Modulation of E2F Complexes during G0 to S Phase
Transition in Human Primary B-lymphocytes*
Jeroen
van der Sman
,
N. Shaun B.
Thomas§¶, and
Eric W.-F.
Lam
From the
Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research and
Section of Virology and Cell Biology, Imperial College School of
Medicine at St Mary's, London W2 1PG and § Department of
Haematology, University College London Medical School,
London WC1E 6HX, United Kingdom
 |
ABSTRACT |
The pocket protein-E2F complexes are convergence
points for cell cycle signaling. In the present report, we identified
and monitored the pocket protein-E2F complexes in human primary
B-lymphocytes after activation by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate.
Consistent with previous data from human and mouse fibroblasts and
T-lymphocytes, E2F4 and DP1 form the predominant E2F heterodimers both
in G0 and G1 phases of the human
B-lymphocyte cell cycle, whereas E2F1 and -3 are first detected in late
G1, and their expression levels increase towards S phase.
Intriguingly, the major E2F complex that we detected in quiescent human
B-lymphocytes is consisted of pRB, E2F4, and DP1. Though the levels of
DP1 and -2 increase when cells progress from G0 to S, the
proportion of DP1 to DP2 remains relatively constant during the cell
cycle. We also observed an increase in electrophoretic mobility of the
predominant E2F components, DP1 and E2F4, as B-lymphocytes progressed
from G0 into early G1. This increase in
mobility was attributable to dephosphorylation, as
phosphatase
treatment could convert the slower migrating forms into the
corresponding faster mobility forms. We further demonstrated that this
change in phosphorylation status correlates with a decrease in DNA
binding activity. This modulation of DNA binding activity mediated
through the dephosphorylation of DP1 and E2F4 could help to explain the
lack of in vivo DNA footprinting in late G1 and
S phases of gene promoters negatively regulated through E2F sites and
suggests a novel mechanism for controlling E2F transcriptional activity
during the transition from quiescence to proliferation.
 |
INTRODUCTION |
E2F is a transcription factor that controls cell proliferation
through regulating the expression of essential genes required for cell
cycle progression (1-4). The E2F transcription factor consists of one
protein subunit encoded by the E2F family of genes and the
other by the DP gene family, and to date, six distinct E2F
(E2F1-6) and two DP (DP1-2) genes have been
cloned from mammalian cells (4). The E2F and DP proteins cooperate to
bind DNA and activate transcription of target genes in a synergistic
manner (2). E2F activity is negatively regulated through interactions with the retinoblastoma protein (pRB) family of "pocket proteins," consisting of pRB, p107, and p130 (5). Although all three pocket proteins repress E2F-dependent transcription (6-9),
individual pocket proteins bind preferentially to particular subsets of
E2F family members. Thus, pRB interacts exclusively with E2F1, -2, and
-3 (10), p107 binds predominately to E2F4, and p130 binds specifically
to both E2F4 and -5 (6-9, 11-14). Unlike E2F1-5, the newly
identified member of the E2F protein family, E2F6, does not possess an
equivalent pocket protein binding domain and therefore does not
interact with the pRB family of proteins in the same manner as other
E2Fs. The functional role of E2F6 has yet to be fully established, but
the protein is believed to act as a repressor for
E2F-dependent transcription (15-17).
It has been demonstrated that E2F binding sites can regulate cell
cycle-dependent transcription through acting as
transcriptional activators and/or repressors during different phases of
the cell cycle. For instance, B-myb, E2F1, E2F2, cyclin E and
cdc2 promoter activity appears to be cell cycle-regulated
predominantly by repression through the E2F binding site during
G0 and early G1 (18-24); in contrast,
DHFR transcription is primarily activated through the E2F
sites during late G1 and S phase (25, 26).
The pocket proteins complex with E2F at distinct phases of the cell
cycle. Thus, p130-E2F complexes are detected exclusively in
G0 and cells exiting G0 (27, 28), pRB-E2F
complexes exist predominantly in late G1 and S phases,
whereas complexes containing p107 are detected almost throughout the
cell cycle. The pocket proteins are phosphoproteins, and their
expression levels and phosphorylation states primarily determine their
interaction with E2F during the cell cycle (29-33). pRB is hypo-
and/or unphosphorylated in early G1 and becomes
progressively hyperphosphorylated toward late G1 and S
phases. The consequence of pRB hyperphosphorylation is the release of
"free" E2F, which activates the transcription of E2F-regulated
genes (34-36). However, exceptions to this general concept have also
been reported, as some pRB-E2F complexes persist well into S and
G2 phases (37). In G0 and early G1,
p107 is present at low levels in a hypophosphorylated form. As cells
progress toward late G1, the level of p107 expressed
increases, and the majority becomes hyperphosphorylated. (29).
