From the Division of Bioengineering and Environmental
Health and the ¶ Center for Biomedical Engineering,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 and the § Genetics Institute,
Andover, Massachusetts 01810
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ABSTRACT |
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In the accompanying paper (Shriver, Z., Liu, D.,
Hu, Y., and Sasisekharan, R. (1999) J. Biol. Chem.
274, 4082-4088), we have shown that calcium binds specifically to
heparinase I and have identified two major calcium-binding sites (CB-1
and CB-2) that partly conform to the EF-hand calcium-binding motif. In
this study, through systematic site-directed mutagenesis, we have
confirmed the accompanying biochemical studies and have shown that both CB-1 and CB-2 are involved in calcium binding and enzymatic activity. More specifically, we identified critical residues (viz.
Asp210, Asp212, Gly213, and
Thr216 in CB-1 and Asn375, Tyr379,
and Glu381 in CB-2) that are important for calcium binding
and heparinase I enzymatic activity. Mutations in CB-1 resulted in a
lower kcat, but did not change the product
profile of heparinase I action on heparin; conversely, mutations in
CB-2 not only altered the kcat for heparinase
I, but also resulted in incomplete degradation, leading to longer
saccharides. Fluorescence competition experiments along with heparin
affinity chromatography suggested that mutations in CB-1 alter
heparinase I activity primarily through decreasing the enzyme's
affinity for its calcium cofactor without altering heparin binding to
heparinase I. Compared with CB-1 mutations, mutations in CB-2 affected
calcium binding to a lesser extent, but they had a more pronounced
effect on heparinase I activity, suggesting a different role for CB-2
in the enzymatic action of heparinase I. These results, taken together
with our accompanying study, led us to propose a model for calcium
binding to heparinase I that includes both CB-1 and CB-2 providing
critical interactions, albeit via a different mechanism. Through
binding to CB-1 and/or CB-2, we propose that calcium may play a role in
the catalytic mechanism and/or in the exolytic processive mechanism of
heparin-like glycosaminoglycan depolymerization by heparinase I.
Heparin-like glycosaminoglycans
(HLGAGs)1, found both at the
cell surface and in the extracellular matrix, bind to and regulate the
biological activities of diverse molecules, including growth factors
(1), thus influencing a range of physiological functions (2). HLGAGs
are acidic polysaccharides, characterized by a disaccharide repeat unit
of hexosamine and uronic acid (L-iduronic or
D-glucuronic acid) connected through 1-4 linkages.
Chemical heterogeneity in HLGAGs results from variation in the degree
and distribution of sulfation. Heparinases I-III from
Flavobacterium heparinum degrade HLGAGs with unique
specificity and are thus useful tools in understanding the structure,
composition, and physiological roles of HLGAGs (3-6). Moreover,
heparinases have important clinical applications, such as in the
monitoring of heparin levels in blood (approved by the Food and Drug
Administration) (7), in the neutralization of heparin in blood (in
phase III clinical trials), and in the production of low molecular
weight heparins for use in humans. In addition, heparinases I and III have been shown to be potent inhibitors of angiogenesis (8).
To determine structure-activity relationships for heparinase I, we are
attempting to understand the mode of heparin degradation by heparinase
I both at a mechanistic level and by identifying critical amino acids
in the heparinase I active site through extensive biochemical and
mutagenesis approaches (3-6, 9-11). We have shown that
Cys135, His203, and Lys199 are
important in the catalytic mechanism of heparinase I (9, 11, 12).
Through extensive site-directed mutagenesis studies, we identified
other positively charged residues (Lys132 and
Lys198) that provide the necessary microenvironment for
heparinase I catalysis (12). Recent studies of heparin degradation by
heparinase I revealed a processive catalytic mechanism in which heparin
is predominantly degraded exolytically from the nonreducing end
(13).
In the accompanying study (19), by using the fluorescent calcium analog
terbium, we found that heparinase I binds calcium specifically. In
addition, we have shown that Woodward's reagent K and
1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride can
inactivate heparinase I, whereas preincubation with calcium and/or
heparin affords protection from inactivation. Thus, it is clear that
the interaction between heparinase I and calcium is essential for the
proper functioning of the enzyme. Finally, tryptic mapping studies of
Woodward's reagent K-modified heparinase I revealed two putative
calcium-binding sites in heparinase I, CB-1 and CB-2. As part of a
primary heparin-binding site (residues 196-221), CB-1 contains
residues 207-219 (19). CB-2 is located at the C terminus of heparinase
I, spanning residues 373-384 (19). Preincubation with calcium also
protected CB-1 and CB-2 from being modified by Woodward's reagent K. We therefore suggest that either or both calcium-binding sites play an
important role in calcium binding and/or enzymatic activity.
