Structural Elements of ADP-ribosylation Factor 1 Required for
Functional Interaction with Cytohesin-1*
Gustavo
Pacheco-Rodriguez
,
Walter A.
Patton,
Ronald
Adamik,
Hwan-Soo
Yoo§,
Fang-Jen S.
Lee¶,
Gui-Feng
Zhang
,
Joel
Moss, and
Martha
Vaughan
From the Pulmonary-Critical Care Medicine Branch, National Heart,
Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health,
Bethesda, Maryland 20892
 |
ABSTRACT |
ADP-ribosylation factor 1 (ARF1) is a
20-kDa guanine nucleotide-binding protein involved in vesicular
trafficking. Conversion of inactive ARF-GDP to active ARF-GTP is
catalyzed by guanine nucleotide exchange proteins such as cytohesin-1.
Cytohesin-1 and its Sec7 domain (C-1Sec7) exhibit guanine nucleotide
exchange protein activity with ARF1 but not ARF-like protein 1 (ARL1), which is 57% identical in amino acid sequence. With chimeric proteins composed of ARF1 (F) and ARL1 (L) sequences we identified three structural elements responsible for this specificity. Cytohesin-1 increased [35S]guanosine 5'-(
-thio)triphosphate
binding to L28/F (first 28 residues of L, remainder F) and to a much
lesser extent F139/L, and mut13F139/L (F139/L with random sequence in
the first 13 positions) but not
13ARF1 that lacks the first 13 amino
acids; therefore, a nonspecific ARF N terminus was required for
cytohesin-1 action. The N terminus was not, however, required for that
of C-1Sec7. Both C-1Sec7 and cytohesin-1 effectively released guanosine
5'-(
-thio)triphosphate from ARF1, but only C-1Sec7 displaced the
nonhydrolyzable GTP analog bound to mut13F139/L, again indicating that
structure in addition to the Sec7 domain is involved in cytohesin-1
interaction. Some element(s) of the C-terminal region is also involved,
because replacement of the last 42 amino acids with ARL sequence in
F139L decreased markedly the interaction with cytohesin-1.
Participation of both termini is consistent with the crystallographic
structure of ARF in which the two terminal
-helices are in close
proximity. ARF1 residues 28-50 are also important in the interaction
with cytohesin-1; replacement of Lys-38 with Gln, the corresponding residue in ARL1, abolished the ability to serve as substrate for cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7. These studies have defined multiple structural elements in ARF1, including switch 1 and the N and C termini, that
participate in functional interactions with cytohesin-1 (or its
catalytic domain C-1Sec7), which were not apparent from
crystallographic analysis.
 |
INTRODUCTION |
Proteins synthesized at the endoplasmic reticulum are, in part,
transported among intracellular compartments by membrane vesicles with
COPI, COPII, or clathrin-coats (1-3). COPI-coated vesicles participate
in trafficking within the Golgi system and bidirectionally between the
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi (4). COPII-coated vesicles mediate
anterograde transport from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi (2),
whereas clathrin-coated vesicles function in transport between plasma
membrane and trans-Golgi compartments (2). Vesicle budding at a donor
membrane is initiated by specific guanine nucleotide-binding proteins
(5), the so-called "GTP-dependent molecular switches,"
ADP-ribosylation factor
(ARF)1 for clathrin- and
COPI-coated vesicles and Sar1 for the COPII-coated vesicles (2, 3).
Mammalian ARFs and ARF-like proteins (ARLs) are ~20-kDa guanine
nucleotide-binding proteins that are very similar in structure. ARFs
were grouped into class I (ARFs 1-3), class II (ARFs 4 and 5), and
class III (ARF6), based on size, amino acid sequence, and phylogenetic
analysis (6). Class I ARFs were initially identified as components of
vesicles that originate in the Golgi (7, 8) and the endoplasmic
reticulum (9), whereas class III ARF ARF6 was more recently implicated
in endocytosis and exocytosis at the plasma membrane (10-12). ARLs,
like ARFs, are widely distributed in eukaryotic organisms; five human
ARL cDNAs have been cloned (13). Based on studies of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (13) and rat kidney cells (14),
ARLs may also play a role in vesicular trafficking. ARFs are known
additionally as activators of phospholipase D and cholera toxin (CTA)
ADP-ribosyltransferase, properties that ARLs were believed to lack (15,
16).