Hypophosphorylated forms of p130 are detected primarily in
G0 and early G1 phases of the cell cycle. In
mid-G1, p130 becomes hyperphosphorylated, which persists
for the rest of the cell cycle (32). Phosphorylation of p130 at
mid-G1 is believed to play an essential role in relieving
E2F-mediated repression of G1/S phase genes (7), including
E2F1 and B-myb. However, p130 may not regulate
E2F activity in continuously cycling cells as it is present at low
levels and/or in a hyperphosphorylated state (38, 39). Increasing
evidence has shown that cyclins and their dependent kinases (cdks)
associate with pocket proteins and are largely responsible for their
phosphorylation in vivo (5, 40). Though previous mobility
shift analyses have shown that the predominant E2F complex in S phase
consists of p107, E2F4, DP1, and cyclin A (19-21, 37, 41), recent
in vivo footprinting studies of the B-myb,
cyclin A, and cdc2 promoters have demonstrated
that the corresponding E2F sites are only engaged by transcription
factors in G0 and early G1 but are largely
unoccupied in late G1 and S phases (42-44). The reason for
this discrepancy is not yet understood, and further information is
required on the molecular mechanisms regulating the occupancy of the
endogenous E2F binding sites that can account for these in
vivo protection patterns.
The E2F transcription factor, in conjunction with the retinoblastoma
family of proteins, orchestrates the orderly expression of cell cycle
regulatory proteins at specific points of the cell cycle and thereby
controls cell cycle progression. Hence, the pocket protein-E2F
complexes are convergence points of positive and negative proliferative
signals. Although it has been shown that overexpression of E2F activity
can drive cell lines from G0 (quiescence) into S (DNA
synthesis) phase, the modulation of E2F activity that accompanies this
cell cycle phase transition in primary cells under normal physiological
conditions is not fully defined. In particular, little information is
available for the regulation and roles of the DP family of proteins
during this G0 to S transition, despite the wealth of
knowledge relating to the E2F family proteins. Moreover, little is
known about the roles of the E2F and pRB families of proteins during
B-lymphocyte activation. The present report describes the modulation of
E2F complexes during human B-lymphocyte activation through stimulation by PMA1 (45, 46) and explores
the molecular mechanisms involved.
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES |
Isolation of Human Primary B-lymphocytes--
Platelet depleted
buffy coats obtained from the National Blood Transfusion Service were
pooled, and the mononuclear lymphocytes were enriched using
Ficoll-Paque (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) gradient centrifugation for
20 min at 800 × g. The B-lymphocytes were isolated by
positive selection using CD19-coupled Dynabeads (M-450 pan-B, Dynall).
The B-lymphocytes captured by the magnetic beads were then released
using Detachabeads (Dynall). As the control, small dense B-lymphocytes
were also isolated by flow cytometric sorting from human tonsils, as
described (45). The freshly purified B-lymphocytes were seeded at
106 cells/ml in culture medium containing 15% fetal calf
serum in RPMI and incubated for at least 36 h at 37 °C before
stimulation by the addition of PMA at 30 µg/ml. Purity of
B-lymphocytes was assessed by staining with fluorescein isothiocyanate
(FITC)-conjugated anti-human B cell (CD20) antibodies (DAKO) and
assayed using flow cytometry.
Flow Cytometric Analyses--
Cell cycle analysis was performed
by propidium iodide and FITC staining as described previously (55).
Cells were collected by centrifugation, washed with PBS before fixing
in 20% PBS and 80% ethanol. The fixed cells were then washed with PBS
and incubated with DNase free-RNase (0.5 mg/ml), propidium iodide (20 µg/ml), and FITC (0.05 µg/ml) for 30 min at 37 °C before
analysis using a EPICS-Elite flow cytometer (Coulter, UK). For
anti-CD20 staining, the cells were incubated with 1 µg/ml
FITC-conjugated anti-human CD20 antibody (Dako A/S, Denmark) in PBS
with 5% fetal calf serum for 30 min at 4 °C before fixing with
ethanol/PBS.
Electrophoretic Mobility Shift and Supershift Analyses of E2F DNA
Binding Complexes--
Whole cell extracts from human B-lymphocytes
were prepared as detailed previously (57). Protein yield was quantified
by Bradford analysis (Bio-Rad). E2F gel retardation assays were
performed essentially as described (19), using a double-stranded
oligonucleotide (5'-GATCTAGTTTTCGCGCTTAAATTTGA) containing the distal
E2F binding site from the adenovirus type 5 E2a promoter (57). Twenty
µg of whole cell extract was incubated with 1-2 ng of
32P-labeled oligonucleotide probe in the presence of 2 µg
of sonicated salmon sperm DNA and 200 ng of a comparable unlabeled
double-stranded oligonucleotide with mutated E2F site
(5'-GATCTAGTTTTCGATATTAAATTTGA) in a total volume of 20 µl at
30 °C for 15 min. The reactions were electrophoresed on 4%
polyacrylamide gels in 0.33 × Tris-buffered EDTA at 4 °C. The
gels were then dried and exposed to x-ray films. Supershift assays were
performed by adding 1 µl of concentrated antibodies. Rabbit
anti-pRB2/p130 and anti-cyclin A antisera were kindly provided by Dr.