In this paper, we confirm and extend the biochemical studies by
identifying important calcium-coordinating residues in both CB-1 and
CB-2. Furthermore, by analyzing the effects of mutations in CB-1 and
CB-2 on enzymatic activity, calcium and heparin binding as well as the
distribution and amount of different products formed from heparin
degradation, we sought to outline possible roles for calcium in
heparinase I activity.
Chemicals and Materials
Heparin (from porcine intestinal mucosa with an average
molecular mass of 13 kDa and an activity of >150 USP units/mg) was from Celcus Laboratories (Cincinnati, OH). Urea, dithiothreitol, and
acetonitrile were from Allied Chemicals (Deerfield, IL). Molecular mass
standards were obtained from Life Technologies, Inc. The fluorescence
probe rhod-5N was obtained from Molecular Probes, Inc. (Eugene, OR).
Chelex resin was purchased from Bio-Rad. All other chemicals were from
Sigma. The Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) host was from Novagen
(Madison, WI). Molecular biology reagents and their sources are listed
in the appropriate sections below.
Mutagenesis, Expression, and Purification of Recombinant
Heparinase I
Mutagenesis--
The mutations were introduced via 12-cycle
polymerase chain reaction by the method of Higuchi (14). All mutant
genes were cloned into pET-15b and were sequenced to verify the
mutations as described previously (9).
Expression and Purification--
Mutant recombinant heparinases
I were expressed without the putative F. heparinum leader
sequence, i.e. as a construct (
All mutant recombinant heparinases were constructed in the pET-15b
expression system and expressed and purified in the BL21(DE3) host as
described previously (9). SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was
carried out using 12% gels and a Mini Protean II apparatus and stained
with the Silver Stain Plus kit (9). The level of protein expression for
all recombinant heparinases was identical in the BL21(DE3) host (data
not shown). The kinetic parameters kcat and
Km were determined for all mutants as described previously (4). A fluorescence competition study was conducted in
selected mutants to determine their calcium binding property. The
product profiles of heparin degradation were characterized using
anion-exchange HPLC (POROS) to resolve the oligosaccharide products as
described (3).
Heparinase I Activity Assays
UV 232 nm Assay--
The UV 232 nm assay was performed
essentially as described previously (3, 15). Briefly, the enzymatic
activity was directly measured from the increase in absorbance at 232 nm as a function of time. All assays were performed at 30 °C. When
measuring the enzymatic activity as a function of heparin
concentration, heparin concentrations varied from 0 to 4 mg/ml at a
fixed calcium concentration of 5 mM (100 mM
MOPS and 5 mM calcium acetate, pH 7.0). The data were then
fit to a nonlinear equation to determine Kcat
and Km of heparinases I. Mutant heparinase activity
was also investigated as a function of calcium concentration ranging
from 0 to 10 mM. These data were also fit to a nonlinear
function to determine K0.5, i.e. the
calcium concentration at which half of the maximum enzymatic activity
was observed. Activity is expressed as international units/micromoles
of product formed per minute using HPLC of Heparin Oligosaccharides--
Heparin (4 mg/ml) was
incubated with -L recombinant heparinase I or mutant enzymes in 100 mM MOPS and 5 mM calcium acetate buffer, pH
7.0, for 18 h. The reaction was terminated and subjected to
anion-exchange HPLC to resolve the oligosaccharide products as
described (3).
Heparin-POROS Chromatography--
The heparin-POROS
chromatography study of heparinases I was essentially carried out
following the procedure described previously (12). Briefly, ~30-40
µg of Fluorescence Competition--
To determine the effect of
mutations in CB-1 and CB-2 on the ability of heparinase I to bind
calcium, mutants with a dramatic drop in activity were tested for their
ability to bind calcium. To accomplish this, we examined the ability of
heparinase I and mutants to compete for free calcium with the
calcium-chelating fluorescence probe rhod-5N. The fluorescence probe
rhod-5N was dissolved and diluted in buffer A (10 mM MOPS
and 100 mM KCl, pH 6.5). Buffer A and water used in the
study were run through a Chelex resin column to remove trace amounts of
calcium. In the absence of calcium, rhod-5N is not fluorescent;
however, upon binding calcium, rhod-5N is fluorescent with an emission
Strategy for Site-directed Mutagenesis Studies
In the accompanying study (19), we identified two putative
calcium-binding sites, CB-1 and CB-2. CB-1 spans residues 207-219, and
CB-2 includes residues 373-384. Also, as stated earlier, both CB-1 and
CB-2 conform to the canonical calcium-binding consensus sequence, the
EF-hand motif (16, 17) (Table I). This,
in part, serves as the basis for the selection of amino acids for site-directed mutagenesis. Specifically, amino acids in CB-1 and CB-2
that contain oxygen side chains and/or that conform to the EF-hand
consensus sequence were mutated.
