From The Howard Hughes Medical Institute and the Departments of Medicine, Surgery, and Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
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ABSTRACT |
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G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)
initiate Ras-dependent activation of the Erk 1/2
mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade by stimulating recruitment of
Ras guanine nucleotide exchange factors to the plasma membrane. Both
integrin-based focal adhesion complexes and receptor tyrosine kinases
have been proposed as scaffolds upon which the GPCR-induced Ras
activation complex may assemble. Using specific inhibitors of focal
adhesion complex assembly and receptor tyrosine kinase activation, we
have determined the relative contribution of each to activation of the
Erk 1/2 cascade following stimulation of endogenous GPCRs in three
different cell types. The tetrapeptide RGDS, which inhibits integrin
dimerization, and cytochalasin D, which depolymerizes the actin
cytoskeleton, disrupt the assembly of focal adhesions. In PC12 rat
pheochromocytoma cells, both agents block lysophosphatidic acid (LPA)-
and bradykinin-stimulated Erk 1/2 phosphorylation, suggesting that
intact focal adhesion complexes are required for GPCR-induced
mitogen-activated protein kinase activation in these cells. In Rat 1 fibroblasts, Erk 1/2 activation via LPA and thrombin receptors is
completely insensitive to both agents. Conversely, the epidermal growth
factor receptor-specific tyrphostin AG1478 inhibits GPCR-mediated Erk
1/2 activation in Rat 1 cells but has no effect in PC12 cells. In
HEK-293 human embryonic kidney cells, LPA and thrombin
receptor-mediated Erk 1/2 activation is partially sensitive to both the
RGDS peptide and tyrphostin AG1478, suggesting that both focal adhesion
and receptor tyrosine kinase scaffolds are employed in these cells. The
dependence of GPCR-mediated Erk 1/2 activation on intact focal adhesions correlates with expression of the calcium-regulated focal
adhesion kinase, Pyk2. In all three cell types, GPCR-stimulated Erk 1/2
activation is significantly inhibited by the Src kinase inhibitors,
herbimycin A and
4-amino-5-(4-methylphenyl)-7-(t-butyl)pyrazolo-D-3,4-pyrimidine (PP1), suggesting that Src family nonreceptor tyrosine kinases represent a point of convergence for signals originating from either scaffold.
Many GPCRs1 initiate
Ras-dependent activation of the Erk 1/2 MAP kinase cascade
by inducing the tyrosine phosphorylation of proteins that serve as
scaffolds for the plasma membrane recruitment of Ras guanine nucleotide
exchange factors. Receptor stimulation results in a rapid increase in
the tyrosine phosphorylation of docking proteins, such as Shc (1, 2)
and Gab1 (3), followed by the Grb2-mediated recruitment of the Ras
guanine nucleotide exchange factor, mSos, to the plasma membrane (4).
These tyrosine phosphorylation events are sensitive to the inhibition
of Src family nonreceptor tyrosine kinases in many cell types (2, 3,
5).
Although the requirement for tyrosine kinases in GPCR-mediated Erk 1/2
activation has been well documented, the proximal signaling events
whereby these receptors initiate tyrosine phosphorylation remain poorly
understood. Recent data have implicated FAK family kinases and RTKs,
both of which regulate the activity of Src kinases, as proximal
mediators of GPCR-induced tyrosine phosphorylation. FAKs are
nonreceptor tyrosine kinases that compose part of the focal adhesion
complex. These complexes assemble on Classical RTKs, such as the receptor for epidermal growth factor (EGF),
are single transmembrane domain proteins that dimerize and
transphosphorylate upon ligand binding. Tyrosine phosphorylation of
RTKs promotes their association with SH2 or PTB domain-containing signaling proteins, which assemble on the receptor to form a Ras activation complex (12). "Transactivation" of RTKs following GPCR
stimulation has been implicated in GCPR-mediated activation of Erk 1/2
(13-15). In Rat 1 fibroblasts and COS-7 cells, inhibition of EGF
receptor function inhibits LPA-, endothelin-1-, and thrombin receptor-mediated tyrosine phosphorylation of Shc and Gab1 and activation of Erk 1/2 (3, 15). In this model, the transactivated RTK
forms the structural core of a GPCR-induced mitogenic signaling complex, as receptor phosphorylation creates docking sites for the
components of the Ras activation complex.
