From the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
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ABSTRACT |
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We report construction and characterization of
tetracycline-controlled hepatitis B virus pX-expressing hepatocyte
(AML12) cell lines. These cell lines were constructed in AML12 clonal isolates (clones 3 and 4), which express constitutively the
tetracycline-controlled transactivator. Since pX is implicated in HCC,
this immortalized hepatocyte model system was used to investigate the
mechanism of pX in transformation. Clonal isolates of 3pX and 4pX
lineages display conditional synthesis of pX mRNA and protein and a
2-fold increase in growth saturation density following tetracycline
removal, implicating pX in monolayer overgrowth. Interestingly, only
3pX clones display pX-dependent anchorage independence.
Clone 3 lineages express hepatocyte nuclear factor-1 and
hepatocyte-specific marker genes; clone 4 lineages express hepatocyte
nuclear factor-1
and reduced levels of hepatocyte-specific marker
genes, suggesting the importance of the differentiated hepatocyte in
pX-mediated oncogenic transformation.
Importantly, 3pX and 4pX lineages display differential expression of
immediate early genes c-fos and ATF3. The
pX-transforming 3pX lineage displays early, pX-dependent
induction of ATF3 and prolonged induction of
c-fos. The nontransforming 4pX cells display an absence of
pX-dependent ATF3 induction and transient
induction of c-fos. Our results support the direct link of
pX expression to oncogenic transformation in 3pX lineage clones and
underscore the advantage of this conditional cellular model system for
studying mechanisms of pX-mediated oncogenesis.
Hepatitis B virus (HBV)1
infection causes acute hepatitis in humans, 10% of cases resulting in
chronic hepatitis (1), which is linked to development of hepatocellular
carcinoma (HCC) (1); integrated HBV DNA is present in virtually all
HBV-mediated liver cancers (2, 3). However, the mechanism of
HBV-mediated hepatocarcinogenesis remains elusive.
HBV encodes a 16.5-kDa protein termed the X antigen (pX) (4). pX is
expressed during viral infection (5-7), is required for the viral life
cycle (7), and is highly conserved in all oncogenic mammalian
hepadnaviruses (8, 9). In contrast, the avian hepatitis virus, which
lacks oncogenic potential, is devoid of an X open reading frame (10).
pX promotes liver tumor formation in transgenic mice expressing high
levels of pX (11), potentiates c-Myc-induced hepatocarcinogenesis in
c-myc/pX bitransgenics (12), and acts as a tumor promoter in
hepatocarcinogenesis (13). While the published data clearly implicate
pX in HCC, the direct oncogenic effect of pX in hepatocyte
transformation has not been demonstrated. Herein, we provide evidence
demonstrating the causal link of pX expression to the transformation of
immortalized hepatocytes and describe a conditional pX expression
system that is amenable to the study of the mechanism of pX-mediated transformation.
pX is a multifunctional protein, with reported activities affecting
transcription (14), cell growth (15, 16), and apoptotic cell death (17,
18). Although pX does not directly bind double-stranded DNA, pX acts as
a promiscuous transactivator (reviewed in Ref. 14), via interaction
with several components of the transcriptional apparatus (19-23). In
addition, specific pX-responsive cis-acting elements have been
identified, e.g. NF- This dual mechanism of pX action, namely the activation of mitogenic
signaling cascades in the cytoplasm and the increased transcriptional
efficacy of bZip transcription factors in the nucleus, clearly
implicate pX in deregulation of hepatocyte gene expression, resulting
in oncogenic transformation. However, the role of these activities of
pX in cellular transformation cannot be assessed by the available model
systems (15, 18, 33). To demonstrate a direct effect of pX in
hepatocyte transformation and investigate basic in vivo
mechanisms of pX-mediated oncogenicity, we established a conditional
pX-expressing cellular model system, composed of the immortalized mouse
hepatocyte AML12 cell line (43) and the tetracycline-controlled system
of Gossen and Bujard (44).
We present data linking conditional pX expression in AML12 cells
to several criteria characteristic of oncogenic transformation. Importantly, we demonstrate that this pX-mediated oncogenic
transformation occurs only in differentiated hepatocytes, suggesting
the importance of the hepatocyte environment in pX-mediated
transformation. These conditional pX-expressing cell lines provide an
ideal cellular model system to investigate signaling mechanisms of pX
and its potential links to hepatocyte transformation, especially
valuable when considering the multifunctional nature of HBV pX and the clinical significance of HCC.