INTRODUCTION
Top
Abstract
Introduction
References
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
L recombinant heparinase I)
that reads Met-Gln22-Gln23- (3). To facilitate
purification, the heparinase I gene was expressed using the pET-15b
system (Novagen). This construct has a polyhistidine tag and a thrombin
cleavage site in a 21-amino acid N-terminal leader sequence (9).
= 3800 M
1 cm
1.
L recombinant heparinase I and the various mutant enzymes
were injected into a heparin-POROS column (4.6 × 100 mm;
PerSeptive BioSystems, Framingham, MA) connected to a BioCAD system
(PerSeptive BioSystems). Proteins were eluted using a linear gradient
of 0-1 M NaCl in 10 min (10 mM Tris and 1 mM EDTA, pH 7.0) and monitored at 210 nm. EDTA was added to chelate any calcium ions that may have been present in the buffers.
max of 576 nm. Before titration, rhod-5N and heparinase
I were added to a quartz cuvette such that the final concentration of
rhod-5N in the cuvette was 0.3 µM and that of heparinase
I was 3 µM. To this solution was added aliquots of a
calcium solution (20 mM) that had been previously
equilibrated with 0.3 µM rhod-5N and 3 µM
heparinase I. The stock was added such that the calcium concentration in the cuvette was 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000, or 5000 µM. After allowing the solution to come to equilibrium,
the sample was scanned from 560 to 600 nm with the excitation
wavelength fixed at 561 nm. The plot of
I/Imax versus
[Ca2+] was fitted to a nonlinear equation to determine
the apparent Kd (Kd') value.
Thus, Kd' values represent the apparent
dissociation constants for the fluorescence probe rhod-5N. Control
samples without heparinase I were included in the study.
Alignment of putative calcium-binding site amino acids in
heparinase I with the EF-hand consensus sequence
-helix, a loop wrapped around
the Ca2+ ion, and a second
-helix. The numbers given
represent the positions of amino acids in the loop region.
X, Y, Z,
X,
Y, and
Z represent amino acid residues that
coordinate the Ca2+ ion (16, 17). CB-1 and CB-2 of heparinase I
are aligned against the consensus sequence for calcium-binding
EF-hands, which includes the helix-loop-helix motif (16, 17). Within
the consensus sequence, boldface letters indicate the amino acids that
have been observed among calcium binding proteins in decreasing order
of frequency.
Fig. 1 describes the different mutations in heparinase I generated in this study. In CB-1, D210A, D212A, E207A, G213A, and T216A were first made. To determine whether the combined mutation of calcium-coordinating residues has a more pronounced effect on calcium binding and enzymatic activity, the double mutants D210A/D212A, E207A/D210A, E207A/D212A, D212A/T216A, and G213A/T216A were constructed and expressed. Finally, triple mutants (E207A/D210A/D212A and D212A/G213A/T216A) of all putative calcium-coordinating residues were also generated. In CB-2, the double mutants G378A/Y379A and E381A/T382A were first expressed. If double mutations had an effect on the catalytic activity, the residues were then individually changed to alanines to examine the possibility of one of the residues having a dominant effect on enzymatic activity. Finally, Thr373, Asn375, and Ser377 were also individually changed to alanine.
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RESULTS |
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Mutagenesis of CB-1--
Table II
lists the kinetic parameters obtained for wild-type recombinant
heparinase I and all mutant enzymes. E207A had no effect on the
enzymatic activity, with a Kcat of 92 s1 (Table II). D210A and D212A had a moderate effect on
enzymatic activity (Kcat = 74 and 65 s
1, respectively). G213A and T216A affected enzymatic
activity significantly, with ~3- and 2-fold decreases in
kcat values, respectively, compared with that of
wild-type recombinant heparinase I (Table II). Furthermore, the double
mutants E207A/D210A and E207A/D212A showed no further reduction in
enzymatic activity than the corresponding single mutants D210A and
D212A. Similarly, the triple mutant E207A/D210A/D212A was not
significantly different from the double mutant D210A/D212A (Table II).