We compared the role of focal adhesions and EGF receptors in mediating
Erk 1/2 activation via endogenously expressed LPA, thrombin, and
bradykinin receptors in three different cell types: PC12 rat
pheochromocytoma cells, Rat 1 fibroblasts, and HEK-293 embryonic kidney
cells. Surprisingly, we found that the preferred scaffold was
independent of the specific Gi/Gq-coupled GPCR
being stimulated. Rather, the utilization of scaffolds varied between cell types, with PC-12 cells and Rat 1 fibroblasts apparently representing opposite ends of a continuum. In PC-12 cells GPCR-mediated Erk 1/2 activation was almost exclusively focal
adhesion-dependent, whereas in Rat 1 fibroblasts it was
almost exclusively RTK-dependent. In HEK-293 cells, both
scaffolds contributed to the GPCR signal. Utilization of the focal
adhesion scaffold correlated with signaling via pertussis
toxin-insensitive G proteins and with cellular expression of the
calcium-regulated FAK family kinase, Pyk2. In each case, GPCR-stimulated Erk 1/2 activation was sensitive to Src kinase inhibitors, suggesting that a critical role of both scaffolds is to
support the GPCR-induced activation of Src family nonreceptor tyrosine kinases.
Materials--
Cytochalasin D, EGF, herbimycin A, tyrphostin
AG1478, and
4-amino-5-(4-methylphenyl)-7-(t-butyl)pyrazolo-D-3,4-pyrimidine (PP1) were from Calbiochem. Bordetella pertussis toxin was
from List Biologicals. LPA and bradykinin were from Sigma. The
tetrapeptides H3N+-arginine-glycine-aspartate-serine-COO Cell Culture--
Rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells, Rat-1
fibroblasts, and HEK-293 cells were from the American Type Culture
Collection. PC12 cells were maintained in RPMI 1640 media with
L-glutamine (Life Technologies, Inc.) supplemented with
10% horse serum (Life Technologies, Inc.) and 5% fetal bovine serum
(Life Technologies, Inc.) at 37 °CC in a humidified, 5%
CO2 atmosphere. Rat-1 fibroblasts were maintained in
Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (Life Technologies, Inc.)
supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 50 µg/ml
gentamicin (Life Technologies, Inc.). HEK-293 cells were
maintained in minimum essential medium with Earle's salts (Life
Technologies, Inc.) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 50 µg/ml gentamicin.
Immunoprecipitation and Immunoblotting--
For the
determination of p125FAK and Pyk2 tyrosine phosphorylation,
cells grown to confluence in 100-mm dishes were incubated in serum-free
medium (Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium, 10 mM HEPES,
pH 7.4, 0.1% bovine serum albumin, 50 µg/ml gentamicin) for 24 h before assay. Agonist stimulation was performed at 37 °C in
serum-free medium following preincubation with inhibitors, as described
in the figure legends. After stimulation, monolayers were washed once
with ice-cold phosphate-buffered saline and lysed in ice-cold RIPA
buffer (150 mM NaCl, 50 mM Tris-Cl, pH 8.0, 0.25% w/v sodium deoxycholate, 0.1% v/v Nonidet P-40, 1 mM NaF, 1 mM sodium pyrophosphate, 100 µM NaVO4, 1 mM
phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 10 µg/ml leupeptin, 10 µ/ml
aprotinin). Cell lysates were clarified by centrifugation and diluted
to a protein concentration of 1 mg/ml. Before immunoprecipitation, a
50-µl aliquot of the whole cell lysate was added to 2× Laemmli
sample buffer for SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) and
assay of Erk 1/2 phosphorylation (below). Immunoprecipitation of
p125FAK was performed using mouse monoclonal
anti-p125FAK IgG (clone 2A7, Upstate Biotechnology, Inc.)
plus 50 µl of a 50% slurry of protein G plus/protein A-agarose
(Calbiochem) with overnight agitation at 4 °C. Immune complexes were
washed twice with ice-cold RIPA buffer and once with phosphate-buffered
saline, denatured in 2× Laemmli sample buffer, and resolved by
SDS-PAGE.
Tyrosine phosphorylation or the presence of immunoprecipitated proteins
was detected by protein immunoblotting. Phosphotyrosine was detected
using a 1:1000 dilution of horseradish peroxidase-conjugated anti-phosphotyrosine monoclonal antibody PY20H (Transduction
Laboratories). FAK was detected using a 1:1000 dilution of mouse
monoclonal anti-p125FAK IgG (Transduction Laboratories),
and Pyk2 was detected using a 1:1000 dilution of mouse monoclonal
anti-Pyk2 IgG (Transduction Laboratories), each with horseradish
peroxidase-conjugated anti-mouse IgG (Jackson Laboratories) as
secondary antibody. Immunoprecipitated proteins on nitrocellulose were
visualized by enzyme-linked chemiluminescence (Amersham Pharmacia
Biotech) and quantified by scanning laser densitometry.