ARF activity is determined by the identity of the nucleotide bound.
Activation of inactive ARF-GDP, which is soluble, is accelerated by
guanine nucleotide-exchange proteins (GEPs) that promote GDP release
and thereby GTP binding (16, 17). Inactivation, which results from the
hydrolysis of bound GTP, is dependent on GTPase-activating proteins
(16, 18). ARF GEPs fall into two groups based on their susceptibility
to inhibition by brefeldin A. The brefeldin A-sensitive GEPs, which are
larger molecules (~200 kDa), include p200 (19), Gea1 (20), and the
yeast Sec7 protein (21). Among the ~50-kDa brefeldin A-insensitive
forms are cytohesin-1 (22), ARNO or cytohesin-2 (23), and GRP1 or
cytohesin-3 (24). All known ARF GEPs contain a Sec7 domain, which is
responsible for the catalytic activity and its brefeldin A inhibition
(21).
The cytohesin-1 molecule comprises a coiled coil N terminus, a central
Sec7 domain (C-1Sec7), and a C-terminal pleckstrin homology domain, the
last ~100 residues of which are required for phospholipid binding
(23, 24). The solution structure of the C-1Sec7 has been recently
solved by NMR spectroscopy (25). It consists of two domains, each with
five
-helices. The active site of C-1Sec7 resides in the C-terminal
portion and sequences critical for catalysis include motifs 1 and 2, which had been assigned that role in crystal structures of the closely
related ARNO Sec7 domain (26, 27).
All members of the ARF family contain the GTPase fold or G-domain
composed of a six-stranded
-sheet surrounded by five
-helices with five loops that are involved in guanine nucleotide binding (28).
ARF1 differs from other members of the ras superfamily in containing an
amphipathic N-terminal
-helix and an extra
-sheet (29, 30). ARF1
in the GDP-bound form was crystallized as a dimer, with the extra
-sheet described as a region for protein-protein interactions. The
N-terminal glycine of native ARF1 is myristoylated, which influences
its membrane association (31).
ARFs interact with several regulatory proteins (e.g. GEPs,
GTPase-activating proteins, and arfaptins), effector proteins
(coatomer, phospholipase D, and G protein 
subunits), as well as
cholera toxin and phospholipids. The N- and C-terminal regions of ARF1 differ from those of ARL1 in several specific amino acids that are
required for phospholipase D and CTA activation, respectively (32). In
ARF1, Lys-15, Lys-16, Lys-181, and Arg-178 are critical for
phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate binding, and the N-terminal amphipathic
-helix participates in membrane association (33). Information about other GTP-binding proteins suggests that switches I
and II of ARF1 are also involved in guanine nucleotide exchange.
We recently reported that cytohesin-1 catalyzed guanine nucleotide
exchange on nonmyristoylated ARF1, and its Sec7 domain accelerated
GTP
S binding by ARF1, ARF5, and ARF6 (34). To define structural
elements of ARF required for catalysis of guanine nucleotide exchange
by cytohesin-1 and C-1Sec7, we took advantage of the observation that
both intact cytohesin-1 and its Sec7 domain accelerated GTP
S binding
by nonmyristoylated ARF1, and both failed to alter binding by ARL1.
Chimeric proteins composed of sequences from hARF1 and hARL1 were
synthesized and tested for exchange activity with C-1Sec7 and
cytohesin-1.
 |
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES |
Materials--
L-
-Phosphatidyl-L-serine,
cardiolipin,
-NAD+, and agmatine were purchased from
Sigma; GTP
S was from Roche Molecular Biochemicals; and
[35S[GTP
S and
[adenine-14C]
NAD+ were from DuPont NEN.
Sources of other reagents have been published (34, 35).