This suggests that Glu207 individually or jointly is not
essential for enzymatic activity. Since Asp210,
Asp212, Gly213, and Thr216
individually affected enzymatic activity, we looked at the effect of
combined mutations of these amino acids. The double mutations D210A/D212A and G213A/T216A produced a more pronounced reduction in
enzymatic activity (an ~5-fold reduction in
kcat values) than any of the individual
mutations (Table II). The triple mutant D212A/G213A/T216A also
decreased the enzymatic activity ~5-fold. However, no further
reduction in enzymatic activity was observed for the double mutant
D212A/T216A as compared with the T216A single mutation.
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All mutations in CB-1 resulted in increases in K0.5 values (Table II). Furthermore, there was a strong correlation between loss of enzymatic activity and an increase in K0.5 (Fig. 2). These results suggest that CB-1 mutants lower the enzymatic activity of heparinase I primarily through lowering its calcium affinity. Moreover, this result is consistent with what is seen upon comparison of the exhaustive heparin digests of recombinant heparinase I and the mutants E207A/D212A, E207A/D210A/D212A, and D212A/G213A/T216A. Mutations in CB-1 did not affect the product profile of heparinase I, but simply slowed the enzyme's catalytic turnover rate (Fig. 3, A-D).
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Mutagenesis of CB-2-- CB-2 was initially screened by targeting key amino acids within the site and creating double mutations. For the G378A/Y379A double mutant, the enzymatic activity was reduced significantly (10-fold reduction in kcat). A similar effect was observed for the double mutant E381A/T382A (the kcat was decreased by 9-fold). Since the joint alteration of Gly378 and Tys379 as well as Glu381 and Thr382 affected heparinase I activity drastically, we subsequently investigated the effect of individually altering these residues to alanines to examine whether one mutation had a more pronounced effect than the other on heparinase I activity. When Gly378 and Thr382 were individually changed to alanines, their kcat values decreased only by about half (Table II). However, the Y379A and E381A single mutations decreased enzymatic activity (kcat) by ~10-fold, suggesting that these residues are important for calcium binding and/or heparinase I activity. Since Thr373, Asn375, and Ser 377 also have oxygen-containing side chains and conform to the EF-hand motif consensus sequence (Table I), we studied the effect of individually changing these amino acids on heparinase I activity. For the T373A and S377A mutants, no significant decrease in enzymatic activity was observed (Table II). The N375A mutation decreased heparinase I activity (kcat) by >9-fold.
Unlike the CB-1 mutants, all CB-2 mutants showed decreased K0.5 values (Table II). These results were puzzling in light of what was seen for CB-1 and led us to complete additional experiments to understand the role of CB-2 in calcium binding and heparinase I enzymatic activity (see below and "Discussion").
First, we carefully analyzed the exhaustive digest product profiles for
the mutants N375A, S377A, G378A/Y379A, and E381A/T382A, the mutants
that had a marked effect on activity. The digest profiles were similar
to that of L recombinant heparinase I, but, unlike CB-1
mutants, there was a lower amount of the major products
(essentially di- and tetrasaccharides) and a greater fraction of
digestion fragments larger than a hexasaccharide (Fig. 4,
A-D) (4). The presence of
digestion fragments larger than a hexasaccharide argues for a role for
CB-2 in the processivity of heparinase I (see "Discussion").