Erk 1/2 Phosphorylation--
For the determination of Erk 1/2
phosphorylation, 15 µg of clarified whole cell lysate protein/lane
were resolved by SDS-PAGE, and Erk 1/2 phosphorylation was detected by
protein immunoblotting using a 1:1000 dilution of rabbit polyclonal
phospho-specific MAP kinase IgG (New England Biolabs) with alkaline
phosphatase-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG (Amersham Pharmacia
Biotech) as secondary antibody. Quantitation of Erk 1/2 phosphorylation
was performed after exposure of nitrocellulose membranes to Vistra ECF
reagent (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) and scanning on a Storm
PhosphorImager (Molecular Dynamics). After quantitation of Erk 1/2
phosphorylation, nitrocellulose membranes were stripped of
immunoglobulin and reprobed using rabbit polyclonal anti-Erk2 IgG
(Santa Cruz Biotechnology) to confirm equal loading of Erk2 protein.
Erk 1/2 Phosphorylation following Stimulation of Endogenous GPCRs
in PC12, Rat 1, and HEK-293 Cells--
To select endogenous GPCRs
capable of activating the Erk 1/2 cascade in a variety of cell types,
we assayed Erk 1/2 phosphorylation following stimulation of PC12, Rat
1, and HEK-293 cells with agonists for LPA, thrombin, or bradykinin
receptors. Each of these receptors has been shown to mediate both
pertussis toxin-sensitive and -insensitive signals resulting from dual
coupling to Gi/o-family and Gq/11-family heterotrimeric G proteins (16-18). Erk 1/2 activation via endogenous EGF receptors was also determined as a control for cellular
responsiveness and inhibitor specificity.
Fig. 1 compares GPCR-induced Erk 1/2
phosphorylation in each of the three cell lines. In PC12 cells, both
LPA- and bradykinin-stimulated Erk 1/2 phosphorylation was pertussis
toxin-insensitive (Fig. 1A). In these cells, the thrombin
agonist peptide, SFLLRN, provoked a less than 2-fold stimulation of Erk
1/2 phosphorylation (data not shown). In contrast, LPA- and
SFLLRN-stimulated Erk 1/2 phosphorylation in Rat 1 fibroblasts was
completely pertussis toxin-sensitive (Fig. 1B). In HEK-293
cells, pertussis toxin only partially blocked the LPA and thrombin
receptor responses (Fig. 1C). Here, LPA-stimulated Erk 1/2
phosphorylation was predominantly pertussis toxin-sensitive, whereas
the response to SFLLRN was predominantly pertussis toxin-insensitive. This differential sensitivity to pertussis toxin indicates that dual
Gi/Gq-coupled GPCRs activate the Erk 1/2
cascade via distinct G protein pools in different cell types. As
expected, EGF-stimulated Erk 1/2 phosphorylation was insensitive to
pertussis toxin in all three cell lines.
As shown in Fig. 2, the Src-selective
tyrosine kinase inhibitors herbimycin A (left panels) and
PP1 (right panels) significantly inhibited LPA-, bradykinin-
and SFLLRN-stimulated Erk 1/2 phosphorylation in PC12, Rat 1, and
HEK-293 cells. Although neither inhibitor affected EGF receptor
autophosphorylation at the concentrations employed (data not shown),
both herbimycin A and PP1 also impaired EGF-stimulated Erk 1/2
phosphorylation. These data suggest that Src kinase activation
contributes to both the GPCR- and RTK-mediated Erk 1/2
cascades.
Because Src family kinases associate with both integrin-based focal
adhesion complexes (19) and receptor tyrosine kinases (12), it is
likely that signals originating from either locus would be sensitive to
Src inhibitors. If Gi/Gq-coupled receptors in
different cell types selectively employ focal adhesions or RTKs as
signaling platforms, then the differential use of these scaffolds might
account for some of the observed heterogeneity in GPCR-mediated Erk 1/2
activation. To test this hypothesis, we determined the relative
dependence of GPCR signals on the presence of functional focal
adhesions and receptor tyrosine kinases in PC12, Rat 1, and HEK-293 cells.
