From the Laboratories of a Epithelial Cell Biology, e In Situ Hybridization and Histopathology, g Genome Analysis, l Molecular Structure and Function, i Human Cytogenetics, j Computational Genome Analysis Imperial Cancer Research Fund, 44 Lincoln's Inn Fields, London WC2A 3PX, United Kingdom, the f Hedley Atkins/Imperial Cancer Research Fund Breast Pathology Laboratory, Guy's Hospital, St. Thomas Street, London SE1 9RT, United Kingdom, and k The Johns Hopkins University, Oncology Group, Baltimore, Maryland 21231-1001
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ABSTRACT |
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A novel human gene
(PLU-1) has been identified which shows a highly restricted
expression in normal adult tissues but which is consistently expressed
in breast cancers. A fragment of the PLU-1 cDNA was
identified by differentially screening a fetal brain library with
cDNAs prepared from ce-1 cells (a human mammary epithelial cell
line overexpressing c-ErbB2) treated or untreated with the
antibody 4D5, which inhibits c-ErbB2 phosphorylation. Clones covering
the full cDNA sequence of 6.4 kilobases were isolated from a breast
cancer cDNA library. Although expression of PLU-1 in
ce-1 cells is regulated by signaling from c-ErbB2, the gene is
expressed in all the breast cancer cell lines examined, in cells
cultured from primary breast cancers, and in the invasive and in
situ components of primary breast cancers. Translation of the
open reading frame predicts a protein of 1544 amino acids, which
contains three PHD/LAP motifs, a specific DNA-binding domain found in a
Drosophila protein (dri) and novel domains showing extensive homology with other human and non human gene products. Transient transfection of cell lines with MYC-tagged PLU-1 showed the
protein to be localized in the nucleus and associated with discrete
foci. The presence of the dri motif and PHD/LAP fingers together with the clear nuclear localization and consistent expression in breast cancers, suggest a role for PLU-1 in regulating gene expression in breast cancers.
The genetic changes that occur in cancer, whether these be
mutations or alterations in levels of gene expression, become evident as changes in the phenotype of a specific cell type. In characterizing these phenotypic changes in malignancy, it is therefore important to
work with the appropriate cells or cell lines. Breast cancers show the
phenotype of the luminal epithelial cell (1), which can be cultured
from milk, and cell lines have been developed from these milk cells
which retain the luminal phenotype (2). One of these cell lines
(MTSV1-7) has been used to look at the effect of overexpression of
various oncogenes and proto-oncogenes on the behavioral properties of
this cell type (3, 4).
Overexpression of the c-ErbB2 receptor has been observed in a
proportion of breast cancers and found to correlate with a poor prognosis (5), making signaling from this receptor an important parameter for investigation. To study the function of c-ErbB2 in human
mammary epithelial cells, the receptor was overexpressed in
MTSV1-7 cells to produce the ce-1 cell line (3). Unlike other
receptors in the ErbB family, the c-ErbB2 homodimer has no known
ligand, although c-ErbB2 can function as a heterodimeric receptor for
the heregulin family of ligands with c-ErbB3 or c-ErbB4 or for
EGF with c-ErbB1 (6-9). Signaling from c-ErbB2 in overexpressing cells
is, however, thought to be constitutive, operating through autophosphorylation of the homodimer, which forms because of
overexpression (10).
To look for genes whose expression is reversibly regulated by c-ErbB2
signaling as a homodimer, we have down-regulated c-ErbB2 phosphorylation using an antibody that has been shown to inhibit signaling from the receptor in breast cancer cell lines (11). In the
humanized form (12), the antibody is under investigation in the clinic
for the treatment of breast cancer (13). cDNAs prepared from ce-1
cells, treated or untreated with the antibody 4D5, were used to
differentially screen filters from a fetal brain library using a
computerized analysis (14), and a partial clone was isolated
representing a novel sequence. Clones covering the full-length sequence
(6.4 kb)1 of the novel
PLU-1 gene2 were
subsequently isolated by screening a breast cancer cDNA library.
Comparison of the PLU-1 protein sequence with sequences predicted from
other human and non-human genes, identified three cysteine-rich PHD/LAP
domains, one of which appears to be highly conserved throughout evolution, suggesting an important function hitherto undefined. The
PLU-1 gene product also contains a motif common to a family of sequence-specific DNA-binding proteins, exemplified by the product
of the dead ringer Drosophila gene, dri (15).
Another highly conserved domain in PLU-1 is a novel Trp/Tyr/Phe
Cys-rich region that is present in other human genes products and in
proteins predicted from sequences in other species including
Drosophila, Caenorhabditis elegans, yeast, and
plants. C-terminal to this domain, and conserved with it in the same
genes (with the exception of S. cerevisiae), is a small
novel cysteine/histidine-rich motif.
Although the PLU-1 gene shows a highly restricted
expression in normal adult tissues (being well expressed only in
testis), it is well expressed in primary breast cancers and breast
cancer cell lines but not colon cancer cell lines. In view of its
restricted expression, nuclear localization, and the presence of the
dri motif and PHD/LAP domains, PLU-1 is a candidate protein
for regulating gene expression in breast cancer cells.
Cell Culture
Cell Lines--
MTSV1-7, ce-1, T47D, and ZR75 cells were grown
in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10%
FCS (Life Technologies, Inc.) and 0.3 µg/ml glutamine. This medium
was supplemented with 5 µg/ml hydrocortisone (Sigma) and 10 µg/ml
insulin (Sigma) for MTSV1-7 cells and ce-1. For ce-1 cells, the
selectable marker G418 (Life Technologies, Inc.) was also added at a
concentration of 500 µg/ml. The SKBR-3 and MCF-7 cells were grown in
RPMI containing 3.7% bicarbonate, 10% FCS (Life Technologies, Inc.),
and 0.3 µg/ml glutamine. The same medium with added insulin was used
for MCF-7. The BT20 cell line was maintained in MEMBic with 15% FCS
plus insulin and glutamine.