Preparation of Recombinant ARFs and Related Guanine
Nucleotide-binding Proteins--
DNA constructs for hARF1, hARL1, and
related proteins (
13ARF1, L28/F, L50/F, F50/L, F73/L, F139/L,
mut13F139/L, and ARF1K38Q) were prepared in the pET7 vector and
purified as described by Hong et al. (36) and Zhang et
al. (32). Recombinant ARF proteins were obtained as follows. A
single colony expressing recombinant protein was incubated overnight at
37 °C in 25 ml of Luria-Bertani medium containing ampicillin (100 µg/ml) before it was added to 500 ml of the same medium. Incubation
with 1 mM
isopropyl-1-thio-
-D-galactopyranoside was started at an
A600 of 0.6 and continued for 2 h. After
incubation of the cell pellet with lysozyme, followed by sonification
and centrifugation (100,000 × g, 35 min), the
supernatant was applied to a column (2.5 × 100 cm) of Ultrogel
AcA54, which was eluted with buffer A (20 mM Tris-HCl, pH
8.0, 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM NaN3, 200 mM sucrose, 100 mM NaCl, 5 mM
MgCl2). Fractions containing ARF activity were pooled and
stored at
20 °C.
Preparation of Cytohesin-1 and C-1Sec7--
Cytohesin-1 and its
Sec7 domain were prepared as described previously (22, 34). Briefly,
single colonies expressing the desired protein were incubated in 5 ml
of Luria-Bertani medium containing ampicillin (100 µg/ml) and
kanamycin (25 µg/ml) for 3-4 h at 37 °C and transferred to 100 ml
of the same medium with antibiotics. After reaching an
A600 of 0.5, cells were incubated with 2 mM isopropyl-1-thio-
-D-galactopyranoside for
4 h at 37 °C and then harvested for protein purification as
described by Meacci et al. (22). GEP activities of
cytohesin-1 and C-1Sec7 were regularly assayed with a mixture of
purified native bovine brain ARFs (chiefly ARFs 1 and 3) as a basis for
comparsion of activities with other substrates.
[35S]GTP
S Binding Assay--
GTP
S binding
and GEP activity assays have been published (34). In brief, 50 µl of
a mixture containing ARF or related protein (1 µg unless otherwise
indicated), 40 µg of bovine serum albumin, 10 µg of
L-
-phosphatidyl-L-serine, 0.1 µg of each
protease inhibitor (aprotinin, leupeptin, soybean trypsin inhibitor,
and lima bean trypsin inhibitor), 0.5 mM
4-(2-aminoethyl)-benzenesulfonylfluoride, cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7 as
indicated, and 4 µM [35S]GTP
S
(~2.5 × 106 cpm) was incubated for the indicated
time at 37 °C, unless otherwise indicated. Tubes were then placed in
ice, and contents were transferred to nitrocellulose filters followed
by washing of the incubation tube and filter with buffer B (25 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 5 mM MgCl2, 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM dithiothreitol).
Scintillation fluid was added to dried filters before radioassay of
bound [35S]GTP
S. Other details are described in figure legends.
Release of Bound Guanine Nucleotides from Recombinant ARF
Proteins--
ARF1 or related protein (usually 50 pmol or ~1 µg)
was incubated for 40 min at 37 °C in a mixture (50 µl) containing
20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 1 mM NaN3,
10 mM dithiothreitol, 200 mM sucrose, 10 µg
of L-
-phosphatidyl-L-serine, 40 µg of
bovine serum albumin, protease inhibitors as used in binding assays, 2 mM MgCl2, 1 mM EDTA, 40 mM NaCl, and 4 µM [35S]GTP
S
(~2.5 × 106 cpm). Nucleotide release with or
without cytohesin-1 (1 µg) or C-1Sec7 (1 µg) was then determined
after addition of a 1 mM concentration of the indicated
nonradiolabeled nucleotide and 3 mM MgCl2
(final concentrations in 100 µl of reaction mixture) and incubation
at 37 °C for the indicated time (100 µl).
[35S]GTP
S bound to ARFs was quantified as described
for the binding assay.
 |
RESULTS |
To identify structural elements of ARF1 required for functional
GEP interaction, we took advantage of our observations that cytohesin-1
and C-1Sec7 accelerated GTP
S binding to ARF1 (34), but both failed
to enhance GTP
S binding to ARL1 (Fig.