Plasmids--
Plasmids PUHD15-1, PUHC13-3, and PUHD10-3,
required for the tetracycline-repressible system, were kindly provided
by Gossen and Bujard (44). The HBV pX gene was cloned into PUHD10-3
plasmid, resulting in plasmid PUHD10-3-X.
Tissue Culture--
AML12 cells were kindly provided by Dr. N. Fausto. Cells were propagated in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's
medium/F-12 medium containing 10% fetal calf serum; a mixture of
insulin, transferrin, and selenium (ITS, Life Technologies); 1.0 µM dexamethasone; and 50 µg/ml gentamicin (43).
Transfections were performed by calcium phosphate co-precipitation,
using the Life Technologies, Inc. transfection kit. Briefly, 10-20%
subconfluent cultures were transfected with 5 µg of PUHD15-1 plasmid
encoding the tTA activator gene, in the presence of 2 µg
of pKoNeo plasmid, encoding the neomycin phosphotransferase-selectable marker. Stable transformants were selected with 600 µg/ml G418 (Geneticin; Life Technologies, Inc.); G418-resistant foci were subcloned and propagated. tTA expression was verified by
transient transfection of PUCH13-3 reporter (luciferase) plasmid, in
the presence of increasing amounts of tetracycline (0-5 µg/ml). The selected G418r,tTA+
clonal isolates were used as recipients of 5 µg of PUHD10-3-pX plasmid DNA, co-transfected with an expression vector encoding the
hygromycin resistance gene. Stable transformants were selected with 200 units/ml hygromycin (Calbiochem), in the presence of 5 µg/ml tetracycline.
Hygromycin-resistant clonal isolates were tested for conditional pX
expression by transiently transfecting the CRE3-CAT
reporter plasmid, in the presence of 10 µM forskolin,
with or without the addition of 2 µg/ml tetracycline. After 48 h, cell extracts were prepared, and CAT enzyme activity was determined
as described (45). Clonal isolates, displaying enhanced
CRE3-CAT reporter activity in absence of tetracycline, were
selected as putative pX-expressing clones and propagated in Dulbecco's
modified Eagle's medium/F-12 medium supplemented with 10% fetal calf
serum, ITS, 200 µg/ml G418, 70 µg/ml hygromycin (Life Technologies,
Inc.), and 5 µg/ml tetracycline. All experiments utilized the
constructed cell lines at passages 4-8.
Saturation Density Analyses--
2-5 × 105
cells were seeded per 60-mm dish and grown in the presence or
absence of 5 µg/ml tetracycline. The medium was replaced daily; cells
were counted every other day.
Soft Agar Assays--
2-5 × 105 parental
(G418r,tTA+) or
pX-expressing cells
(G418r,tTA+
hygromycinr) were seeded in soft agar as described (46), in
the presence or absence of 5 µg/ml tetracycline. Cell lines of clones
3 and 4 were propagated and tested as described by Cox and Der (47). Cells were fed daily and at 10-14 days were stained overnight with 1 mg/ml iodonitrotetrazolium and photographed.
Northern Analysis--
Total cellular RNA was prepared by the
TRIZOL method (Life Technologies, Inc.). Poly(A+) mRNA
was selected by the PolyATract isolation kit (Promega). Typically, 6-8
µg of poly(A+) mRNA or 30 µg of total RNA was
analyzed by Northern blotting in 1% formaldehyde-agarose gel.
Hybridization was at 42 °C in 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, 45% formaldehyde, 5× SSC, 5× Denhardt's solution, 0.5% SDS, and
200 µg/ml salmon sperm DNA. 32P-Radiolabeled pX and
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase probes were obtained using the
random primer labeling kit (Ambion). Quantitation of Northern blots was
carried out employing the OPTIMAS 6.1 program.
Immunoprecipitation Reactions of Metabolically Labeled
pX--
30-60% confluent cells were in vivo labeled (4 h)
with [35S]methionine (ICN), 0.2 mCi/ml media. pX
synthesis proceeded 12 h for the 4pX-1 clone or 48 h for the
3pX-1 clone before the addition of [35S]methionine. Cells
were harvested in radioimmune precipitation buffer containing 0.1%
SDS, 1% Nonidet P-40, and 1% aprotinin; immunoprecipitations were
carried out as described (48). The pX-specific antibody was kindly
provided by Dr. B. Slagle (Baylor College of Medicine). Analysis of
immunoprecipitation reactions was by 14% SDS-polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis and fluorography.