Culture of Primary Breast Carcinomas--
Two samples of
invasive breast carcinomas (numbers 4 and 9) provided by the Hedley
Atkins/Imperial Cancer Research Fund Breast Pathology Group at Guy's
hospital were cut into 1-2-mm3 sections and digested with
20 ml of collagenase (Sigma) at 450 units/ml in DMEM medium with 10%
FCS overnight on a rotary shaker. After washing with DMEM in decreasing
concentrations of FCS (10, 5, and 2%), the cells were grown in 1.05 mM Ca2+ DMEM/F-12 (1:1) supplemented with 2%
FCS depleted of Ca2+ and growth factors. After 1-2 days
the medium was replaced with medium of identical composition but with
lower Ca2+ (0.06 mM) (16). Cultures were
passaged by trypsinization, and total cellular RNA was extracted from
tumor number 4 at passage 2. Cells from tumor number 9 were transduced
with the BCL-2 gene using a recombinant retrovirus (4), and
RNA was extracted at passage 11.
Isolation of cDNA Coding for the Novel PLU-1 Gene
Isolation of the First Partial Clone--
ce-1 cells were grown
to approximately 50% confluence and then grown for 48 h in the
presence or absence of 50 ng/ml of the 4D5 mAb (kindly provided by Dr.
M. Sliwkowski, Genentech), which inhibits phosphorylation of
c-ErbB-2 on tyrosine residues (12). Poly(A)+ RNA was
isolated from total RNA from the treated and untreated cells using
oligo(dT) chromatography according to the poly(A) Quik kit
(Stratagene), then converted to cDNA using the Superscript II
reverse transcriptase (Life Technologies, Inc.). The cDNAs were
subsequently used as probes labeled with [
Filters carrying 105 clones from a cDNA library made
from human fetal brain were hybridized with the above labeled probes. The labeling was evaluated by computerized analysis with a
phosphorImager. Differentially expressed clones were selected and
expression verified by Northern blot of the ce-1 cells. Analysis of
seven clones demonstrated a novel sequence in clone 253G2, which gave a
weaker signal with the probe from the 4D5-treated cells.
Isolation of Clones Covering the Full PLU-1 Gene--
For
isolation of further sequences of the gene containing the 253G2
sequences, three cDNA libraries were used, namely a ZR75 phage
library, a Jurkat plasmid library, and a testis phage library. The
cDNA library from the human breast carcinoma cell line ZR75 was
oligo(dT)-primed, and cDNA sequences were cloned into the uni-ZAP
XR vector (Stratagene) with a XhoI site at the 3' end and
EcoRI site at the 5' end (17). 106 plaques from
the ZR75 library were screened initially using a fragment of 253G2
sequence and subsequently with 5' sequence obtained from the longer
clones. Three consecutive screenings were performed and 22, 27, and 12 plaques picked, respectively, from the original plates. The plaques
containing the largest clones with most 5' sequence were determined by
touchdown and seminested PCR on the original plaques. Plaques were then
purified by secondary and tertiary screens and pBS-SK(
Since the 5' end of the gene was not obtained in the three screens of
the ZR75 library, a Jurkat cDNA library was screened. This library
was prepared by priming cDNA from the human T-leukemia cell line J6
with random hexamers (18). The whole library was screened by PCR using
a sequence from the ZR75 clone containing the most 5' sequence. The PCR
product was purified using a JET-sorb DNA Extraction kit (GENOMED GmbH,
Germany) and sequenced. 450 bp of new 5' sequence was thus obtained and
used as a probe for a fourth screen of the ZR75 library from which the
clone 1.2 was isolated. 280 bp of sequence was covered by only one
clone (between consensus sequence 665-937). This piece of the sequence
was further confirmed by screening a human testis 5'-STRETCH PLUS
cDNA Library from CLONTECH and isolating clones
covering the sequence. Sequencing was performed using an ABI PRISM 377 DNA Sequencer, Perkin-Elmer.
The entire sequence was obtained from at least two individual clones
covering the same region, and both were sequenced in each direction.
Analysis of the consensus cDNA sequence revealed a single long ORF
of 4632 nucleotides, starting at position 90 and ending with a TAA
termination codon at 4725. The sequence encodes a 1544-amino acid
protein with a predicted size of 170 kDa. The 3'-untranslated region of
1569 nucleotides contains a terminal poly(A) region of 65 As.
Assembly of Full-length PLU-1 cDNA
Construction of the Full-length PLU-1 cDNA--
Three
overlapping clones (ZR75 1.2, 3.1, and 14) containing unique
restriction enzyme sites were used for construction of the full-length
cDNA. The most 5' clone (clone 1.2) in the Bluescript plasmid was
cut with BglII at base 466 and with XhoI at the
3' end cloning site, leaving the 5' 466 bp of the PLU-1
sequence in the plasmid vector. The second clone (3.2) was digested
with BglII/Avr II and the 2435-bp fragment
isolated. The third clone (14) was cut with
AvrII/XhoI and the 3476-bp fragment comprising the rest of the 3' sequence was separated. The 3 purified fragments were joined together in one reaction with T4 DNA ligase. The
recombinant clones were sequenced over the join regions, and the final
construct with a 6.4-kb insert is referred to as pBS-SK( Construction of a Tagged PLU-1 Mammalian Expression
Vector--
Based on the analysis of the restriction enzymes in the
sequence and the amino acid coding sequence, the mammalian expression vector pcDNA 3.1 (
The 5' primer included an NcoI site to link the PCR
fragment to the rest of the PLU-1 sequence, which was
excised as a 4106-bp XbaI/NcoI fragment from the
pBS-SK( Transient Transfection
Electroporation--
The expression of the recombinant
protein with the tagged PLU-1-ORF/MYC-His A construct was
first checked by transient expression of COS cells. The cells were
grown to 70% confluence, trypsinized, washed with PBS, and 5 × 106 cells resuspended in 1 ml of PBS with 20 µg of DNA
either from the MYC-His A construct or the empty vector as
control. The cells were electroporated with a Gene Pulser (Bio-Rad)
using 250 microfarads at 450 V and then resuspended in 30 ml of growth
medium and plated on 9-cm dishes and glass coverslips for Western blot
analysis and immunostaining, respectively.