1). The amino acid sequences of ARF1 and
ARL1 are overall 57% identical (32), including the conserved residues
involved in GTP binding. We therefore prepared the ARF(F) and ARF(L)
chimeric proteins shown diagramatically in Fig.
2 and tested these as substrates for
cytohesin-1 and C-1Sec7 GEP activity.

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Fig. 1.
Effect of cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7 on
[35S]GTP S binding to ARF1 and ARL1. Recombinant
hARF ( , , and ) or hARL1 ( , , and ), 1 µg or 50 pmol each, was incubated without ( and ) or with 0.2 µg of
cytohesin-1 ( and ) or C-1Sec7 ( and ). Data are means ± S.E. of values from triplicate assays in a representative
experiment. Error bars smaller than symbols are not shown.
Inset, GTP S binding to ARL1. Similar observations were
made with three different preparations of ARL1.
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Fig. 2.
Structures of chimeric proteins.
Abbreviations for chimeras are on the left. Residue
numbers are at the top. Segments of human ARF1
and ARL1 sequences are black and white,
respectively. Of the first 28 residues of ARF1 and ARL1, 16 (57%) are
identical, and 17 of the last 42 (40%) are identical. The gray
segment in mut13F139 is a random sequence.
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Role of N terminus of ARF1 in Cytohesin-catalyzed Guanine
Nucleotide Exchange--
Cytohesin-1, as well as C-1Sec7, increased
[35S]GTP
S binding to recombinant L28/F composed of the
first 28 amino acids of ARL1 and the remainder of ARF1 (Fig.
3). Although binding at 37 °C was too
rapid to permit meaningful comparison of initial rates, it seemed clear
at 25 °C that C-1Sec7 was much more active than cytohesin-1.
Conclusions were similar when [35S]GTP
S release from
L28/F in the presence of both cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7 was measured (Fig.
4). Thus, cytohesin-1 and C-1Sec7 can use
an ARF with ARL1 sequence at its N terminus, consistent with the
conclusion that the ARL1 N terminus can replace that of ARF1 for
cytohesin-1-catalyzed guanine nucleotide exchange.

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Fig. 3.
Effect of cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7 on
[35S]GTP S binding by L28/F. L28/F (0.7 µg) was
incubated at 37 or 25 °C without ( ) or with 4.3 pmol of
cytohesin-1 ( ) or C-1Sec7 ( ). Data are means ± S.E. of
values from triplicate assays. Error bars smaller than symbols are not
shown. In the same experiment, 1 µg of ARF1 was incubated for 20 min
at 37 °C with cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7, which increased GTP S
binding 5.6- and 8.4-fold, respectively.
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Fig. 4.
Effect of cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7 on release
of bound [35S]GTP S from ARF1 or L28/F. ARF1 (1 µg) or L28/F (0.7 µg) with [35S]GTP S bound was
incubated as described under "Experimental Procedures" without
( ) or with 1 µg of cytohesin-1 ( ) or C-1Sec7 ( ).
[35S]GTP S bound at zero time (100%) was 7.02 ± 0.00 and 0.44 ± 0.04 pmol for ARF1 and L28/F, respectively. Data
are means ± S.E. of values from triplicate assays in one
experiment representative of three.
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To investigate further effects of the ARF1 N terminus, rates of guanine
nucleotide exchange catalyzed by 4.3 pmol of cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7
were compared using as substrates native ARF1/3, ARF1 and
13ARF1.
Cytohesin-1 and C-1Sec7 increased the initial rate of GTP
S binding
by native ARF (~4- and 10-fold), respectively (Fig.
5). Thus, C-1Sec7 was the more efficient
in catalyzing guanine nucleotide exchange, as had been reported for
nonmyristoylated ARF1 (34). Binding by
13ARF1 was >10 times that by
ARF1 in the absence of GEP and was accelerated by C-1Sec7 >40-fold at 2 min, whereas binding to ARF1 was increased much less (Fig.
6). Thus, although the N terminus of ARF1
was not required for C-1Sec7-catalyzed guanine nucleotide exchange, it
did appear to influence guanine nucleotide exchange. The rates of
release of bound [35S]GTP
S from native ARF1/3 and ARF1
in the presence of C-1Sec7 were similar, whereas release from
13ARF1
was twice as fast (Fig. 7). In addition,
cytohesin-1 failed to stimulate release GTP
S from
13ARF1.