Focal Adhesion Complexes as Scaffolds for GPCR-stimulated Erk 1/2
Activation--
Two FAK family kinases, p125FAK and Pyk2
(also known as CADTK, CAK
Intact focal adhesions are required for the activation of FAK family
kinases and formation of FAK·c-Src complexes (20-22). Proper
assembly of focal adhesions requires both cytoskeletal rearrangement
(23) and integrin-mediated attachment to the extracellular matrix (24).
Peptides containing the motif RGD, which mimic the integrin ligand
found in extracellular matrix proteins such as fibronectin, have been
shown to block integrin heterodimerization (25, 26) and thereby disrupt
the formation of focal adhesions. Similar effects are produced by
depolymerization of actin stress fibers following exposure to
cytochalasin D. In HEK 293 cells, blocking integrin dimerization using
the synthetic oligopeptide GRGDS inhibits m1 and m3 muscarinic
receptor-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of p125FAK and
paxillin (10).
To determine the extent to which intact focal adhesions might be
required for GPCR-stimulated Erk 1/2 activation, we determined the
effects of RGD peptides and cytochalasin D on Erk 1/2 phosphorylation in PC12, Rat 1, and HEK-293 cells. In each experiment,
agonist-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of p125FAK was
measured as a marker for the integrity of focal adhesion complexes. As
shown in Fig. 4, stimulation of LPA,
thrombin, bradykinin, or EGF receptors rapidly induced the tyrosine
phosphorylation of p125FAK, indicating that each of these
receptors promoted focal adhesion complex assembly. Preincubation of
cells with the RGDS peptide, but not the control RGES peptide,
inhibited agonist-stimulated p125FAK phosphorylation in
each of the three cell lines (Fig. 4, A-C, left
panels). In PC12 cells, LPA- and bradykinin-stimulated Erk 1/2
phosphorylation, like p125FAK phosphorylation, was markedly
inhibited by the RGDS peptide (Fig. 4A, right
panel). In contrast, LPA and SFLLRN-stimulated Erk 1/2 phosphorylation in Rat 1 fibroblasts was completely insensitive to the
RGDS peptide despite the significant inhibition of agonist-induced p125FAK phosphorylation (Fig. 4B, right
panel). In HEK-293 cells, LPA and SFLLRN-stimulated Erk 1/2
phosphorylation was partially inhibited (Fig. 4C,
right panel). EGF receptor-mediated Erk 1/2 activation was
insensitive to the RGDS peptide in all three cell lines, indicating that intact focal adhesions are not required for acute stimulation of
Erk 1/2 by RTKs.
Similar results were obtained using cytochalasin D to inhibit focal
adhesion assembly. As shown in Fig. 5,
cytochalasin D treatment markedly reduced GPCR- and EGF
receptor-stimulated p125FAK phosphorylation in PC12, Rat-1,
and HEK-293 cells (Fig. 5, A-C, left panels). As
with the RGDS peptide, cytochalasin D completely blocked LPA- and
SFLLRN-stimulated Erk 1/2 phosphorylation in PC12 cells (Fig.
5A, right panel). In Rat 1 fibroblasts, LPA- and
SFLLRN-stimulated Erk 1/2 phosphorylation was cytochalasin D-insensitive (Fig. 5B, right panel), whereas a
partial inhibition of LPA- and SFLLRN-stimulated Erk 1/2
phosphorylation was observed in HEK-293 cells (Fig. 5C,
right panel).
RTKs as Scaffolds for GPCR-stimulated Erk 1/2 Activation--
Like
FAKs, RTKs including the EGF (3, 15, 27), platelet-derived growth
factor (13), and insulin-like growth factor-1 (14) receptors can be
activated in response to GPCR stimulation. In Rat 1 and COS-7 cells,
inhibition of EGF receptor transactivation blocks GPCR-mediated MAP
kinase activation (3, 15). Because both activated RTKs and focal
adhesions represent potential docking sites for proteins involved in
the regulation of mitogenesis, either or both might function as a
scaffold for GPCR-mediated activation of Erk 1/2.
As shown in Fig. 6, the EGF
receptor-specific tyrphostin AG1478 has markedly different effects on
GPCR-stimulated Erk 1/2 phosphorylation in PC12, Rat 1, and HEK-293
cells. As expected, exposure to tyrphostin AG1478 had no effect on
LPA-, bradykinin- or SFLLRN-stimulated FAK phosphorylation in any of
the three cell lines, whereas producing marked inhibition the EGF
effect (Fig. 6, A-C, left panels). At
concentrations sufficient to abolish EGF-stimulated Erk 1/2 activation,
LPA- and bradykinin-stimulated Erk 1/2 phosphorylation in PC12 cells
was insensitive to tyrphostin AG1478 (Fig. 6A, right
panel). In contrast, tyrphostin AG1478 inhibited both LPA- and
SFLLRN-stimulated Erk 1/2 activation in Rat 1 fibroblasts (Fig.