DNA Binding Assays--
Nuclear extracts were prepared according
to Dignam et al. (49). Gel retardation assays employed the
32P-radiolabeled PE-56 albumin HNF-1 binding site (50).
Binding reactions were carried out as described (51). Supershift assays employed HNF-1 Tetracycline-regulated cell lines expressing pX were generated
from the hepatocyte AML12 cell line, derived from the liver of
transgenic mice overexpressing TGF-
INTRODUCTION
Top
Abstract
Introduction
References
B (24-28), AP-1 (29-34), AP-2 (29),
and CRE sites (35-37). Transcriptional activation of the AP-1 and
NF-
B sites by pX is via cytoplasmic signaling pathways, including
the protein kinase C pathway (31, 32) and the Ras, Raf, MAP kinase (33,
38), and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (39) pathways. By contrast, pX
activation of CRE-mediated transcription involves direct
protein-protein interactions of pX with the bZip factors CREB/ATF2 (35,
36). Importantly, in addition to CREB, pX also interacts directly with
other inducible bZip transcription factors, activators or repressors
(37), which play important roles in hepatocyte physiology (40-42).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
antibody, kindly provided by Dr. M. Yaniv (Pasteur Institute) and were performed as described (50).
RESULTS
(43). These
tetracycline-regulated cell lines were constructed by generating two
successive cell lines; the first was engineered to express the
tetracycline-controlled activator (tTA); the second cell
line was constructed in this tTA+ background, to
express pX under tTA control (44). Several AML12 clonal
isolates expressing tTA were obtained displaying activation ratios ranging from 2- to 56-fold (Table
I). The tTA-responsive PUHD10-3-X plasmid-encoding pX was stably introduced in the
tTA+ clone 3 and 4 cell lines, resulting in 3pX
and 4pX lineages. These lineages are thus composed of clonal isolates
(3pX-1, 3pX-2, 4pX-1, 4pX-2, etc.) derived from 3pX and 4pX
transfections. The conditional pX clonal isolates were selected using a
pX/CREB-dependent functional assay (36), based on the
enhanced transcriptional efficacy of endogenous CREB by pX (36).
Accordingly, putative 3pX-1 and 4pX-1 cell lines display increased
CREB-dependent transcription following tetracycline
removal, whereas tetracycline removal did not affect
CREB-dependent transcription in parental clones 3 and 4 (data not shown). Furthermore, the addition of tetracycline did not
alter the transcriptional efficacy of a Rous sarcoma virus-luciferase reporter in AML12 cells (data not shown).
Tetracycline-dependent luciferase activity of AML12 clones
Northern blot analyses (Fig. 1A) established the tetracycline-regulated expression of pX mRNA in these putative pX-expressing cell lines. Expression of pX mRNA was detected at 1 h after tetracycline removal, reaching maximal levels by 12-48 h. In comparison with the 3pX-1 cell line, the 4pX-1 cell line expressed approximately 3-fold more pX mRNA (Fig. 1B) following tetracycline removal. Northern blot analyses of two additional, independently isolated putative pX-expressing clones from both lineages also demonstrated conditional pX mRNA expression (data not shown).
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To conclusively demonstrate the conditional synthesis of pX, we carried out immunoprecipitation reactions of cellular extracts isolated from 3pX-1 and 4pX-1 cells, metabolically labeled with [35S]methionine, following tetracycline removal. We observed pX expression in extracts of cells grown without tetracycline (Fig. 1C). pX was not detected in extracts from either 3pX-1 and 4pX-1 cells grown in the presence of tetracycline or in control clones 3 and 4, demonstrating the tetracycline-regulated synthesis of the X protein.
Overgrowth of the Monolayer by pX in 3pX-1 and 4pX-1 Cell Lines-- Saturation density analyses of 3pX-1 and 4pX-1 cell lines (Fig. 2) were used to assess the potential of cells expressing pX to overgrow the monolayer, a criterion indicating oncogenic transformation. The growth saturation density of 3pX-1 and 4pX-1 cell lines in media containing tetracycline is similar to the respective parental cell lines. Removal of tetracycline, thus allowing pX synthesis, resulted in an approximately 2-fold increase in saturation density of both 3pX-1 and 4pX-1 cell lines, in comparison with the parental control clones 3 and 4, also grown without tetracycline. This observation demonstrates that pX promotes overgrowth of the monolayer in 3pX-1 and 4pX-1 cells.