A. Giordano and Dr. J. Pines, respectively. Anti-pRB mouse monoclonal
antibody 21C9 (58) was a generous gift from Dr. Sybille Mittnacht.
Anti-DP1, -E2F1, -E2F4 rabbit antisera were raised against peptides
corresponding to unique carboxyl-terminal regions of the respective
human proteins and have been described previously (49). The anti-DP2
polyclonal antibodies were raised against peptides corresponding to
unique regions at the carboxyl-terminal end of the protein. Anti-E2F2 (L-20), anti-E2F3 (N-20), and anti-E2F5 (E19) were purchased from Santa
Cruz Biotechnology.
Western Blot Analysis and Antibodies--
Western blot extracts
were prepared from B-lymphocytes by lysing cells with 4 times the
packed cell volume of lysis buffer (20 mM HEPES, pH 7.9, 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM MgCl2, 5 mM EDTA, pH 8.0, 1% Nonidet P-40, 0.5% sodium
deoxycholate, 0.1% SDS, 50 mM NaF, 5 mM sodium
orthovanadate) on ice for 20 min. Fifty µg of lysate was separated by
SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, transferred to nitrocellulose
membranes, and recognized by specific antibodies. The antibodies were
detected using horseradish peroxidase-linked goat anti-mouse or
anti-rabbit IgG (Dako) and visualized by the enhanced chemiluminescence
(ECL) detection system (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). Both the anti-DP1
and DP2 monoclonal antibodies were raised against s6-His-tagged
(Qiagen) peptides corresponding to unique amino-terminal regions of the
corresponding human proteins.
The antibodies against E2F1(KH95), E2F2(L-20), E2F3(N-20),
E2F4(C-20), E2F5(MH5), pRB(C-15), p107(C-18), and p130(C-20) were purchased from Santa Cruz Biotechnology. The monoclonal antibody against human c-MYC was prepared from supernatant of the hybridoma 9E10
(59).
Phosphatase Treatment of Cell Extracts--
Dephosphorylation of
cell extracts was performed by incubating whole cell extracts with 500 units of
protein phosphatase (New England Biolabs) at 30 °C for
1 h as detailed before (55). The reactions were stopped by boiling
with SDS sample buffer, separated on SDS-polyacrylamide gels, and
Western-blotted with the appropriate antibodies.
Note that the anti-E2F4 polyclonal antibodies also recognized an
unspecific band (indicated by asterisk in Fig. 5) in the whole cell extracts, which was not detected previously in the Western
blot lysate.
DNA Binding Assay--
DNA binding assays were performed as
described previously (38). Briefly, the cells were collected and lysed
on ice for 10 min in lysis buffer containing 0.5% Nonidet P-40
supplemented with protease and phosphatase inhibitors as detailed by
Thomas (60). After clearing by centrifugation, the nuclear pellet was lysed further with 1/10 of the same buffer containing 450 mM NaCl. Both the high salt and low salt supernatants were
combined and then incubated at 4 °C for 1 h with 10 µg of
mutant double-stranded 5'-biotinylated E2F oligonucleotide (as
described for mobility shift assay) and 20 µl of avidin-coupled
methacrylate matrix (Softlink Avidin, Promega). The supernatant was
then incubated similarly with the wild-type E2F oligonucleotide and
avidin beads. In both cases, the beads were washed three times in low
salt lysis buffer and then boiled in SDS sample buffer before
examination by Western blot analysis.
 |
RESULTS |
Cell Cycle Analysis of Human Primary B-lymphocytes after
Stimulation with PMA--
Human B-lymphocytes were purified from
platelet-depleted buffy coats by positive selection using
CD19-conjugated immunomagnetic beads after preliminary enrichment over
Ficoll density gradients. The purity of human B-lymphocytes isolated by
this procedure was routinely more than 95%, as verified by staining
using fluorochrome-conjugated CD20 antibodies (Fig.
1A). The purified human
B-lymphocytes were then stimulated to enter the cell cycle using PMA,
and their cell cycle status was monitored by flow cytometric analysis
of both DNA and protein content, gauged by the levels of propidium
iodide and FITC staining, respectively (Fig. 1B). Untreated
B-lymphocytes had a 2N DNA and a low protein content, indicating that
the majority of the unstimulated B-lymphocytes were in G0.
Upon PMA stimulation, the first sign of increased cellular protein
content (FITC staining) was observed at 12 h, indicating that
cells were beginning to enter early G1 (47). Nevertheless,
the majority of the cells traversed the G0/G1
boundary between 24 and 36 h. A small population of PMA-stimulated
cells began to enter S phase (DNA synthesis) at 60 h, which is
indicated by an increase in their DNA content. It is also notable that
with PMA stimulation alone, the majority of cells remained in
G0/G1 after 72 h. The relatively long
G1 made this cell system ideal for investigating the early
phases of the cell cycle.