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Fig. 5.
Effect of cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7 on
[35S]GTP S binding by native ARF1/3. Native ARF1/3
(10 pmol) was incubated without ( ) or with 4.3 pmol of cytohesin-1
( ) or C-1Sec7 ( ) at 37 °C for the indicated time with 4 µM [35S]GTP S. Data are means ± half of the range of values from duplicate assays. Error bars smaller
than symbols are not shown. The experiment was replicated twice with
different preparations of GEPs.
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Fig. 6.
[35S]GTP S binding by ARF1
and 13ARF1 without or with cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7. Duplicate
assays containing 50 pmol of ARF1 or 13ARF1 were incubated without
( ) or with 4.3 pmol of cytohesin-1 ( ) or C-1Sec7 ( ). Similar
results were obtained with three different preparations of cytohesin-1
and C-1Sec7. Data are reported as in Fig. 5.
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Fig. 7.
Release of bound [35S]GTP S
from native ARF1/3, ARF1, and 13ARF1.
[35S]GTP S bound at zero time (100%) was 0.93 ± 0.05, 1.17 ± 0.06, and 2.471 ± 0.10 pmol, respectively, for
ARF1/3, ARF1, and 13ARF1. Samples were incubated for the indicated
time without ( ) or with ( ) 45 pmol of C-1Sec7.
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Role of the C terminus of ARF1 in Cytohesin-1-catalyzed Guanine
Nucleotide Exchange--
Because the N- and C-terminal helices of ARF1
are in close proximity on the same side of the ARF1 molecule (29, 30),
we wondered whether parts of both might interact with cytohesin-1 to
influence guanine nucleotide exchange. To address this question, the
last 42 residues of ARF1 were replaced with those of ARL1 in F139/L,
which bound GTP
S much more slowly than did ARF1 (Fig. 1). Rates of
binding in the presence of cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7 were also
considerably less (Fig. 8) than they were
with ARF1. In fact, 10-fold more cytohesin-1 was required to obtain a
rate of GTP
S binding to F139/L similar to that of ARF1 (Figs. 6 and 8). It appears that the C terminus of ARF1 may influence basal as well
as catalyzed guanine nucleotide exchange, consistent with, but not in
itself proof of, the presence of an interaction site outside of the
Sec7 domain. GTP
S binding to mut13F139/L, with a random sequence
(2-GNISPTSSRAFLA-13) at the N terminus replacing the ARF1 sequence
(2-GNIFANLFKGLF-13), was much more rapid than that to ARF1 (Fig. 1) and
was only minimally affected by cytohesin-1. C-1Sec7, however,
dramatically accelerated GTP
S binding, which was almost 50% of
maximal at zero time (Fig. 8).

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Fig. 8.
Effect of cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7 on
[35S]GTP S binding by F139/L and mut13F139/L.
Samples of ARF (50 pmol) were incubated without ( ) or with 43 (top) or 4.3 (bottom) pmol of cytohesin-1 ( )
or 43 (top) or 4.3 (bottom) pmol of C-1Sec7 ( )
for the indicated time at 37 °C. Data are means ± S.E. of
values from triplicate assays in representative experiments, which were
replicated twice with different preparations of GEP and
mut13F139L.
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To assess further the role of the ARF1 C terminus,
[35S]GTP
S release from mut13F139/L without and with
cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7 was determined. Although C-1Sec7 accelerated
GTP
S release from mut13F139/L, intact cytohesin-1 did not (Fig.
9), consistent with the notion that the C
terminus of ARF1 does restrain release of bound nucleotide and is
involved in the functional interaction with cytohesin-1 but is not as
critical for C-1Sec7. The experiments with mut13F139/L are also
consistent with other evidence that cytohesin-1 does not require a
specific sequence at the ARF1 N terminus.

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Fig. 9.