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Anchorage-independent Growth of 3pX-1 and 4pX-1 Cell Lines-- Anchorage-independent growth is often correlated with tumorigenesis and is an important criterion for cultured cell transformation (46). Therefore, we tested the potential of the 3pX-1 and 4pX-1 cell lines for anchorage-independent growth in soft agar, following pX induction (Fig. 3). 3pX-1 cells grown in the absence of tetracycline, formed large foci in soft agar, whereas the addition of tetracycline suppressed focus formation (Fig. 3A). The transformation efficiency of clone 3 is similar to that observed with 3pX-1 cells grown in the presence of tetracycline; by comparison, removal of tetracycline promoted a 10-fold increase in transformation efficiency of 3pX-1 cells (Fig. 3B). This observation demonstrates the importance of pX induction and activity in the anchorage-independent growth displayed by the 3pX-1 cell line. Importantly, additional independent clonal isolates of the 3pX lineage also demonstrated anchorage-independent growth, similar to the 3pX-1 cell line (data not shown).
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Surprisingly, the 4pX-1 cell line failed to demonstrate anchorage independence under conditions of pX induction (Fig. 3). Analysis of two additional, independently isolated clonal cell lines from the 4pX lineage (data not shown) demonstrated that they also lacked the ability to form foci in soft agar.
pX Expression Promotes Morphologic Changes in 3pX-1 Cells-- We noted a marked difference in cell morphology between cells of the 3pX and 4pX lineages (Fig. 4A). 3pX-1 cells, even at 48 h after passage, contained clusters of rounded, epithelioid cells that adhered loosely to the surface; this phenotype was even more pronounced when cells were grown in the absence of tetracycline. By comparison, 4pX-1 cells appeared mesenchymal and did not display the rounded form characteristic of nonadhering cells, suggesting that anchorage independence is linked to pX expression in a lineage-specific manner.
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More than 90% of the nonadherent 3pX-1 cells, observed after passage in tetracycline-free medium (Fig. 4A), were viable, as confirmed by trypan blue staining. Since anchorage independence is an important criterion of cultured cell transformation (46), we reasoned that nonadherent 3pX-1 cells may represent transformed hepatocytes. To test this hypothesis, nonadherent cells from cultures grown in the absence of tetracycline for 48 h were tested for anchorage-independent growth. These nonadherent 3pX-1 cells produced robust foci in soft agar. Approximately 30% of the foci that stained with iodonitrotetrazolium were larger than 80 µm in diameter; tetracycline addition reduced focus formation by 50%, whereas continuous growth of nonadherent 3pX-1 cells in the presence of tetracycline resulted in approximately 70% reduction in focus formation (Fig. 4B). Parental clone 3 cells displayed only minimal growth in soft agar (Fig. 4B); 4pX cell lines did not grow as nonadherent cultures (data not shown).
Parental Clone 4 and 4pX Cell Lines Are Dedifferentiated
Hepatocytes--
To address this seeming discrepancy of the
transforming potential of pX in the 3pX and 4pX lineages, we
investigated their stage of differentiation. Clones 3 and 4 and cell
lines 3pX-1 and 4pX-1 were examined for the expression of HNF-1, a
transcription factor characterizing differentiated hepatocytes (50,
51). Nuclear extracts were analyzed by gel retardation assays,
employing the PE-56 binding site of HNF-1, recognized by both HNF-1
and HNF-1
(50). Supershift assays employing the HNF-1
antibody demonstrated the presence of high levels of transcription factor HNF-1
in extracts obtained from parental clone 3 and 3pX-1 cells (Fig. 5A), a characteristic of
differentiated hepatocytes (50). By contrast, in extracts from clone 4 and 4pX-1 cells, the addition of HNF-1
antibody resulted in only a
minor supershift of the DNA-protein complex (Fig. 5A). This
suggests that the HNF-1 DNA-protein complex forms instead with
transcription factor HNF-1
, which also binds the HNF-1 site and is
expressed in dedifferentiated hepatocytes (50, 51). The addition of the
unrelated CREB antibody to these reactions did not affect supershift of
HNF-1 DNA-protein complexes (data not shown).