Calcium Phosphate-mediated Transfection--
Breast cancer cell
lines (T47D, MCF-7, BT.20, ZR.75, and the HT1080 cell line) were grown
on 3-cm dishes to approximately 60% confluence and transfected
directly with the calcium phosphate co-precipitate overnight as
described previously (3). Two to three days after the removal of the
DNA precipitates, cells were used for indirect immunofluorescent staining.
Immunofluorescent Staining
Cells on coverslips or 3-cm dishes were washed with PBS,
fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde for 15 min, and permeabilized with 0.1% Triton for 5 min. After blocking with 20% FCS/PBS for 30 min,
cells were incubated with the 9E10 mAb to the MYC tag (10 µg/ml) and
then with fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated rabbit anti-mouse Ig
1:50 (Dako).
Western Blot Analysis
The level of inhibition of tyrosine phosphorylation of the
c-ErbB2 gene product with Ab 4D5, and the expression of the
MYC-tagged PLU-1 gene product from transiently transfected
COS cells was assessed by subjecting 100 µg of total lysates to
immunoblot analysis with the respective antibodies.
Confluent ce-1 cells (treated or untreated with 4D5 Ab) in 9-cm tissue
culture dishes were washed three times with cold PBS containing 1 mM sodium orthovanadate and then lysed with 1 ml of lysis
buffer (3). For detection of the recombinant MYC-tagged PLU-1 gene
product, the transiently transfected cos cells were lysed in HNET
buffer (50 mM Hepes, pH 7.5, 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM EGTA, 1% Triton X-100, 1 mM dithiothreitol,
and 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride). After
clarification of the lysates by centrifugation at 15,000 × g for 10 min at 4 °C, the protein concentration of the
lysates was estimated using the Bio-Rad protein assay kit. Samples were
then electrophoretically separated on a 5% stacking/7.5% runing
SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and transferred to Hybond-C
membrane (Amersham). Immunoblots were blocked with 3% bovine serum
albumin or 5% skimmed milk, 0.1% Tween 20 in PBS for 2 h, probed
with anti-phosphotyrosine mAb PY20, 1:100 (Upstate Biotechnology) or 1 µg/ml anti-MYC mAb, 9E10, for 2 h. The immune complexes were
detected with 125I-labeled sheep anti-mouse Ig 0.5 µci/ml
(Amersham) for PY20 or peroxidase-conjugated rabbit anti-mouse 1:2000
(Dako) for 1 h. Bands were detected using an enhanced
chemiluminescence detection kit (Amersham).
Northern Analysis of RNA from Cell Lines and Strains
Total cellular RNA from the cell lines or cultures of primary
breast cancers was isolated according to the method of Chomczynski and
Sacchi (19). The total cellular RNA of the colon cancer cells was a
kind gift from Helga Durbin. 20 µg of RNA from each cell type was
denatured in 1 × MOPS, 0.66 M formaldehyde, and 50%
(v/v) formamide and subsequently size-fractionated on a 1.2% formaldehyde-agarose gel. The RNA was transferred and immobilized onto
Hybond-N (Amersham). The membrane-bound RNAs were hybridized with the
[32P]dCTP cDNA probes labeled by random priming and
washed to high stringency according to the protocol of Church and
Gilbert (37). The 1.97-kb NotI/SalI cDNA
fragment from the initial clone 253G2 (3'plu1) was used for detecting
PLU-1 mRNA and the 4.4-kb HindIII fragment of
the pSV2-ErbB2 for c-ErbB2 mRNA. To assess the efficiency of
loading and transfer of the RNA, the membranes were reprobed for GAPDH expression.
The Human Normal Blots I, II, and III (Fig. 9) carried total RNA from
24 normal adult tissues, 8 on each blot (Invitrogen), and the control
In Situ Hybridization of Sections of Breast Tissues and
Tumors
Blocks of formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues and tumors
were obtained from the archives of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund
Breast Pathology Group at Guys Hospital. For specific localization of
the PLU-1 mRNA by in situ hybridizaton, an
antisense riboprobe synthesized from the 253G2 clone was prepared. The
plasmid was linearized with EcoRI and a labeled 1074-bp
antisense probe synthesized with T7 polymerase and 35S-UTP
(800 Ci/mmol, Amersham). This sequence at the 3' end of the
PLU-1 mRNA showed minimal homology to other human genes.