Effect of cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7 on release
of bound [35S]GTP S from ARF1 and mut13F139/L. 50 pmol of ARF1 or mut13F139/L were incubated without ( ) or with 1 µg
of cytohesin-1 ( ) or C-1Sec7 ( ). [35S]GTP S bound
at zero time (100%) was 7.0 ± 0.02 and 10.96 ± 0.00 pmol
for ARF1 and mut13F139L, respectively. Data are means ± S.E. of
values from triplicate assays, which were replicated twice with
different GEP preparations in a representative experiment. The
experiment was replicated three times with two different preparations
of mut13F139/L.
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Role of the Central Region of ARF1 in Cytohesin-1-catalyzed Guanine
Nucleotide Exchange--
The observation that C-1Sec7 increased
GTP
S binding to ARFs 1, 5, and 6 suggested that it interacts with
structure conserved in all three classes of ARFs. Because the region,
between residues 21 and 100, has the least variability, we first
prepared L50/F in which the first 50 amino acids of ARF1 were replaced
with the corresponding ARL1 sequence. Both cytohesin-1 and C-1Sec7
failed to accelerate [35S]GTP
S binding to L50/F (Fig.
10). Because the protein was
essentially as effective as ARF1 in activating cholera toxin
ADP-ribosyltransferase activity in a GTP-dependent manner
(data not shown), it appeared that residues 28-50 of ARF1 contain
elements critical for functional interaction with cytohesin-1 or its
Sec7 domain. In this region, ARF and ARL are 83% identical, and lysine
38 of ARF1 is the only amino acid conserved among mammalian and yeast
ARFs that has a nonconservative replacement (glutamine) in ARL (Fig.
11). Both cytohesin-1 and C-1Sec7
failed to increase [35S]GTP
S binding to ARF1K38Q in
which lysine 38 was replaced with glutamine (Fig. 10), although the
mutant protein was as effective as ARF1 in stimulating cholera toxin
ADP-ribosyltransferase activity in a GTP-dependent manner
(Fig. 12). It appears that lysine 38 is
critical either for the proper structure of this region of ARF1 or for
its effective interaction with GEP.

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Fig. 10.
Effect of cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7 on
[35S]GTP S binding to L50/F and ARF1K38Q. 50 pmol
of ARF1, L50/F, or ARF1K38Q were incubated without ( ) or with 1 µg
of cytohesin-1 ( ) or C-1Sec7 ( ) at 37 °C for the indicated
time.
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Fig. 11.
Comparison of amino acid sequences of ARF
proteins (ARF1 residues 28-50). Elements of the secondary
structure of ARF1 as described by Greasly et al. (29) are
indicated above the sequences. An asterisk indicates an
amino acid identical to that in ARF1. Positions corresponding to 36-38
in ARF1, a putative motif recognized by ARF GEPs, are boxed.
Alignment was performed using the program GeneWorks. Amino acid
sequences were obtained from GenBank.
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Fig. 12.
Activation of CTA by ARF1 and ARF1K38Q.
Assays contained 200 µM GTP S ( and ) or GDP ( and ), ~100 µM cardiolipin, 2 µg of CTA, 100 µM [adenosine-14C]NAD (0.04 µCi), 10 mM agmatine, and the indicated amounts of ARF1 ( and
) or ARF1K38Q ( and ). Data are means ± S.E. of
triplicate assays in one experiment representative of two.
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The involvement of other regions of ARF1 in guanine nucleotide exchange
catalyzed by cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7 was investigated with chimeric
proteins F50/L and F73/L. The latter had been shown to activate
phospholipase D (32). Neither was a substrate for cytohesin-1 or
C-1Sec7, consistent with the conclusion that residues between 73 and
139 of ARF1 are involved in functional interaction with these GEPs
(Table I).
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Table I
Effect of cytohesin-1 or C-1Sec7 on GTP S binding to ARF1-related
proteins
Samples (50 pmol) of recombinant ARF or related protein or 20 pmol of
mixed native ARF (ARF1/3) without or with 1 µg of cytohesin-1 or
C-1Sec7 were incubated for 20 min at 37 °C before measurement of
bound [35S]GTP S. Data are means ± S.E.M. of values
from triplicate assays. Experiments were repeated three times with
similar results.