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Comparative PCR (53) analysis to monitor the expression of
hepatocyte-specific markers (54) in AML12 cells and the AML12-derived clones 3 and 4 is shown in Fig. 5B. Expression of hepatocyte
markers in clone 3, closely resembled the expression pattern seen in
parental AML12 cells. In contrast, clone 4, which expresses high levels of HNF-1 (Fig. 5A), displays markedly reduced levels of
hepatocyte-specific gene expression, further indicating that clone 4 is
a dedifferentiated hepatocyte.
pX-dependent Early Induction of ATF3 and c-fos mRNAs in 3pX-1 Cell Lines-- To characterize further the 3pX-1 and 4pX-1 cell lines, we analyzed the expression pattern of the immediate early genes c-fos and ATF3 by a time course study after pX synthesis. c-fos is induced by pX, via activation of the Ras-Raf-MAP kinase pathway (39), whereas ATF3 is induced by anisomycin (55), a known activator of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway (56), and via c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway activation, in E1A-transformed cells (57). Comparative Northern blot analyses of ATF3 mRNA expression in 3pX-1 versus 4pX-1 cell lines demonstrate the early induction of ATF3 mRNA exclusively in 3pX-1 cells (Fig. 6A). Maximal ATF3 mRNA expression is induced 1 h after pX synthesis, whereas basal ATF3 mRNA expression is detected in 3pX-1 cells treated with tetracycline. By contrast, tetracycline addition and removal in clone 3 cells did not result in ATF3 induction (Fig. 6B). Reverse transcription-PCR analysis of RNA isolated from the 3pX-1 cell line at 1 and 2 h after tetracycline treatment confirms the early expression of pX mRNA (Fig. 6C). Interestingly, ATF3 induction is not observed in 4pX-1 cells in response to pX synthesis (Fig. 6A), despite the early expression of pX mRNA (Fig. 6C). These comparative studies (Fig. 6D) demonstrate a differential, pX-dependent, 3-fold induction of ATF3 mRNA in the pX-transforming 3pX-1 cell line. Accordingly, this differential induction of ATF3 mRNA in 3pX-1 cells is one major difference in response to pX, between the transforming 3pX-1 and nontransforming 4pX-1 cell lines.
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pX-dependent Early c-fos Induction--
Comparative
Northern blot analysis of c-fos mRNA expression,
following pX synthesis in the 3pX-1 and 4pX-1 cell lines (Fig. 7A), was carried out with RNA
isolated from serum-starved cells (24 h), also treated for 24 h
with the specific EGF receptor inhibitor PD 153035 (58); we use the EGF
receptor inhibitor during the serum starvation because AML12 cells were
derived from transgenic mouse liver overexpressing TGF-. TGF-
signals via the EGF receptor and its autocrine effect activate the
Ras-Raf-MAP kinase pathway. We included the PD 153035 inhibitor to
block the autocrine effect of TGF-
. Following serum starvation, pX
synthesis was initiated by tetracycline removal in media containing 2%
serum and 10 µM EGF receptor inhibitor. We observed
induction of c-fos mRNA 1 h after pX synthesis in
both 3pX-1 and 4pX-1 cell lines, whereas tetracycline addition and
removal in parental clone 3 and 4 cell lines did not induce
c-fos mRNA expression (Fig. 7B). The early expression of pX mRNA, under these growth conditions, is
demonstrated by reverse transcription-PCR analysis of RNA isolated from
3pX-1 and 4pX-1 cell lines at 1 and 2 h after tetracycline removal
(Fig. 7C). Interestingly, c-fos induction is
sustained to 6 h after pX synthesis in the 3pX-1 cell line,
whereas in the 4pX-1 cell line, c-fos induction is reduced
to basal level by 2 h after pX synthesis (Fig. 7D).
Quantitation of c-fos mRNA induction by pX demonstrates
approximately a 2.5-fold induction in 3pX-1 cells, whereas only a
transient, 2-fold induction is observed in the nontransforming 4pX-1
cell line (Fig. 7D). Together, these results support the
pX-dependent induction of c-fos mRNA (Fig.
7).