The presence of hybridizable mRNA in all compartments of the
tissues studies was established in near serial sections using an
antisense probe generated with SP6 RNA polymerase and
DraI-linearized ph Fluorescence in Situ Hydridization of PLU-1 for Chromosomal
Localization
30 metaphase spreads prepared from phytohemagglutinin-stimulated
normal human lymphocytes by standard techniques were analyzed. Before
hybridization the slides were denatured in 70% formamide and 2 × SSC at 73 °C for 3 min, washed in 2 × SSC, and dehydrated through an ethanol series of cold 70%, 95%, and absolute ethanol. Probe DNA (either 253G2 or the full-length sequence from
pBS-SK( Slides were washed in 50% formamide, 2 × SSC, pH 7.0 at
42 °C, followed by 1 × SSC at 60 °C. Blocking solution (3%
bovine serum albumin, 4 × SSC, and 0.1% Tween 20) was applied
and slides incubated at 37 °C for 30 min. After incubation,
avidin-fluorescein isothiocyanate (diluted in 1% bovine serum albumin,
4 × SSC, 0.1% Tween 20) was applied and slides incubated at
37 °C for 40 min. Slides were washed in 4 × SSC, 0.1% Tween
20 at 42 °C and counterstained with DAPI
(4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole, 200 ng/ml), followed by 2 min in 2 × SSC. Slides were mounted in Citifluor and images captured using a
Photometrics KAF 1400-50 CCD camera attached to a Zeiss Axioskop
epifluorescence microscope. Separate images of probe signals and DAPI
banding patterns were pseudocolored and merged using SmartCapture
software (Vysis, Inc., Chicago, IL). In all the spreads a signal was
observed on both copies of chromosome 1 band 1q32.1. No other
consistent signal was observed.
Isolation of the PLU-1 Gene--
The MTSV1-7 cell line was
derived by immortalization of luminal epithelial cells cultured from
human milk (2), and the ce-1 cell line was developed by transfection of
MTSV1-7 with c-ErbB2 cDNA (3). To look for genes whose expression
is regulated by signals generated through c-ErbB2, phosphorylation of
the receptor was down-regulated by treatment with the 4D5 antibody for
48 h. The cDNAs, prepared from mRNA from ce-1 cells
treated or untreated with antibody, were then used as labeled probes to
differentially screen a fetal brain cDNA library. The clone 253G2,
which showed a weaker signal with cDNA from the 4D5-treated cells,
was identified and the insert sequenced. Using 5' sequences from the
253G2 clone, further clones covering and extending the 253G2 sequence
were isolated from a cDNA library prepared from a breast cancer
cell line (ZR75). Further screens of the breast cancer library were required to obtain the full sequence, and three overlapping clones were
assembled (as described under "Experimental Procedures") to give a
full-length cDNA of 6394 bp, of which 4632 represent the coding
region (see Fig. 1A).
The PLU-1 sequence shows homology with a number of other human gene
products which are shown optimally aligned in Fig.
2A and summarized in Table
I. These include the
retinoblastoma-binding protein RBP-2 (22, 23), the X-linked but not
inactivated gene product XE169 (24), and related gene product on the Y
chromsome (25) as well as an unknown gene product KIAA (26). Among
these, RBP-2 has the most homology with PLU-1 and is of similar length, whereas XE169 (hssmcx in Fig. 2), HSSMCY, and KIAA are
shorter at their C termini, respectively. Interestingly, the RB binding motif LXCXE, which is found in RBP2 at the 3'
end, is not present in PLU-1 or the other related sequences. PLU-1 also
exhibits strong homology with sequences found in other organisms (see
Figs. 1B and 2B and Table I). These include the
XE169 mouse homologues and gene products predicted from sequences in
C. elegans (27), Drosophila, Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, and Arabidopsis that have not yet been
functionally defined (for accession numbers see Table I). The most
extensive homology is seen with the C. elegans and mouse
sequences, but certain domains are conserved in most of the sequences
(see below).
The PLU-1 Gene Is Consistently Expressed in Breast
Cancers--
The original sequences isolated in clone 253G2 were used
to examine expression of PLU-1 mRNA by Northern
analysis. The 253G2 clone contains some translated sequence together
with untranslated sequence (3633-5559 bp), all of which show little
homology with the other human genes shown in Fig. 2A, and
therefore this probe should detect only PLU-1 mRNA. Fig.
3 shows that the level of expression of
PLU-1 mRNA in ce-1 cells decreases after treatment with
the 4D5 antibody, which strongly inhibits phosphorylation of c-ErbB2.
Expression of PLU-1 mRNA was low in the nonmalignant MTSV1-7 cell line, but all the breast cancer cell lines examined showed expression (Fig. 4A).
Although signaling from c-ErbB2 clearly regulates the expression of
PLU-1 (Fig. 3), the level of expression in the cell lines
does not correlate with the level of expression of c-ErbB2
mRNA. However up-regulation of PLU-1 is not seen in all
cancer derived cell lines as expression was not detected in a series of
colon cancer derived lines as shown in Fig. 4B.
Fig. 4B also shows that PLU-1 mRNA is
detected in cultures of primary breast cancers. Although it is
difficult to culture malignant cells from primary breast cancers, we
were able to culture one tumor (tumor 4) for two passages and prepare
mRNA (lane 8). Another culture from a primary breast
cancer (tumor 9), after transfection with the BCL-2 gene,
could be cultured for several passages. Fig. 4B shows that
again PLU-1 mRNA could be detected in these cancer
derived cells at passage 11 (lane 9). Significantly, transfection of BCL-2 into the MTSV1-7 cell line did not
induce expression of PLU-1 (data not shown), indicating that
expression of the gene correlates with malignancy, not with expression
of BCL-2.