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DISCUSSION |
The data reported here support the view that multiple regions of
both ARF1 and cytohesin-1 are involved in guanine nucleotide exchange.
Structural elements outside of the Sec7 domain of cytohesin-1 appear to
interact with a common ARF structure. Our data also support the idea
that the region of ARF1 between amino acids 28 and 139 includes that
minimum required structure. The three-dimensional structures of ARF1
and ARL1 are probably very similar, because both contain the conserved
sequences that form the guanine nucleotide binding and GTPase catalytic
sites. Indeed, the demonstration that hARL1 can activate CTA and
phospholipase D under specific assay conditions led to the suggestion
that the ARFs and ARLs are members of a continuum of proteins (37). It
was for this reason that chimeric proteins composed of ARF1 and ARL1
sequences were used for our studies. Similar approaches to identify
functional regions have been used to define interactions between other
GTPases and their specific guanine nucleotide-exchange factors
(38-40).
Although the N terminus of ARF1 was clearly important in its
interaction with cytohesin-1 (34), the observation that cytohesin-1 increased GTP
S binding to L28/F and mut13F139/L appeared to indicate that the specific ARF sequence is not required. The association of
native ARF-GDP or ARF-GTP with membranes involves the N-terminal myristoyl moiety and is reinforced by further interaction of the N-terminal amphipathic
-helix of ARF-GTP with membrane lipid (31,
37, 41). It is possible that when membrane bound, myristoylated ARF1-GTP exposes regions similar to those exposed on nonmyristoylated ARF1-GTP in solution. Therefore, the GEP might recognize the
solution-exposed motifs, which could explain the similar rates of GTP
release from native ARF1/3 and recombinant ARF1.
Deletion of the ARF1 N terminus markedly increased the rate and
affinity of GTP
S binding (36, 42), consistent with earlier observations that the N terminus of ARF1 inhibits guanine nucleotide exchange. Participation of the ARF N terminus in the action of cytohesin-1 suggests that the latter might disrupt interaction of the
amphipathic
-helix with the ARF1 core, which could facilitate GDP
release and association of the ARF1 N-terminal helix with a membrane
surface. The N terminus of GTP-bound ARF1 in association with
phospholipids could be oriented parallel to the membrane surface (43),
allowing its interaction with effectors or GTPase-activating proteins.
The inactive state of many guanine nucleotide-binding proteins in the
cell is preserved by their association with GDP dissociation inhibitor
proteins. Rab proteins, for instance, interact specifically with
Rab-GDP dissociation inhibitors, and G
subunits are inactive when
associated with 
subunits as heterotrimers bound to G
protein-coupled receptors (28). The ARF domain of the 64-kDa ARD1
contains an internal GDP dissociation inhibitory region analogous to
the N terminus of ARF1 (44). Our data support the idea that the N terminus of ARF1 functions as a GDP dissociation inhibitor domain. Observations were similar when the rates of GTP binding by the mutant
17ARF1 were measured (42). We have now shown that the N terminus of
ARF1 does, in fact, have a role in cytohesin-1-catalyzed guanine
nucleotide exchange but is not necessary for C-1Sec7 action.
Liang et al. (40) found that amino acids 95-181 of ARF1
were required for guanine nucleotide exchange catalyzed by a
Golgi-associated GEP. Our results are in agreement and have narrowed
the region somewhat by identifying residues 140-181 as important for
cytohesin-1-catalyzed guanine nucleotide exchange. In the crystal
structure of ARF1-GDP (29, 30), the N- and C-terminal helixes are
aligned in parallel on one surface of the molecule. Both are involved
in membrane binding (33). Differences among sequences of ARF molecules
are greatest near the C terminus (last 40 residues). The variability may serve as a basis for specificity of protein-protein interactions and perhaps in targeting to intracellular compartments. Very little is
known about the function of the C terminus of ARF1, although Arg-178
and Lys-181 were critical for binding phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (33). Cytohesin-1 and C-1Sec7 recognize specific regions of ARF1 with sequence(s) that are conserved among ARFs. Based
on our results, it is tempting to speculate that the N and C termini of
ARF1 are recognized simultaneously by cytohesin-1, and that the C-1Sec7
domain interacts with an internal sequence common to ARFs. It appears
that the model of ARF1(
17) interacting with a Sec7 domain, based on
a crystal structure of the ARNO Sec7 domain associated with an ARF1
that lacks the N-terminal 17 residues (26, 27, 45), does not reflect
completely, or perhaps correctly, interactions in the ARF-cytohesin complex.