6B, right panel). In HEK-293 cells, the tyrphostin also produced partial inhibition of LPA- and
SFLLRN-stimulated Erk 1/2 phosphorylation (Fig. 6C,
right panel). Because the sensitivity of GPCR-stimulated Erk
1/2 activation to tyrphostin AG1478 was opposite the effects of
inhibitors of focal adhesion assembly, these results suggest that focal
adhesions and RTKs can function independently as scaffolds for
GPCR-mediated Erk 1/2 activation.
Our data indicate that both focal adhesions and RTKs can function
independently to support activation of the Erk 1/2 MAP kinase cascade
following activation of endogenous
Gi/Gq-coupled receptors. Fig.
7 schematically depicts a model
consistent with these data. In PC12 cells,
Gi/Gq-coupled receptors such as those for LPA
and bradykinin mediate Erk 1/2 activation predominantly via pertussis toxin-insensitive G proteins and a focal adhesion-based scaffold. The
lack of pertussis toxin sensitivity is consistent with the recent
report that the Gi-coupled
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ABSTRACT
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integrin heterodimers
following integrin engagement of extracellular matrix proteins.
Following recruitment, FAKs autophosphorylate and provide docking sites
for several signaling proteins, including c-Src and Grb2 (6). In many
cell types, stimulation of Gi- or Gq-coupled receptors causes FAK activation (7-9). This activation is cell adhesion-dependent, because disruption of focal adhesions
prevents the response (10). In neuronal cells, stimulation of either LPA or bradykinin receptors activates the calcium-regulated FAK family
kinase, Pyk2 (11), and overexpression of Pyk2 mutants that are either
catalytically inactive or unable to bind to c-Src prevents GPCR-induced
Erk 1/2 activation (5, 11). In other systems, however, GPCR-mediated
Erk 1/2 activation is apparently dissociable from FAK
phosphorylation (7-9).
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(RGDS) and
H3N+-arginine-glycine-glutamate-serine-COO
(RGES) and the thrombin agonist hexapeptide
H3N+-serine-phenylalanine-leucine-leucine-arginine-asparagine-CONH2 (SFLLRN) were synthesized at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute peptide facility (Duke University Medical Center).
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Fig. 1.
Pertussis toxin sensitivity of GPCR-mediated
Erk 1/2 activation in PC12, Rat 1, and HEK-293 cells. Confluent
cultures of PC12 (A), Rat 1 (B), or HEK-293
(C) cells were incubated overnight in serum-free medium in
the presence (PTX) or absence (control) of
pertussis toxin (100 ng/ml). Cells were stimulated for 5 min with
vehicle (NS), LPA (10 µM), bradykinin (10 µM), the thrombin agonist peptide SFLLRN (10 µM), or EGF (10 ng/ml) as indicated, and Erk 1/2
phosphorylation was determined. The upper panels represent
basal and agonist-stimulated Erk 1/2 phosphorylation from a
representative experiment performed with each cell type. Data are
presented as fold increase of basal Erk 1/2 phosphorylation, where the
basal amount of Erk 1/2 phosphorylation in untreated cells is assigned
a value of 1.0. Data shown represent the mean ±S.E. values of
duplicate determinations from each of three separate experiments. *,
less than control; p < 0.05, paired t test.
IB, immunoblot.
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Fig. 2.
Inhibition of GPCR-stimulated Erk 1/2
activation by the Src-selective tyrosine kinase inhibitors herbimycin A
and PP1 in PC12, Rat 1, and HEK-293 cells. Confluent cultures of
serum-deprived PC12 (A), Rat 1 (B), or HEK-293
(C) cells were stimulated for 5 min with vehicle
(NS), LPA, bradykinin, SFLLRN, or EGF as indicated, and Erk
1/2 phosphorylation was determined. Before stimulation, cells were
incubated in the presence or absence (control) of herbimycin
A (Herb A, 1 µM) for 18 h (left
panels) or PP1 (1 µM) for 15 min (right
panels). Data are presented as fold increase of basal Erk 1/2
phosphorylation, where the basal amount of Erk 1/2 phosphorylation in
untreated cells is assigned a value of 1.0. Data shown represent the
mean ±S.E. values of duplicate determinations from three to six
separate experiments. Neither herbimycin A nor PP1 exposure
significantly reduced Erk 1/2 phosphorylation response to 5 min of
exposure to 100 nM phorbol ester (data not shown). *, less
than control; p < 0.05, paired t
test.