To evaluate expression of PLU-1 in primary breast cancers
more fully, in situ hybridization was performed using a
riboprobe prepared from the 253G2 clone and sections of breast cancers
and benign lesions (see "Experimental Procedures"). Fifteen
malignant tumors were examined (four ductal grade 1, four ductal grade
2, four ductal grade 3, and three lobular carcinomas). In all the ductal carcinomas and in two of the three lobular carcinomas, the
invasive component showed strong labeling for PLU-1, with the grade 3 ductal tumors showing the highest level of expression. In situ components also showed strong labeling with the
253G2 probe, while benign components of the carcinomas were negative or
weakly positive except when closely bordering the invasive component,
when the labeling became stronger. Three fibroadenomas and two
lactating adenomas showed only a weak signal with the PLU-1
probe. Fig. 5 shows examples of labeling
of invasive, in situ, and benign components of a grade 1 and
a grade 3 ductal carcinoma. Although the numbers are small, the results
suggest that PLU-1 expression is up-regulated in breast
cancers but not in benign lesions with the highest expression being
seen in the invasive component.
Restricted Expression of PLU-1 in Normal Adult Tissues--
To
assess the expression of PLU-1 in normal adult tissue,
Northern blots of mRNA from a range of tissues were probed with the
253G2 probe. Fig. 6 shows that the only
tissue showing a high expression of PLU-1 is testis,
although low levels of expression of mRNA were detectable in
placenta, ovary, and tonsil. A restricted analysis of normal tissues
with in situ hybridization confirmed the limited expression
of PLU-1 and expression in testis (in Sertoli cells) was
also confirmed. Apparently expression of PLU-1 is highly restricted in normal adults, which distinguishes it from the homologous RBP-2 and humXE169a genes, reported to be ubiquitously expressed (23,
24). The chromosomal location of PLU-1 also distinguishes it
from the homologous genes as it is located on chromosome 1q32.1 as
shown in Fig. 7.
Specific Domains in PLU-1--
Within the PLU-1 sequence, there
are several previously identified motifs, which are found in proteins
having a function in transcription, and these are indicated in Fig. 2.
PHD/LAP motifs are zinc-binding domains, which are thought to mediate
protein-protein interactions and are commonly found in transcription
factors (28, 29). PLU-1 contains two well defined PHD/LAP fingers
(residues 313-361 and residues 1179-1221) and an imperfect PHD/LAP
finger (residues 1486-1534). The protein also contains a
sequence-specific DNA-binding motif (residues 75-190) first identified
in the Drosophila dead ringer gene (dri) (15).
The motif from dri has been shown to bind the same DNA
sequence in vitro as the engrailed protein (which
contains a classic homeodomain DNA-binding motif), even though
dri and engrailed show no sequence homology (15).
The dead ringer or dri DNA-binding motif is also found in
several unrelated gene products (Fig. 8),
including the SW1 protein, which is known to be part of a complex that
promotes activator binding to nucleosomal DNA (30). Moreover, one of
the genes in this family, jumonji, is a gene known to be crucial for
neuronal development in the mouse (31). Thus, members of this family
may be important in regulating genes which are related to particular
cell phenotypes. All the PLU-1-related human sequences contain both the
dri motif and two of the three PHD/LAP fingers with RBP-2 containing
all three PHD/LAP domains (Fig. 2A and Table I). As shown in
Figs. 1B and 2B, the mouse, C. elegans, and
Drosophila gene products also contain the first PHD domain
and the dri motif (see Table I).
In addition to the domains already functionally defined, two other
novel domains are present in PLU-1, which are conserved in the
sequences of the related gene products. A striking region of high
sequence conservation is found between residues 366-637, which is rich
in aromatic amino acids and cysteines (~14% Trp/Tyr/Phe). This
region is well conserved within all the PLU-1-related sequences from
human genes and from other species (Table I and Figs. 1B and
2). Immediately C-terminal to this region is a small conserved Cys/His
region (residues 692-725) of unknown identity. From the cross-species
alignment (Fig. 2B), the following sequence pattern suggestive of a novel potential metal-binding domain can be obtained: Cys-X2-Cys-X10-Cys-X2-Cys/His-X4-7-Cys-X2-His-X3-4-Cys-X1-2-Cys. Sequence searches for these two novel motifs show no significant matches other than those shown in Fig. 2. It is notable that the plant-related sequences only show homology to the above two regions in
PLU-1 (residues 366-773), suggesting that the Trp/Tyr/Phe-rich sequence and the novel Cys/His motif may be associated to form a
potentially functional domain, conserved in otherwise unrelated gene products.
Cellular Localization of the PLU-1 Gene Product--
There are
five putative nuclear localization signals in the PLU-1 sequence, which
are indicated in Fig. 2A and Table I. The presence of these
sequences, as well as domains indicative of a role in transcription,
suggest that PLU-1 is a nuclear protein. To determine the intracellular
location of the protein, PLU-1 was tagged with a MYC epitope recognized
by the antibody 9E10 and transiently expressed in COS cells. Western
blot analysis of extracts of the transfected cells using the anti-MYC
antibody detected a single band of the expected size (170 kDa, Fig.
9). Immunohistochemical staining of the
transfected cells 3 days after transfection showed unambiguously that
the protein was localized to the nucleus, but not the nucleolus (Fig.
10, A-C). Fig.
10D, representing a composite image from confocal
microscopy, shows that the staining of the tagged gene product is
clearly associated with discrete foci in some of the cells. Similar
patterns of staining were obtained in transient transfections of other
cell lines (breast cancer cell lines T47D, MCF7, ZR-75, BT20, MTSV1-7,
and two nonepithelial cell lines HT1080 and HB96, data not shown).
All attempts to obtain permanent transfectants with the tagged
PLU-1 cDNA in the cell ines indicated above were
unsuccessful. After the addition of the selectable marker (G418), some
cells survived, but all lost expression of PLU-1. A total of
45 clones were selected from transfections of COS cells, HT1080,
MTSV1-7, T47D, MCF-7, and ZR75, and in no case was PLU-1
expression maintained. Fig. 10 (E and F)
illustrates a transfection of COS cells showing a reasonable proportion
of cells staining at day 3, but only the occasional cell showing
expression at day 20 (17 days after addition of the selectable marker.