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Fig. 1.
Flow cytometric analyses of primary
B-lymphocytes isolated from human peripheral blood. A,
flow cytometric analysis of CD20 expression in B-lymphocytes.
B-lymphocytes isolated using anti-CD19 magnetic beads were stained with
fluorescein FITC-conjugated anti-CD20 antibodies before
(left) and after (right) selection with CD19
magnetic beads. B, flow cytometric analysis of cell cycle
phases. The cells were stimulated with PMA and collected at the times
indicated. Total protein level was measured by FITC staining, and DNA
content was measured by propidium iodide staining. The percentages of
cells in various cell cycle phases (G0, G1, S,
and G2/M) at different times after PMA stimulation are
shown.
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Changes in E2F DNA Binding Activity in Human Primary B-lymphocytes
after Stimulation with PMA--
To characterize the functional E2F
complexes in human B-lymphocytes, mobility shift analysis was performed
on extracts derived from PMA-stimulated cells. The mobility-shift
analysis (Fig. 2A) identified
at least five species of DNA binding complexes
containing E2F (complexes A to E) by virtue of
the difference in their mobility. Of these, two are free E2Fs
(complexes D and E), and the other three are
complexed E2Fs (complexes A, B, and
C), shown previously also to contain the pRB-related pocket
proteins. As we have shown previously (48), only one predominant
species of E2F complex (complex B) was detected in unstimulated human
B-lymphocytes. Upon PMA stimulation, the level of this complexed E2F
(complex B) increased, reaching a peak at 30 h.
However, as the cells progressed toward S phase, this E2F complex
declined gradually and was eventually replaced by two other complexed
E2Fs (complexes A and C) and two free E2F species
(complexes D and E).

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Fig. 2.
Electrophoretic mobility shift analysis of
E2F DNA binding complexes after PMA stimulation. A,
whole cell extracts were prepared from human B-lymphocytes at times
indicated after PMA stimulation. The extracts were then used for gel
mobility shift experiments with a 32P-labeled E2F
oligonucleotide as probe. The positions of different E2F complexes are
labeled A to E. B, antibody supershift
analysis of components of E2F complexes at different cell cycle stages.
Supershifts were performed using specific antibodies against pRB, p107,
p130, cyclin A, DP1, and E2F1-5 as indicated on whole cell extracts
prepared from cells at 0, 24, 42, 48, and 72 h after PMA
stimulation. Band A in panel A consists mainly of
p107-cyclin A-E2F4-DP1, band B contains primarily pRB and
p130-E2F4-DP1, band C contains pRB-E2F1-3-DP1, band
D contains E2F4-DP1, and band E contains E2F1-3
and 5-DP1. C, supershift analysis for the presence of DP2 in
E2F complexes. The whole cell extract from unstimulated B-lymphocytes
was supershifted with anti-DP2 polyclonal antibodies (DP2a, -b, and -c)
in the presence of anti-DP1 antibody.
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To identify the components of these E2F complexes, we performed
antibody supershift experiments on extracts corresponding to
B-lymphocytes at G0, G1, and S phases of the
cell cycle. As shown in Fig. 2B (0 h), the anti-pRB antibody
supershifted the majority of the E2F complex (complex B) found in the
G0 phase of the cell cycle, whereas the anti-p130 antibody
shifted less than 50% of this G0 complex, and the
anti-p107 failed to shift this complex at all. The addition of
anti-cyclin A antibody produced an unspecific band but failed to
disrupt the G0 complex, indicating that cyclin A is not
present in the G0 E2F complex in B-lymphocytes. It is
notable that the anti-cyclin A used here does not supershift E2F
complexes but disrupts E2F complexes containing cyclin A (49). The
G0 complex could also be supershifted by the anti-E2F4
antibody but not antibodies against E2F1, -2, -3. Antibodies raised
against DP1 could again shift the majority of the complex, and the
remaining E2F complex could be shifted by different anti-DP2 antibodies (Fig. 2C). This indicates that though DP1 is the predominant
DP protein present in these complexes, a low level of DP2 is also complexed with E2F4 and pRB or p130. Therefore, we propose that the
predominant E2F complex (B) present in unstimulated, quiescent B-lymphocytes largely contains E2F4, DP1, and pRB or p130. It is also
notable that the majority of the G0 complex contains pRB instead of p130 complexing with E2F4 and DP1. This observation is in
contrast to what has been reported to be present in quiescent cells of
other primary cell types. For example, in quiescent serum-starved mouse
fibroblasts and in resting human primary T lymphocytes and CD34+ cells, the major E2F complex consists of E2F4 and DP1
complexed with p130 (9, 27, 41, 48, 50).
As the B-lymphocytes progressed into early G1 (24 h), there
was a general increase in the level of this pRB- or p130-containing E2F
complex (complex B), although the components of this complex remained
unchanged, as demonstrated by the supershift analysis (Fig.