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pX-dependent Induction of AP-1 Activity-- The pX-dependent induction of c-fos and ATF3 mRNAs (Figs. 6 and 7) suggests the pX-dependent activation of the mitogenic Ras-Raf-MAP kinase and c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathways, respectively, as shown to occur in Chang liver cells (33, 38, 39). The combined activation of these pathways results in enhanced AP-1 activity (33, 38, 39). Consequently, we examined, by transfection assays employing the TRE-CAT reporter, whether the conditional synthesis of pX would result in pX-dependent AP-1 activity in the 3pX-1 and 4pX-1 cell lines (Fig. 8). Due to high background expression of the TRE-CAT reporter following 24-h serum starvation (lanes 1-4), we established the conditions for minimal background expression. These conditions are 24-h serum starvation in the presence of 10 µM EGF receptor inhibitor (PD 153035) and 50 µM MEK-1 inhibitor (PD 98059) (59) (compare lanes 1-4 and lanes 5 and 6). pX synthesis in the absence of tetracycline was carried out for 24 h prior to transfection in media containing 2% serum, 10 µM EGF receptor inhibitor and 50 µM MEK-1 inhibitor. Earlier studies reported the reactivation of MAP kinase by serum or growth factor stimulation, following inhibition by the MEK-1 inhibitor (59). Similarly, we demonstrate that the effect of pX synthesis (lanes 5 and 6) or 20% serum stimulation (lane 7) on serum-starved cells is the induction of AP-1 activity. Specifically, we observe that pX synthesis in 3pX-1 cells promotes a 2-fold induction in TRE-CAT expression (lanes 5 and 6), whereas tetracycline treatment of parental clone 3 cells does not affect TRE-CAT expression (lanes 9 and 10). Importantly, under the same serum starvation conditions, 4pX-1 cells display minimal induction in AP-1 activity in response to pX synthesis (5-6). Interestingly, pX synthesis by tetracycline removal in either 3pX-1 or 4pX-1 cell lines, further potentiates the effect of 20% serum stimulation (lanes 7 and 8). By contrast, tetracycline removal from parental clone 3 cells does not further increase AP-1 induction (lanes 11 and 12), indicating that tetracycline does not have a direct effect on the observed enhancement in AP-1 activity. These results are in agreement with the observed transient induction of c-fos mRNA in 4pX-1 cells and the prolonged induction of c-fos mRNA in 3pX-1 cells (Fig. 7).
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DISCUSSION |
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We report construction and characterization of tetracycline-regulated pX-expressing hepatocyte cell lines. The mouse hepatocyte AML12 cell line was employed because AML12 cells are not transformed and display properties of normal, differentiated hepatocytes (43). Accordingly, AML12 cells provide an ideal system to study the growth-regulating and oncogenic potential of pX in an hepatocyte cell culture system. We employed the tetracycline-controlled gene expression system (44) for expressing pX to avoid potential cytotoxic effects on cell growth due to overexpression of pX. During all steps of construction and propagation of the pX-expressing cell lines, 5 µg/ml of tetracycline was included in the media to repress pX expression. Selection of tetracycline-regulated pX-expressing cell lines utilized a functional pX/CREB-dependent assay (36), which enabled us to eliminate putative pX-expressing clones displaying constitutive pX expression.
The evidence that demonstrates the conditional expression of pX in the 3pX-1 and 4pX-1 clonal cell lines includes the tetracycline-regulated expression of pX mRNA and protein (Fig. 1) assessed by Northern blot and immunoprecipitation analyses, respectively. These clonal cell lines display increased CREB-dependent transcriptional activation following tetracycline removal (data not shown), indicating that pX maintains its transcriptional activation potential (36, 37). Accordingly, these conditional pX-expressing cell lines provide an excellent model system to investigate the role of pX in hepatocyte growth and transformation. Importantly, in addition to the mitogenic effects of pX (33, 38), pX is also known to promote apoptosis (16, 17, 60).
We examined the oncogenic properties of these cell lines by growth density saturation analyses (Fig. 2) and soft agar assays (Fig. 3). All clonal isolates of the 3pX lineage following pX expression, demonstrate increased growth saturation density (Fig. 2A) and anchorage-independent growth in soft agar (Fig. 3), indicating the direct role of pX in oncogenic transformation. Furthermore, the rounded epithelioid phenotype of 3pX-1 cells grown without tetracycline (Fig. 4A), agrees with the well documented cell morphology changes characteristic of transformed epithelia (61, 62).
Clones of the 4pX lineage express pX in a tetracycline-regulated manner
(Fig. 1), display increased transcriptional efficacy of endogenous CREB
(data not shown), and display increased growth saturation density (Fig.