(Untransfected cells did not survive culture with G418.) The data
suggest that high overexpression of PLU-1 may not be
compatible with cellular viability.
We have described here the initial characterization of a novel
human gene, PLU-1, which shows restricted expression in
normal adult tissues, but which is consistently expressed in primary breast cancers and in breast cancer cells lines. Although the gene was
identified as being up-regulated by signaling from the c-ErbB2
receptor, expression is not limited to breast cancer cells expressing
high levels of c-ErbB2. However, the expression of PLU-1 is
associated with the invasive and in situ components in primary breast cancers and is expressed only weakly or not at all in
benign tumors. Thus PLU-1 expression is closely associated with the malignant phenotype in breast cancer.
A comparison of the predicted amino acid sequence of the
PLU-1 gene product with other sequences in the data base
reveals striking homologies with a number of sequences from human,
flies, worms, yeast, and plants, which suggest a role for PLU-1 in
transcription. Within the PLU-1 sequence, there are three well defined
PHD/LAP motifs (28, 29), which are conserved cysteine-rich sequences thought to bind divalent metals to form autonomously folded domains, similar to other known Cys-rich domains (32). They are also often found
in proteins that appear to be involved in chromatin-mediated transcriptional regulation (33). PLU-1 and related sequences (except
for the yeast and plant gene products) also contain a dri
motif, which was first reported in the dead ringer protein from
Drosophila and has been shown to mediate sequence specific DNA binding (15). This would suggest a role for PLU-1 as a specific DNA-binding protein, which is consistent with the nuclear localization of the tagged protein in transfected cells.
The functions of some of the other dri-containing proteins
have also been studied extensively. Of particular interest is the yeast
SWI-1 gene with human homologues (34), which form part of a large
multiprotein complex involved in regulating transcription by modifying
nucleosome conformation (28, 29). In this context, immunohistochemical
staining of the PLU-1 protein in transfected cells showed
the protein to be localized in discrete foci in some cells. The mouse
jumonji gene is also a member of the dri family and appears
to have a tissue specific function, since it is crucial for neuronal
development. Thus, the dri motif, the nuclear localization, and the
presence of PHD domains all suggest a role for PLU-1 in transcriptional control, and the restricted expression implies an
important function in breast cancer cells.
One striking region of high homology between PLU-1 and other gene
products from plants and yeast to humans is the Trp/Tyr/Phe Cys-motif
region. In all except the yeast genes, this region is followed 3' by a
cysteine-rich motif with a conserved histidine (Cys-X2-Cys-X10-Cys-X2-Cys/His-X4-7-Cys-X2-His-X3-4-Cys-X1-2-Cys). The function of this combined sequence has not been clarified, and in
the case of the nonmammalian genes, the sequences are contained within
longer regions that have merely been reported as contiguous sequences.
However, the high degree of cross-species sequence conservation
strongly suggests a potential function for this region/domain of
fundamental importance. It is notable that in the putative plant
proteins, sequences flanking this region are unrelated to PLU-1 (and
the other related sequences see Fig. 1B), which supports the
suggestion that this domain encompasses an evolutionary conserved functional module.
The failure to develop permanent transfectants of seven different cell
lines with the tagged PLU-1 gene was surprising, and suggested that very high expression levels are not compatible with
viability. It is a well established fact that while human mammary
epithelial cells can be cultured from normal tissue and from benign
tumors, malignant cells from primary breast cancers rarely survive
culture, with most of the cell lines being derived from late
metastases. It is possible that the increased expression of
PLU-1 seen in breast cancers relates to their initial poor survival in culture. This aspect requires further study, in particular to eliminate the possibility of artifacts in the failure to obtain permanent transfectants. Clearly the development of specific antibodies to allow a more detailed evaluation of PLU-1 expression and
to locate endogeneous PLU-1 protein is an important priority.
There are multiple sequences in the PLU-1 protein that are
predicted to be Class I epitopes for several HLA alleles, some of which
are in regions with minimal homology to other human genes. Together
with the restricted expression of the gene in adult tissues, this
suggests that the gene product could be a target antigen for
immunotherapy of breast cancer where the high level of expression in
testis would not present a problem in female patients. With the
availability of the PLU-1 cDNA it will be possible to
examine this possibility using both human PBLs and mouse models.
INTRODUCTION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
-33P]dCTP by
random priming.
) plasmids
obtained by in vivo excision.
)/plu1. The
procedure is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1A.
)/MYC-His A (Invitrogen) with a
C-terminal MYC-His tag driven by the cytomegalovirus
promotor was selected for constructing the tagged gene. A 3'
PLU-1 coding fragment (632 bp) was generated by PCR, where,
at the 3' end, the TAA stop codon was replaced to give an
XhoI site flanked by a HindIII site. (The HindIII site at the 3' end allowed the cloning into the
pcDNA vector, while the XhoI site allowed the whole
PLU-1 sequence to be retrieved if required.) The 3' sequence
on the coding strand generated by the p3HindIII antisense primer is
aligned below with the wild type sequence.
GAC
GCA CCA AGC CGA AAG TAA AAA CAC AAA AAC AGA (wild
type)
GAC GCA CCA AGC
CGAAAG
CTC GAG
AAGCTTAAC
AG
XhoI/HindIII sequence
)PLU-1 construct. The PCR product (cut with
NcoI and HindIII), the
XbaI/NcoI fragment, and the pcDNA 3.1 MYC-HisA vector, linearized with XbaI and
HindIII, were then ligated in one reaction. The recombinant
clones were sequenced over the joins and PCR regions and the final
construct with a 4.781-kb insert is referred as
plu1-ORF/MYC-His A.
