular GluR-B RNA substrate,
together with the finding that the Xenopus ADAR1 dsRBM motifs exhibit different RNA-binding behaviors (48), support the notion
that functionally distinct dsRNA-binding domains of ADAR1 (32, 36)
reflect the occurrence of different structures among potential RNA
substrates that are bound and edited by ADAR1 isoforms. Our results
indicate that changes in the region between the dsRBD domain and the
catalytic domain of ADAR1 affects the editing efficiency of GluR-B RNA
in a site-specific fashion but without altering site-selectivity
per se. The deletions possessed by the ADAR1-b and -c
splice-site variants relative to ADAR1-a between the dsRBM motifs and
the catalytic domain may alter the manner in which RNA substrates are
recognized and bound by one or more of the dsRBMs that constitute the
RNA-binding domain prior to deamination. Our results also imply that
multiple isoforms of ADAR enzymes, including those of ADAR1 (36) and
ADAR2 (28, 41), may exist which act in combination with each other on a single RNA substrate that possesses multiple sites for A-to-I editing.
 |
FOOTNOTES |
*
This work was supported in part by NIAID Research Grant
AI-12520 (to C. E. S.) from the National Institutes of Health.The costs of publication of this
article were defrayed in part by the
payment of page charges. The article
must therefore be hereby marked
"advertisement" in
accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section
1734 solely to indicate this fact.
¶
To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel.:
805-893-3097; Fax: 805-893-4724.
 |
ABBREVIATIONS |
The abbreviations used are:
GluR, glutamate
receptor;
ds, double-stranded;
dsRBM, RNA-binding motif;
AMPA,
-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-isoxazole-4-propionate;
RT-PCR, reverse
transcription-polymerase chain reaction;
ADAR, RNA-specific adenosine
deaminase.
2
Y. Liu, R. B. Emeson, and C. E. Samuel, unpublished observations.
 |
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