2B). Notably, at this time, low levels of free E2F started to accumulate. The slower migrating free E2F (complex D) can be supershifted by anti-E2F4, whereas the higher mobility free E2F (complex E) can only be shifted by antibodies to E2F5 but not other
E2Fs. In late G1/S phase (48 h, 72 h), the complexes
containing pRB and p130 disappeared and were replaced by at least four
different E2F complexes (Fig. 2A). Subsequent supershift
analyses (Fig. 2B) showed that the slowest migrating E2F
complex (complex A) contains predominantly p107, cyclin A, E2F4, and
DP1, the faster complexed E2F (complex C) consists of pRB, DP1, and
E2F1, -2, -3, or -4, the slower of the two free E2F (complex D) is
composed of DP1 and E2F4, and finally, the fastest migrating complex
(complex E) is made up mainly of DP1 complexed either with E2F1, -2, -3, or -5.
Although previous studies have shown that E2F1, -2, and -3 interact
specifically with pRB, and E2F4 and 5 with p107 and p130, we show here
that E2F4 and DP heterodimers bind largely to pRB in B-lymphocytes in
G0 and G1 phases of the cell cycle. Consistent with our findings is the previous observation that E2F4 also complexes with pRB as well as p130 in Daudi B cells during cell cycle arrest caused by
-interferon (38). Similar pRB-E2F4-DP complexes have also
been detected in T-lymphocytes (27) but not until late G1
and S phases.
Expression of E2F Components after PMA Stimulation--
To
investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying these changes in E2F
complexes, the expression of individual E2F components identified by
the mobility shift supershift experiments was analyzed by Western blot
analysis. Despite a wealth of knowledge on how different E2F proteins
are regulated during the cell cycle, little information is available
for their heterodimeric partners, DP1 and -2. Therefore, we have raised
monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies specifically recognizing
individual DP proteins. The Western blot results (Fig.
3) showed that E2F1, E2F3, E2F4, DP1, and
DP2 were expressed in B-lymphocytes but at distinct stages of the cell cycle. However, although we could detect E2F2 and -5 in E2F complexes by supershift analysis, we were unable to document their expression by
Western blotting. This is likely to be because of the fact that the
mobility shift assays are more sensitive than Western blotting. E2F4 is
present as cells traversed from G0 to S phase, but the
relative abundance of the different forms of E2F4 changed during this
period. In G0, E2F4 was visible by Western blot analysis as
multiple bands with different electromobility (54-64 kDa). Upon
stimulation with PMA, the slower migrating forms gradually disappeared,
and the two fastest migrating species predominated for the rest of the
time course. Like E2F4, DP1 and DP2 were present throughout the time
course, and similar to E2F4, both DP1 and DP2 underwent electromobility
changes when the cells exited G0. In unstimulated
B-lymphocytes, the anti-DP1 antibody recognized a protein of
approximately 52 kDa, which upon stimulation with PMA, increased its
migration rate as cells entered G1 from G0 (12-48 h; Figs. 3 and 6) and persisted in this high mobility form throughout late G1 (48 h) and into S (72 h). We also
observed a significant increase in total DP1 level as the cells
traversed into late G1 (48 h). In G0, the
anti-DP2 monoclonal antibody recognized 3 doublets of apparent
molecular masses of approximately 55, 48, and 43 kDa, and the faster
migrating forms of each proteins predominated as cells entered
G1 (12-24 h; Fig. 3). This result is consistent with a
previous report showing that DP2 exists in vivo as three related proteins of the above deduced molecular masses (51). The
doublets could represent the respective hyper- and hypophosphorylated forms of the three species of DP2 proteins. It is notable that the
kinetics for the accumulation of the pRB or p130-E2F4-DP1 complex
mirrors the expression patterns of slower migrating forms of both DP1
or DP2 and E2F4 during G0 and G1 (0-48 h
post-PMA treatment), indicating that these slower migrating species of DP proteins and E2F4 could be rate-limiting for the formation of the
pRB- or p130-containing E2F complexes during that period.

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Fig. 3.
Western blot analysis of E2F, DP, and c-MYC
protein expression after PMA stimulation. Western blot extracts
prepared from cells at times indicated after PMA treatment were
separated on 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gels and immunoblotted with
antibodies against E2F1-5, DP1, and DP2, as well as a monoclonal
antibody against human c-MYC, 9E10 (59).
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It has been shown previously that the immediate-early response gene
c-myc is expressed rapidly and transiently in early
G1 after mitogenic stimulation of B- and T-lymphocytes (52,
53). To demonstrate further that the freshly isolated B-lymphocytes are
in a quiescent (G0) state and to verify the kinetics of
cell cycle entry, we investigated the expression of the c-MYC protein before and after PMA stimulation. The results showed that
c-myc was not expressed in untreated cells but was
significantly induced at 12 h after stimulation with PMA before
being down-regulated thereafter (Fig. 3). Because the expression of
c-MYC is necessary for cell cycle entry, these data, together with the
increase in cellular protein content, are consistent with co-ordinated
entry into the cell cycle as well as the growth cycle (54).