-actin probe was provided.
A-10, prepared by subcloning a 450-bp
fragment of a human
-actin cDNA into SP73 (20). The methods for
pretreatment, hybridization, washing, and dipping of slides in Ilford
K5 for autoradiography have been modified (20) from those described
previously (21). Films were exposed for 7 and 15 days for the
PLU-1 probe, and for 7 days for the
-actin probe, before
developing in Kodak D19 and counterstaining with Giemsa. Sections were
examined under conventional or reflected light dark-field conditions
(Olympus BH2 with epi-illumination) that allowed individual
autoradiographic silver grains to be seen as bright objects on a dark background.
)PLU-1) was biotinylated using the Bionick kit
(Life Technologies, Inc.). 500 ng of labeled probe was mixed with 5 µg of Cot-1 DNA (Life Technologies, Inc.), precipitated, resuspended
in 11 µg of hybridization mix, denatured at 85 °C for 5 min, and
allowed to preanneal at 37 °C for 30 min. After preannealing, the
probe was applied to a denatured slide and hybridized at 37 °C overnight.
RESULTS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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Fig. 1.
Diagrammatic representation of the
PLU-1 cDNA showing the three clones used to
assemble the full-length cDNA (A) and homologies
with other non-human genes (B). A,
box indicates open reading frame; line indicates
untranslated sequence. The zig-zag line indicates 65 As. The
original clone 253G2, isolated form a fetal brain library, was 1926 bp
(3633-5559 bp). Clone 14 was isolated by screening the ZR75 library
with 235G2. Clone 3.1 was isolated by screening the library with a
probe from the 5' end of clone 14. Clone 1.2 was obtained by screening
the ZR75 library with the 5' sequence obtained from the Jurkat library
by PCR (see "Experimental Procedures"). B, specific
motifs in PLU-1 dri motif ( ), aa 75-190 (also see Fig. 8); novel
Trp/Tyr/Phe/Cys motif (
), aa 366-637; novel Cys/His motif (
), aa
692-725. PHD/LAP domains: boxed number 1, aa 313-361;
boxed number 2, aa 1179-1221; boxed number 3, aa
1486-1534.
, nuclear localization signals: I, aa
227-234; II, aa 295-302; III, aa 1103-1120;
IV, aa 1400-1417; V, aa 1434-1440.
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Fig. 2.
Full-length protein sequence of PLU-1 deduced
from the cDNA sequence showing homology to other human and
non-human gene products. For accession numbers, see Table I.
A, multiple sequence alignment of PLU-1 and related human
sequences. The sequences were aligned using Clustal X (35) with
homology shading according to the PLU-1 sequence (black
indicates identity to PLU-1, and gray indicates similarity
with PLU-1 or identity and/similarity within the other sequences). Gaps
were adjusted manually where appropriate. The dri or dead
ringer domain (see Fig. 8) is indicated by a light gray
dotted line above the sequence alignment. The three PHD domains
are indicated with thick black lines (below the alignment).
The novel Cys/His domain is indicated with a narrow black
line (above the alignment). Nuclear import signals are indicated
with gray lines (above the alignment). The RB-binding domain
in RBP2 is boxed (1374-1378). B, multiple
sequence alignment of PLU-1 and related non-human sequences. The sequences were
aligned using Clustal X (35) with homology shading according to the
PLU-1 sequence (black indicates identity to PLU-1, and
gray indicates similarity with PLU-1 or identity
and/similarity within the other sequences). Gaps were adjusted manually
where appropriate. Conserved domains in PLU-1 are labeled according to
A. It is notable that the C. elegans sequence is
of similar length to PLU-1 and contains all of the identified conserved
domains, suggesting that it may represent a PLU-1 homologue. There are
two putative nuclear receptor binding motifs in PLU-1
(Leu-X-X-Leu-Leu; Ref. 36), which are conserved
only in the mammalian PLU-1 related sequences (residues 890-894 and
961-965).
Regions of homology of PLU-1 with other gene products
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Fig. 3.
Down-regulation of expression of
PLU-1 by the 4D5 antibody regulating phosphorylation
of c-ErbB2 in ce-1 cells. RNA was prepared from ce-1 cells treated
and untreated with antibody 4D5 and subjected to Northern analysis
using the 253G2, c-ErbB2, and GAPDH probes. The lower
panel shows a Western blot of extracts of the treated and
untreated ce-1 cells with PY20 detecting phosphorylated c-ErbB2.
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Fig. 4.
Expression of PLU-1 by
breast cancer cells. Total RNA was extracted from the cell lines
and cultures indicated and subjected to Northern analysis using the
253G2, c-ErbB2, and GAPDH probes. A, breast cancer cell
lines and MTSV1-7 cells (lanes 1-6). B, colon
cancer cell lines (lanes 1-7) and cultures of primary
breast cancers (lanes 8 and 9). Cultures of tumor
4 were at passage 2. Tumor 9 was used at passage 11 after introducing
the BCL-2 gene.
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Fig. 5.
In situ analysis of
PLU-1 mRNA expression in a grade 3 ductal
carcinoma (A, C) and in a grade 1 ductal carcinoma (B, D). Paired
light and dark field photomicrographs of tumor sections hybridized with
a PLU-1 riboprobe. In light field illumination reduced
silver over the hybridized mRNA is seen as a black
deposit (A, B), while under dark field
illumination the silver appears white (C, D).