Mossessova et al. (26) by protein protection analysis of
17ARF1 (which lacks the first 17 residues including the amphipathic
-helix) and the Sec7 domain of ARNO determined that multiple regions
were shielded by their interaction. It was concluded that the putative
switch I and II segments of ARF1 were the major sites of contact with
the Sec7 domain. This approach could not, however, provide information
concerning physiological roles of the ARF1 N terminus and regulatory
elements of cytohesin-1. In our studies, functional interaction of
C-1Sec7 with the internal region of ARF1 appeared to be chiefly via
amino acids 28-50, which contain the so-called extra
-sheet,
2E,
of ARF1 as seen in the crystal structure of ARF-GDP (29, 30). The
finding that cytohesin-1 and C-1Sec7 were unable to accelerate
[35S]GTP
S binding to the chimeric protein L50/F is
consonant with participation of the extra
-sheet in the GEP interaction.
Comparison of ARF amino acid sequences reveals that lysine 38 is
conserved among all of the substrates for both cytohesin-1 and C-1Sec7
(Fig. 11). The failure of ARF1K38Q to serve as a substrate for either
one is consistent with involvement of this region in the functional
interactions. Although we cannot rule out the possibility of a
conformational change induced by the mutation, the protein was
essentially as active as ARF1 in activating the cholera toxin ADP-ribosyltransferase. Lysine 38 is located at the N terminus of the
L2 loop, which by analogy to the p21 ras structure would be near the
effector loop (29, 30). Thus it is tempting to propose that the
sequence KLK (residues 36-38) in ARF1 is critical for catalysis of
guanine nucleotide exchange.
To our knowledge, the molecular mechanism of guanine nucleotide
exchange catalyzed by cytohesin-1 is not yet clear. Although it may be
modified by differences in phospholipid requirements for each protein,
we might propose that cytohesin-1 interacts with ARF1 in specific
membrane environments that have destabilized its molecular structure.
The change in conformation might allow interaction of the Sec7 domain
with internal sequences of membrane-associated ARF1. Displacement of
bound GDP could allow formation of a Sec7 complex with nucleotide-free
ARF1, followed by dissociation of the complex triggered by GTP binding.
Understanding the regulation of cytohesin-1 function in lymphocytes and
other cells (46), as well as the role of ARF-cytohesin events in cell
adhesion (47, 48), will require the development of methods to allow
monitoring of specific cytohesin-1 interactions in its physiological milieu.
 |
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT |
We thank Carol Kosh for expert secretarial assistance.
 |
FOOTNOTES |
*
The costs of publication of this
article were defrayed in part by the
payment of page charges. The article
must therefore be hereby marked
"advertisement" in
accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section
1734 solely to indicate this fact.
To whom correspondence should be addressed: National Institutes of
Health, Rm. 5N-307, Bldg. 10, 10 Center Drive, MSC 1434, Bethesda, MD
20892-1434. Tel.: 301-402-1454; Fax 301-402-1610; E-mail:
PachecoG{at}gwgate.nhlbi.nih.gov.
§
Present address: College of Pharmacy, Chungbuk National University,
48 Gaesin-dong, Cheongju 361-763, Korea.
¶
Present address: Institute of Molecular Medicine, School of
Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China.
Present address: SmithKline Beecham Pharmaceuticals, UEO 435, P.O. Box 1539, 709 Swedeland Rd., King of Prussia, PA 19406.
 |
ABBREVIATIONS |
The abbreviations used are:
ARF, ADP-ribosylation factor;
ARL, ARF-like protein;
C-1Sec7, cytohesin-1
Sec7 domain;
GEP, guanine nucleotide exchange protein;
GTP
S, guanosine 5'-(
-thio)triphosphate;
CTA, cholera toxin A subunit;
h, human.
 |
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