o, RAFTK, and FAK2) have been shown to
autophosphorylate in response to GPCR stimulation (7-9, 11). As shown
in Fig. 3A, PC12, HEK-293, and
Rat 1 cells exhibit distinct patterns of p125FAK and Pyk2
expression as detected by protein immunoblotting. Although all three
lines express abundant p125FAK, only the neuronal PC12
cells express abundant Pyk2. In contrast, HEK-293 cells contain little,
and Rat 1 cells no, detectable Pyk2 immunoreactivity. In quiescent PC12
cells, LPA, bradykinin, and EGF stimulation increased tyrosine
phosphorylation of both Pyk2 and p125FAK, indicating that
both kinases, when present, are activated following GPCR stimulation
(Fig. 3B).
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Fig. 3.
Expression and GPCR-mediated activation of
p125FAK and Pyk2 in PC12, Rat 1, and HEK-293 cells.
A, whole cell detergent lysates of PC12, Rat 1, and HEK-293
cells (approximately 15 µg of protein/lane) were resolved
by SDS-PAGE and immunoblotted (IB) for expression of
p125FAK (upper panel) or Pyk 2 (lower
panel). B, confluent cultures of serum-deprived PC12
cells were stimulated for 5 min with vehicle (NS), LPA,
bradykinin, or EGF. Monolayers were lysed in RIPA buffer, and
antiphosphotyrosine (PY) immunoprecipitates (IP)
were resolved by SDS-PAGE. Immunoblots were performed to assess
agonist-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of p125FAK
(upper panel) or Pyk2 (lower panel).
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Fig. 4.
Effect of the tetrapeptides RGDS and RGES on
GCPR-mediated p125FAK phosphorylation and Erk 1/2
activation in PC12, Rat 1, and HEK-293 cells. Confluent cultures
of PC12 (A), Rat 1 (B), or HEK-293 (C)
cells were incubated overnight in the presence or absence (black
bars) of RGDS peptide (striped bars, control;1
mM), or RGES peptide (shaded bars, 1 mM). Cells were stimulated for 5 min with vehicle
(NS), LPA, bradykinin, SFLLRN, or EGF as indicated, and RIPA
buffer lysates were prepared. Tyrosine phosphorylation of
p125FAK (left panels) was determined by
anti-phosphotyrosine immunoblotting of p125FAK
immunoprecipitates. Erk 1/2 phosphorylation (right panels)
was determined from an aliquot of each RIPA buffer lysate. Data are
presented as fold increase of basal Erk 1/2 phosphorylation, where the
basal amount of Erk 1/2 phosphorylation in untreated cells is assigned
a value of 1.0. Data shown represent the mean ±S.E. values of
duplicate determinations from three separate experiments. *, less than
control; p < 0.05, paired t test.
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Fig. 5.
Effect of cytochalasin D on GCPR-mediated
p125FAK phosphorylation and Erk 1/2 activation in PC12, Rat
1, and HEK-293 cells. Confluent cultures of serum-deprived PC12
(A), Rat 1 (B), or HEK-293 (C) cells
were incubated in the presence or absence (black bars,
control) of cytochalasin D (shaded bars, 1 µM). Cells were stimulated for 5 min with vehicle
(NS), LPA, bradykinin, SFLLRN, or EGF as indicated, and RIPA
buffer lysates were prepared. Tyrosine phosphorylation of
p125FAK (left panels) was determined by
anti-phosphotyrosine immunoblotting of p125FAK
immunoprecipitates. Erk 1/2 phosphorylation (right panels)
was determined from an aliquot of each RIPA buffer lysate. Data are
presented as fold increase of basal Erk 1/2 phosphorylation, where the
basal amount of Erk 1/2 phosphorylation in untreated cells is assigned
a value of 1.0. Data shown represent the mean ±S.E. values of
duplicate determinations from six separate experiments. *, less than
control; p < 0.05, paired t test.
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Fig. 6.
Effect of the EGF receptor-specific
tyrphostin AG1478 on GCPR-mediated p125FAK phosphorylation
and Erk 1/2 activation in PC12, Rat 1, and HEK-293 cells.
Confluent cultures of serum-deprived PC12 (A), Rat 1 (B), or HEK-293 (C) cells were incubated in the
presence or absence (black bars, control) of tyrphostin
AG1478 (shaded bars, 250 nM). Cells were
stimulated for 5 min with vehicle (NS), LPA, bradykinin,
SFLLRN, or EGF as indicated, and RIPA buffer lysates were prepared.