2B). However, they lack anchorage-independent growth (Fig.
3) and display mesenchymal morphology (Fig. 4A). Both
parental clone 4 and 4pX cell lines express high levels of HNF-1
(Fig. 5A), which is associated with repression of
hepatocyte-specific genes (51, 52). In agreement with these earlier
observations (50, 51, 54), we demonstrate that clone 4 expresses
markedly reduced levels of hepatocyte-specific genes, in comparison
with AML12 cells. We conclude that clone 4 and 4pX-1 cell lines are dedifferentiated, immortalized hepatocyte cell lines. The lack of
oncogenic characteristics in this lineage following pX expression (Fig.
3) suggests the importance of employing differentiated hepatocytes for
analysis of pX oncogenicity and corroborates earlier findings that the
constitutive expression of pX does not promote focus formation in
fibroblasts (15).
Our observations are in agreement with earlier studies (63), describing
cell culture transformation of rodent hepatocytes immortalized by the
SV40 T-antigen via stable transfection of the HBV genome. Similarly,
the immortalized AML12 cell line, derived from TGF- transgenic mice
(43), expresses constitutively TGF-
, a growth factor known to have
proliferative effects in hepatocytes (64, 65). Thus, in our AML12 model
system, pX may synergize with TGF-
to bring about the oncogenic
characteristics we describe.
In contrast to the earlier reports describing the oncogenic potential of pX via stable constitutive pX expression (63, 66), the unique feature of our cellular model system is that it offers the potential of defining the early, direct signaling events activated by pX and to link these events to pX-mediated transformation. Our analyses of c-fos and ATF3 mRNA expression, comparing pX-transforming (3pX) and -nontransforming (4pX) lineages, demonstrate a differential pattern of pX-dependent immediate early gene expression. Specifically, within 1 h following pX expression, ATF3 mRNA is induced selectively in the 3pX-1 cell line (Fig. 6), suggesting a differential activation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway between the 3pX and 4pX lineages. This differential ATF3 induction may be attributed to either the differentiation state of the hepatocytes (Fig. 5) or the different levels of pX expressed in the 3pX and 4pX lineages (Fig. 1). Interestingly, the expression of ATF3 is also induced in adenovirus EIA-transformed cells (57), suggesting that one aspect of the mechanism of HBV pX- and adenovirus EIA-mediated cellular transformation may be the induction of the immediate early gene ATF3.
Likewise, the pX-dependent induction of c-fos
differs between the two cell lines, in terms of both the magnitude of
the pX-dependent induction and the duration of its
expression (Fig. 7). Earlier studies (39) demonstrated that
pX-dependent c-fos induction occurs via
activation of the Ras-Raf-MAP kinase pathway. It is well established
that sustained Ras-Raf-MAP kinase activation is linked to cellular
transformation in other cellular model systems (68, 69). Our studies
suggest that the combinatorial activation of the Ras-Raf-MAP kinase and
c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway is involved in pX-mediated oncogenic
transformation. Studies are under way to assess the onset and duration
of these mitogenic pathways in the 3pX and 4pX cell lines. Accordingly,
our pX-conditional cellular model system provides an excellent model
system to decipher the molecular mechanism of pX-mediated transformation.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank Drs. Gossen and Bujard for the
tetracycline-controlled plasmids and Drs. B. Slagle and M. Yaniv for
generously providing the pX and HNF-1 antibodies, respectively. We
also thank Dr. E. Taparawsky for assistance with soft agar assays and
J. Harmon for assistance with Northern blot assays. We thank Drs. S. Broyles and M. Levrero for critical review of the manuscript.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This study was supported by American Cancer Society Grant CN 82450 and National Institutes of Health Grant DK44533 (to O. M. A.).The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of Basic Medical
Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, 1246 Lynn
Hall, W. Lafayette, IN 47907-1246. Tel.: 765-494-8131; Fax:
765-494-0781; E-mail: oma{at}vet.purdue.edu.
The abbreviations used are:
HBV, hepatitis B
virus; HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma; CRE, cAMP response element; CREB, cAMP response element-binding protein; bZip, basic region leucine
zipper; HNF, hepatocyte nuclear factor; TGF-, transforming growth
factor
; MAP, mitogen-activated protein; PCR, polymerase chain
reaction; EGF, epidermal growth factor; CAT, chloramphenicol
acetyltransferase; TRE, 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate
response element.
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REFERENCES |
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