Phosphorylation of pRB, p107, and p130 during the G0 to
G2 Transition--
We also investigated the expression and
phosphorylation status of the pocket proteins in these PMA-stimulated
B-lymphocytes by Western blotting (Fig.
4A). In G0, both
pRB and p130 are present in their respective faster-migrating,
hypophosphorylated forms. After PMA stimulation, the expression levels
of pRB and p130 increased as cells traversed from G0 into
G1. Slower migrating hyperphosphorylated forms of pRB and
p130 could be detected as early as 12 h after PMA stimulation and
became more abundant as the cells progressed toward the S phase. The
same hypophosphorylated forms of pRB and p130 were also present in
B-lymphocytes isolated by a different method (cell sorting) (Fig.
4B, 1st lane). Thus, the method of isolation does
not significantly perturb B-lymphocyte quiescence. After stimulation
with PMA, the accumulation of the hyperphosphorylated forms of pRB and
p130 (Fig. 4, A and B) coincides with the
decrease of the respective pRB- and p130-containing E2F complexes
during the transition from G0 to late G1.

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Fig. 4.
Western blot analysis of pocket protein
expression in B-lymphocytes after PMA treatment. A,
extracts prepared from cells at different times after PMA stimulation
were resolved on 5% SDS-polyacrylamide gels and analyzed by Western
blotting with polyclonal antibodies against pRB, p107, and p130. The
hyper- and hypophosphorylated forms of each pocket protein are
represented by the top and bottom bands,
respectively. B, extracts prepared from unstimulated small
dense B-lymphocytes enriched by cell sorting (lane 1) and
those from cells isolated using anti-CD19-conjugated magnetic beads
(lane 2-4) were analyzed by SDS-polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis, followed by Western blotting. Lanes 2,
3, and 4 represent B-lymphocytes stimulated with
PMA for 0, 36, and 48 h, respectively.
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Changes in Mobility of DP Proteins and E2F4 as Cells Exit
G0 Is a Result of Dephosphorylation--
It is possible
that the changes in electrophoretic mobility of the E2F4 and DP
proteins detected by Western blotting could be because of changes in
their phosphorylation status. To determine whether these
electrophoretic mobility changes are the result of dephosphorylation,
whole cell lysates from B-lymphocytes at G0 (0 h) and late
G1 (48 h) were incubated with
phosphatase. Phosphatase
treatment converted the slower migrating DP1 from unstimulated
quiescent B-lymphocytes (Fig. 5, 1st
lane) to a faster migrating form (2nd lane) with
similar mobility to the DP1 protein detected at late G1 and
S (lane 3). Thus, DP1 is present in a hyperphosphorylated
form in G0 phase and becomes dephosphorylated as cells
progress from G0 into G1 phase. Similar
phosphatase treatment failed to produce a detectable electrophoretic
mobility change in DP1 derived from cells in late G1 phase
(Fig. 5, 4th lane), suggesting that the DP1 protein present
in late G1 is likely to be an unphosphorylated form.
Phosphatase treatment also turned E2F4 proteins from both
G0 and G1 phases into a faster migrating form
(Fig. 5). This dephosphorylated form of E2F4 had higher mobility than
those species observed in either G0 or G1/S,
indicating that E2F4 changes from hyperphosphorylated to
hypophosphorylated forms as cells progress from G0 into
late G1. Although these forms of E2F4 in late
G1 and S are hypophosphorylated, they are not
unphosphorylated, as phosphatase treatment can further increase their
mobility. Similarly, phosphatase treatment also resulted in the
disappearance of the apparent higher molecular weight forms of each of
the three DP2 doublets and in reciprocal increases in the levels of the corresponding lower molecular weight forms. These results are consistent with a previous report that all three DP2 polypeptides are
phosphoproteins (51). Notably, the kinetics for the accumulation of the
pRB- or p130-containing G0/G1 E2F complexes
parallels the levels of the slower migrating hyperphosphorylated forms
of DP1, DP2, and E2F4, implying that the phosphorylation states of
these E2F components could have a role in regulating the DNA binding activity of the E2F complexes.

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|
Fig. 5.
Phosphatase treatment of human B-lymphocyte
extracts. Whole cell extracts derived from human B-lymphocytes at
0 and 48 h after PMA treatment were incubated with phosphatase
at 30 °C for 1 h. After phosphatase treatment, extracts were
Western-blotted with antibodies against DP1, DP2, and E2F4, as
described earlier.
|
|
Hyperphosphorylated Forms of DP1 and E2F4 Preferentially Bind
DNA--
We next investigated the functional significance of the
dephosphorylation of DP and E2F4 proteins as B-lymphocytes enter the cell cycle. To this end, we performed "pull-down" experiments using
a double-stranded oligonucleotide containing an E2F site conjugated to
biotin. This was captured using avidin resin, and the proteins thus
isolated were assessed by Western blot analysis. The E2F binding site
containing oligonucleotides were incubated with lysates from
B-lymphocytes stimulated with PMA for 0, 12, and 24 h (Fig.