Tyrosine phosphorylation of p125FAK (left
panels) was determined by anti-phosphotyrosine immunoblotting of
p125FAK immunoprecipitates. Erk 1/2 phosphorylation
(right panels) was determined from an aliquot of each RIPA
buffer lysate. Data are presented as fold increase of basal Erk 1/2
phosphorylation, where the basal amount of Erk 1/2 phosphorylation in
untreated cells is assigned a value of 1.0. Data shown represent the
mean ±S.E. values of duplicate determinations from six separate
experiments. Exposure to tyrphostin AG1478 did not significantly
inhibit Erk 1/2 phosphorylation in response to a 5-min exposure to 100 nM phorbol ester (data not shown). *, less than control;
p < 0.05, paired t test.
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2A adrenergic receptor does not mediate Erk 1/2 activation in stably transfected PC12 cells (28).
Despite the presence of functional receptors, EGF receptor transactivation does not contribute detectably to GPCR-stimulated Erk
1/2 activation in these cells.
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Fig. 7.
Focal adhesions and transactivated RTKs as
independent scaffolds for GPCR-mediated Erk 1/2 activation.
Stimulation of endogenous Gi/Gq-coupled
receptors results in both tyrosine kinase-independent (e.g.
protein kinase C-mediated) and tyrosine kinase-dependent
activation of Erk 1/2. GPCR-mediated focal adhesion complex assembly or
RTK transactivation creates scaffolds for tyrosine
kinase-dependent activation of the Erk 1/2 cascade.
Depending on cell type, a GPCR may signal via either, or both,
scaffolds. Signals originating at either scaffold converge on Src
family kinases. MAPK, MAP kinase.
Rat 1 fibroblasts apparently represent the opposite end of a continuum. In these cells, LPA and thrombin receptors mediate Erk 1/2 activation largely via pertussis toxin-sensitive G proteins and transactivation of the EGF receptor. Unlike PC12 cells, GPCR-stimulated Erk 1/2 activation in these cells is unaffected by the disruption of focal adhesion complexes. HEK-293 cells apparently employ both scaffolds, as these cells exhibit LPA- and thrombin-stimulated Erk 1/2 activation that is partially pertussis toxin-sensitive and partially sensitive to inhibitors of focal adhesion complex assembly and of EGF receptor transactivation. Signals arising from either scaffold apparently converge on Src family nonreceptor tyrosine kinases, as Src inhibitors impair Erk 1/2 activation in each cell type.
Gi/Gq-coupled receptors are known to activate the Erk pathway via both tyrosine kinase-dependent and -independent pathways (29). Our data indicate that about a third of the Erk 1/2 phosphorylation mediated by LPA receptors in Rat 1 fibroblasts and by LPA and thrombin receptors in HEK-293 cells is insensitive to both Src- and EGF receptor-selective kinase inhibitors. This residual, tyrosine kinase-independent signal may reflect protein kinase C-mediated Erk 1/2 activation, which we have shown is Ras-independent and herbimycin A-insensitive in HEK-293 cells (29).
Although it is clear that GPCR-mediated Erk 1/2 activation arising from focal adhesion- and RTK-based scaffolds are dissociable, the factors that determine scaffold preference are poorly understood. Our data suggest that cell type-specific expression of calcium-regulated FAK kinases such as Pyk2 in neuronal (11) or hematopoeitic cells (30) may dictate whether GPCRs employ the focal adhesion complex as a signaling scaffold. Pyk2 and p125FAK share approximately 60% sequence identity within their catalytic domain and 40% within their N- and C-terminal domains (11) but appear to differ significantly in their regulation by extracellular stimuli. Unlike p125FAK, activation of the Pyk2 homologue CADTK apparently occurs by a two-stage process dependent upon both cellular adhesion and a costimulatory calcium- or protein kinase C-dependent signal (11, 22). Similarly, phosphorylation of both endogenous Pyk2 and p125FAK occurs following cell adhesion in rat aortic smooth muscle cells, but Pyk2 phosphorylation is further increased by costimulation with calcium ionophore or angiotensin II (31). This differential regulation of Pyk2 and p125FAK activity suggests a basis for their distinct roles in the regulation of MAP kinase pathways. Consistent with this, GPCR-induced p125FAK phosphorylation is dissociated from Erk 1/2 activation in Rat 1 cells (8, 9), which do not detectably express Pyk2. Conversely, overexpression of Pyk2 in 293T cells is sufficient to confer robust LPA-stimulated Erk 1/2 activation that is calcium- and Src kinase-dependent (5).