Invasive grade III ductal carcinoma of the breast (A and
arrow 3 in C) shows a very strong signal for
PLU-1 mRNA as does ductal carcinoma in situ
(arrow 4). There is a weak signal over epithelium lining the
large cyst (arrow 2) representing attenuated ductal
carcinoma in situ epithelium. Invasive grade I ductal
carcinoma shows a strong signal for PLU-1 mRNA
(B and arrow 3 in D) in contrast to
the weaker signal over the benign acini (arrow 1),
particularly when remote from the malignant tissue.
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Fig. 6.
Restricted expression of PLU-1
in normal adult tissues. Three Northern blots carrying 24 human adult tissues were probed with 253G2 and the -actin probe and
the autoradiographs developed after 3 days.
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Fig. 7.
Chromosomal localization of PLU-1
using the full-length PLU-1 cDNA (see
"Experimental Procedures"). Partial image showing localization
of probe DNA to human chromosome band 1q32.1. Fluorescein
isothiocyanate signal (pseudoclored black) on G-banded
chromosome and corresponding idiogram.
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Fig. 8.
Sequence alignment of the conserved dri (dead
ringer) domain within PLU-1 and related proteins. The sequences
were aligned using Clustal X (35) with homology shading according to
the PLU-1 sequence (black indicates identity to PLU-1, and
gray indicates similarity with PLU-1 or identity and/or
similarity within the other sequences). Gaps were adjusted manually
where appropriate. Gene products not shown in Fig. 2: SMCY (horse,
U52364 (aa 22-138)), BRIGHT (mouse, U60335 (aa 222-339)), DRIL1
(human, AC005391 (aa 16-104)), DRI (Drosophila, U62542 (aa
257-357)), T23D8.9 (C. elegans, Z69385 (aa 1-103)), MRF-1
(human, M62324 (aa 53-71)), MRF2 (human, M73837 (aa 1-113)), JUMONJI
(mouse, D31967 (aa 598-715)), JUMONJI (human, U57592 (aa 600-717)),
B120 (human, AB001895 (aa 613-729)), CO1G8 (C. elegans,
U80439 (aa 240-358)), RBP-1 (human, S66427 (aa 312-405)), YM42
(S. cerevisiae, Z49808 (aa 163-283)), SWI 1 (S. cerevisiae, I12493 (aa 163-283)), YP83 (C. elegans,
Z46676 (aa 2-120)), ELD (Drosophila, AF053091 (aa
993-1111)).
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Fig. 9.
Detection of the MYC-tagged
PLU-1 gene product by Western analysis. The
PLU-1 gene tagged with an epitope recognized by the antibody
9E10(plu1-ORF/MYC-His A) was transiently transfected into COS cells and
extracts of transfected cells subjected to Western blot analysis as
described under "Experimental Procedures" using the antibody 9E10.
The 170-kDa band conforms to the predicted size.
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Fig. 10.
Nuclear localization of the PLU-1
gene product. COS cells were transiently transfected with
the MYC-tagged PLU-1 gene and stained with the 9E10 antibody
and DAPI after 3 days (A-E). At 3 days, the G418 selectable
marker was added and the cells stained 17 days later (F).
Staining with DAPI (A), with Ab 9E10 (B), or with
both reagents (C) illustrates the nuclear but not nucleolar
localization of the PLU-1 product. An individual cell
stained with the 9E10 antibody (D) was analyzed by confocal
microscopy and a composite image assembled demonstrating the presence
of the tagged PLU-1 product in discrete foci in the nucleus.
Loss of expression of PLU-1 with time after transfection and
selection is illustrated by comparing E and F,
both stained with DAPI and 9E10.
DISCUSSION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank Carol Shields for help with Confocal microscopy and Rosemary Jeffrey, Jan Longcroft, and Len Rogers for skilled assistance in the in situ hybridization studies. We are also grateful to Mark Sliwkowski for the humanized 4D5 antibody, to Roger White for advice and for the ZR75 cDNA library, and to Jenny Dunne for the Jurkat cDNA library.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported by the Imperial Cancer Research Fund and by Grant DK49043 from the National Institutes of Health (to P. P. R. and J. T. P.).The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
The nucleotide sequence(s) reported in this paper has been submitted to the GenBankTM/EMBL Data Bank with accession number(s) AJ132440.
b Present addresses: ICRF Breast Cancer Biology Group, 3rd Floor, Thomas Guy House, Guy's Hospital, St. Thomas St., London SE1 9RT, UK.
c Present addresses: National Defense Research Establishment, S-901 82 Umeå, Sweden.
d Present addresses: Dept. Medical Biochemistry, Göteberg University, Mediciniakegatan 9A, 41390 Göteberg, Sweden.
h Present address: Genome Pharmaceuticals Corp., Lochhamerstrasse 29, D-82152 Martinsried, Germany.
m Present address: ICRF Breast Cancer Biology Group, 3rd Floor, Thomas Guy House, Guy's Hospital, St. Thomas St., London SE1 9RT, UK. To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel.: 44-171-955-2310; Fax: 44-171-955-2026; E-mail: papadimi{at}icrf.icnet.uk.
2 The PLU-1 gene is the subject of a United Kingdom Patent Application Number 9805877.9 (patent pending).
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ABBREVIATIONS |
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The abbreviations used are: kb, kilobase(s); FCS, fetal calf serum; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; bp, base pair(s); ORF, open reading frame; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; mAb, monoclonal antibody; MOPS, 4-morpholinepropanesulfonic acid; DAPI, 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole; RBP, retinoblastoma-binding protein; aa, amino acid(s); PHD, plant homeodomain; LAP, leukemia-associated protein; DMEM, Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium.
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