6, upper panel). The pull-down
results indicated that only the hyperphosphorylated form of DP1 bound
to DNA under our experimental conditions. To confirm this finding, we
extended our pull-down experiments to lysates from B-lymphocytes in mid to late G1 phase (24, 36, and 48 h after PMA), when
DP1 became progressively hypophosphorylated. Consistent with earlier
results, only the hyperphosphorylated form of DP1 associated with DNA
(Fig. 6, lower panel). In addition, we also detected a
down-regulation of DP1 DNA binding activity, despite a general increase
in DP-1 protein expression at late G1 (48 h). This decrease
in DNA binding is attributable to the fact that DP-1 is present
predominantly in the non-DNA binding, hypophosphorylated form in late
G1 (48 h after PMA). This observation further supports the
idea that in G1, only the hypophosphorylated DP1 binds DNA.
Binding was E2F site-specific, because no detectable E2F activity was
pulled down by a similar oligonucleotide with the E2F site mutated. The results also demonstrated that the E2F4 species with higher apparent molecular masses bound preferentially to DNA, in comparison with the
faster migrating forms. We were unable to detect DP2 in the complexes
pulled down by this method, which possibly reflects the fact that DP2
is only a very minor component of the E2F heterodimers in human
B-lymphocytes.

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Fig. 6.
Assay of E2F-DNA binding activity in human
B-lymphocyte extracts. Proteins in whole cell extracts prepared
from B-lymphocytes after PMA treatment at the times indicated were
bound to biotinylated double-stranded oligonucleotides containing
either the wild-type (wt) or mutant E2F sites and isolated
on avidin-conjugated beads. The proteins captured by the
oligonucleotides were then resolved by SDS-acrylamide gel
electrophoresis and Western-blotted with antibodies against DP1 and
E2F4. One-tenth of the original extracts were included as controls
(lanes 1-3 in both upper panel and lower
panels).
|
|
 |
DISCUSSION |
In the present study, we identified and monitored the pocket
protein-E2F complexes in primary B-lymphocytes that had been induced to
enter the cell cycle with PMA. We also further investigated the
underlying mechanisms regulating the formation and disassembly of these
E2F complexes. We have used human B-lymphocytes as a model for primary
quiescent cells because they can be isolated to a high degree of purity
and have an extended G1 phase. Moreover, in contrast to T
lymphocytes, which are well studied, little is known about the
molecular mechanisms in B lymphocytes that regulate entry into the cell cycle.
It has previously been shown that B-lymphocytes can be activated by
anti-CD19; therefore, it is possible that isolation of B-lymphocytes by
positive selection with anti-CD19-coupled magnetic beads could
potentially stimulate quiescent B-lymphocytes to enter the cell cycle.
We have guarded against this possibility by incubating the freshly
isolated cells for 36 h without stimulus to allow existing
proliferative signals in these cells to decay. Several lines of
evidence indicate that the B-lymphocytes isolated are in quiescent
(G0) phase. First, the immediate-early gene
c-myc was not expressed in untreated cells but was induced
rapidly after the cells were stimulated to enter the cell cycle by PMA.
Second, in unstimulated cells, we were able to detect the presence of the p130-E2F complex, which has previously been shown to be unique to
cells in G0. Third, flow cytometric analysis showed that
these cells have a low protein content and a 2N DNA content, indicative of cells resting in G0. Finally, the B-lymphocytes prepared
by negative selection also showed the same expression pattern and phosphorylation status for pRB and p130 as the cells isolated by
positive selection using anti-CD19 beads. Thus, these cells represent a
highly homogeneous population of quiescent cells at the start of the experiments.