Several distinct RTKs, including those for platelet-derived growth
factor, EGF, and insulin-like growth factor-1, can undergo transactivation (13-15). In a given cell type, GPCR-stimulated Erk 1/2
activation may involve transactivation of multiple RTKs. For example,
in Chinese hamster ovary cells, which lack endogenous EGF receptors,
LPA stimulation results in Erk 1/2 activation that is dependent upon
transactivation of platelet-derived growth factor receptors. However,
when EGF receptors are expressed in these cells, signaling proceeds in
an EGF receptor-dependent manner (32). Although such data
suggest that "generic" mechanisms for the pleiotropic
transactivation of RTKs may exist, the molecular mechanisms behind RTK
transactivation are poorly understood. In COS-7 cells, EGF receptor
transactivation is pertussis toxin-sensitive and inhibited by
sequestration of free G protein G subunits (27, 32). Conversely,
protein kinase C-dependent EGF receptor transactivation has
been described in HEK-293 cells stably overexpressing m1 muscarinic
acetylcholine receptors (33).
Considerable evidence supports the role of Src family kinases in GPCR
stimulation of Erk 1/2. Activation of Src kinases by the -thrombin
(34), LPA (2), angiotensin II (35), N-formylmethionyl peptide
chemoattractant (1),
2A adrenergic (2, 34), and m1 muscarinic (34)
receptors has been reported. Recruitment of c-Src to Pyk2 is required
for its action, because a point mutant of Pyk2 that cannot complex with
c-Src behaves as a dominant negative inhibitor of GPCR-stimulated Erk
1/2 activation (5). Similarly, inhibition of Src kinase activity using
either dominant inhibitory c-Src mutants (2) or pharmacologic agents
(3) dramatically reduces LPA receptor-mediated tyrosine phosphorylation
of Shc and Gab1 and Erk 1/2 activation in COS-7 cells. Although these data clearly support a role for Src kinases "downstream" of both FAK family kinases and transactivated RTKs, additional evidence suggests that Src kinase activity may also play an "upstream" role
in GPCR-induced RTK transactivation. Overexpression of Src inhibitor
kinase Csk impairs LPA and
2A adrenergic receptor-mediated EGF
receptor phosphorylation in COS-7 cells (27). In addition, angiotensin
II stimulation has recently been shown to induce association of
activated c-Src with the EGF receptor independent of EGF receptor catalytic activity, suggesting that c-Src activation may precede EGF
receptor transactivation (36).
Previous work has revealed significant heterogeneity in the mechanisms
whereby GPCRs mediate activation of the Erk 1/2 MAP kinase pathway. In
most systems studied, GPCR-stimulated Erk 1/2 activation involves the
assembly of a Ras activation complex on the plasma membrane, which is
dependent upon regulated tyrosine phosphorylation of adapter proteins
such as Shc and Gab1 and recruitment of Grb2-mSos. Our data strongly
suggest that both focal adhesions and RTKs can function as
independently regulated scaffolds for the assembly of this complex and
indicate that the preferred scaffold is determined primarily by the
cellular context in which the receptor is expressed. Considerable care
is therefore warranted in using ectopic expression systems to
characterize the signal transduction pathways employed by GPCRs which
exhibit tissue-specific expression in vivo. Further
examination of the functional significance of these different scaffolds
will ultimately enhance our understanding of the diversity of
proliferative and differentiative signals originating from GPCRs.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank D. Addison and M. Holben for excellent secretarial assistance, and Mildred McAdams for peptide synthesis and purification (RGDS, RGES, and SFLLRN).
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported in part by National Institutes of Health Grants HL16037 (to R. J. L.) and DK02352 and DK55524 (to L. M. L.).The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Supported by National Institutes of Health Medical Scientist
Training Program Grant T32GM-07171.
§ An Investigator with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. To whom correspondence should be addressed: The Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Box 3821, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710. Tel.: 919-684-2974; Fax: 919-684-8875.
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ABBREVIATIONS |
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The abbreviations used are: GPCR, G protein-coupled receptor; MAP, mitogen-activated protein; FAK, focal adhesion kinase; RTK, receptor tyrosine kinase; EGF, epidermal growth factor; LPA, lysophosphatidic acid; PP1, 4-amino-5-(4-methylphenyl)-7-(t-butyl)pyrazolo-D-3,4-pyrimidine; PAGE, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.
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REFERENCES |
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