Although previous reports have indicated that E2F4-containing E2F
heterodimers preferentially complex with p107 and p130 (9, 11, 12, 14)
and that p130 is the predominant pocket protein present in
G0 and early G1 phases of the cell cycle (27,
28, 48, 55), our bandshift and supershift experiments showed that the
major species of E2F complex in B-lymphocytes in G0 and
early G1 phases of the cell cycle consists of pRB binding
to E2F4 and DP1 or DP2 (Fig. 2). This observation is supported by the
detection of high levels of hypophosphorylated (E2F binding) forms of
pRB in G0 and early G1 by Western blotting
(Fig. 4A). Although pRB-E2F4-containing complexes have
previously been reported in human T-lymphocytes in G1 and S
phases and in quiescent T-lymphocytes derived from mice deficient for
p130, to our knowledge this is the first documentation of pRB
complexing with E2F4 in normal quiescent (G0) primary
cells. This observation indicates that the pRB-E2F4-DP1 complex does exist in primary cells and is not an artifact of tissue culture cell
lines and could have a role in maintaining the quiescent state as
suggested by Ikeda et al. (56). Although the functional significance of this pRB-E2F4-DP1 complex is unclear, it is likely to
have a similar transcription repression function as the p130-E2F4 complex. Consistent with this deduction are previous gene
"knock-out" experiments for the pocket proteins, revealing that the
expression levels of individual pocket proteins are interlinked and
that, in mice deficient for p130, there is an up-regulation of pRB
and/or p107 to compensate for its function in G0. For
example, the pRB-E2F complexes are increased in quiescent
p130-deficient (
/
) T-lymphocytes (50). The reason for this is as
yet unclear; however, it is likely to be because of the fact that both
pRB and p107 are E2F-regulated genes, and their expression is
negatively controlled by the presence of p130. Thus, the high levels of
pRB observed in quiescent (G0) human B-lymphocytes could be
a consequence of the low levels of p130 expressed in these cells. A
very similar scenario where high levels of pRB-containing E2F4
complexes coexist with low levels of p130-E2F4 complexes has also been
reported in differentiated HL 60 cells after treatment with PMA
(56).
Previous reports have shown that the expression levels and
phosphorylation states of the pocket proteins are important for the
formation of the transcriptional repressive pocket protein-E2F complexes in G0 and early G1. Our present data
suggest that the accumulation of the pocket protein-E2F complexes also
depends on the expression levels as well as the phosphorylation status of DP1 and E2F4. This suggestion is based on the results that the
slower migrating hyperphosphorylated forms of DP1 and E2F4 bind DNA
preferentially, and these hyperphosphorylated DP1 and E2F4 become
progressively dephosphorylated as the cells progress from
G0 to late G1, concomitant with a parallel
decrease in levels of pRB-E2F or p130-E2F complexes. Moreover, during
the initial G0 to early G1 traverse, the
kinetics for the accumulation in levels of pRB-E2F or p130-E2F
complexes also coincides with the elevation of DP1 and E2F4 expression.
In conjunction with previous published results, our findings lead us to
postulate that in G0 and early G1, the
hyperphosphorylated forms of DP1 and E2F4 tether the hypophosphorylated
pocket proteins to E2F DNA-binding sites to repress
E2F-dependent transcription. As the cells progress through
G1, DP1 and E2F4 become progressively hypophosphorylated, culminating in a loss of DNA binding activity and derepression of
promoters negatively regulated through E2F sites. This concept is
compatible with the in vivo footprinting results of the
B-myb, cdc2, and cyclin A promoters
showing that the E2F sites are occupied only in G0/early
G1 but not late G1/S phase (42-44). These
in vivo protection patterns are at variance with the usual
mobility shift results showing that the E2F sites are occupied
predominantly by high levels of p107-E2F4-DP1-cyclin A complexes during
S phase. The disparity is likely to be because of the fact that the low stringency conditions used for mobility shift assays can detect low
affinity E2F complexes not normally found on these endogenous promoters. This also suggests that the in vitro DNA binding
experiments do not necessarily truly reflect the binding in
vivo. The significance of this regulatory mechanism, particularly
in B-lymphocytes, is further highlighted by the observation that there
is a lack of detectable free E2F complexes in G0 and early
G1 phases, indicating that the pocket proteins are present
in excess over the components of E2F in early phases of the cell cycle,
and consequently, the DNA binding activity of E2F is rate-limiting for
the formation of complexed E2F.
In summary, our present findings contribute toward defining the
underlying mechanisms that modulate E2F activity and, therefore, cell
cycle progression during the G0 to S transition in general and in B-lymphocytes in particular. Through our study, we also uncover
and provide evidence for a novel and potentially important mechanism by
which E2F complexes are regulated during early stages of the cell cycle.
 |
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
We acknowledge the generosity of Professor
Nick Dyson, Dr. Antonio Giordano, Dr. Paulo Claudio, Dr. Jonathan
Pines, and Dr. Sybille Mittnacht in providing reagents. We thank Arnold
Pizzey for carrying out cell cycle analysis. We also thank Dr. John
Norton and Luke Peterson for providing the fluorescence-activated cell sorted B-lymphocytes. We also thank Drs. Janet Glassford, Manuel Collado, and Magali Pariat for critical comments on the manuscript.
 |
FOOTNOTES |
*
The costs of publication of this
article were defrayed in part by the
payment of page charges. The article
must therefore be hereby marked
"advertisement" in
accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section
1734 solely to indicate this fact.
¶
Supported by the Kay Kendall Leukaemia Trust.
Supported by the Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research and the
Leukaemia Research Fund. To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel.: 44-171-724-5522 (ext. 220); Fax: 44-171-724-8586; E-mail: eric.lam{at}ic.ac.uk.
 |
ABBREVIATIONS |
The abbreviations used are:
PMA, phorbol
12-myristate 13-acetate;
FITC, fluorescein isothiocyanate;
PBS, phosphate-buffered saline.
 |
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