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Heparin Affinity Chromatography-- In light of the differences in the heparin digest product profiles of CB-1 versus CB-2 mutants, we sought to understand whether calcium plays a role in heparin binding to heparinase I. In this case, mutations that affected calcium binding might also affect the binding of the substrate heparin to the enzyme. We have shown previously that, in the absence of calcium, native heparinase I from F. heparinum binds a heparin-POROS column and can be eluted at a salt concentration of ~500 mM (10). This technique has also been used to investigate whether mutations in heparinase I affect binding of heparin to the enzyme (12). Thus, heparin-POROS chromatography was used in this study to investigate whether the mutant enzymes had altered salt (NaCl) elution profiles. As shown in Table II, wild-type recombinant heparinase I eluted at a salt concentration of ~482 mM. For CB-1, all mutants except for Gly213 and Thr216 eluted at a higher salt concentration. Interestingly, a direct correlation was observed between the salt concentration eluted and loss of negative charge of carboxyl groups in both CB-1 and CB-2 as shown in Fig. 5. This trend in the elution profile is expected since the interaction between heparinase I and heparin includes both a nonspecific ionic component and a specific heparin-heparinase component (12). For the nonspecific ionic component, neutralizing repulsive negative charges through mutagenesis creates a more favorable interaction, whereas converting a neutral amino acid to alanine has no effect. Most of the CB-2 mutants (T373A, N375A, S377A, G378A, Y379A, T382A, and G378/Y379A), which involve no charge neutralization, eluted at salt concentrations comparable to wild-type recombinant heparinase I (Table II). Therefore, all of the mutations involved in this study resulted in little to no change in the ability of heparinase I to bind heparin specifically, consistent with the earlier observation that heparinase I is able to bind heparin in the absence of calcium (10). Together with the observation that all mutant enzymes retained enzymatic activities to various extents, these results suggest that the structure of the enzyme was unlikely to be perturbed upon site-specific mutagenesis, justifying the comparison of kinetic parameters of mutant enzymes and wild-type -L recombinant heparinase I.
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Fluorescence Competition-- The results of the kinetic analysis of CB-1 and CB-2 mutants raised the question of whether mutations in CB-2 mediate their effect through decreasing the affinity of heparinase I for calcium. To test this hypothesis directly (i.e. not indirectly through measuring enzymatic activity as a function of calcium concentration), we tested the ability of heparinase I and selected mutants to bind calcium using a fluorescence titration assay. Thus, the rationale for the fluorescence competition study was to determine, using the calcium-chelating probe rhod-5N, whether mutations in CB-1 or CB-2 affect the ability of heparinase I to bind calcium. In this study, we expected heparinase I to bind and compete for calcium with the fluorescence probe rhod-5N, and this competition was expected to lower the apparent affinity of rhod-5N for calcium. This decrease was reflected in an increase in the apparent Kd values. Those mutants (E207A/D210A/D212A and D212A/G213A/T216A in CB-1 and N375A, E381A, and G378A/Y379A in CB-2) that showed a significant decrease in enzymatic activity were chosen for the fluorescence competition study. Table III shows the data derived from the fluorescence competition study. As expected, wild type -L recombinant heparinase I bound calcium and competed the calcium off the fluorescence probe, resulting in a significantly increased Kd' value. Triple mutants in CB-1 had a diminished ability to compete for calcium and only led to a minor increase in Kd'. The calcium binding ability of the CB-2 mutants lies between that of the wild-type enzyme and the CB-1 mutants, suggesting a moderate reduction in the calcium binding ability. This result confirmed that both CB-1 and CB-2 are involved in calcium binding, albeit differently (see "Discussion").
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DISCUSSION |
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Calcium Binding to Heparinase I: CB-1 and CB-2-- The data presented in this study confirm that both calcium-binding sites in heparinase I, identified in the preceding paper (19), are involved in calcium binding and enzymatic activity, albeit differently. Site-directed mutagenesis studies in CB-1 identified Asp210, Asp212, Gly213, and Thr216 as important residues in calcium binding and enzymatic activity; kinetic studies showed that these corresponding mutants, individual or combined, decreased the kcat value for the degradation of heparin by heparinase I and increased the K0.5 value for calcium (Table II). In addition, examining the kcat and K0.5 values for CB-1 mutants indicated an inverse correlation between the two values, suggesting that these mutants lower the enzymatic activity of heparinase I through decreasing the binding of calcium to the enzyme. Fluorescence studies further confirmed that mutation of these residues to alanines led to a decreased calcium binding affinity in the CB-1 mutant enzymes (Table III). Thus, taken together, these studies show that CB-1 binds calcium and that mutations in CB-1 mediate their effect, either entirely or in part, through decreasing the affinity of heparinase I for calcium.
One important observation of this study is that the latter half of CB-1
(including Gly213 and Thr216) appears to be
more important than its first half (Glu207,
Asp210, and Asp212) in calcium binding and
enzymatic activity. The kcat values of G213A,
T216A, and G213A/T216A gave kcat values of 28, 50, and 19 s1 compared with 92, 74, 65, and 25 s
1 obtained from E207A, D210A, D212A, and
E207A/D210A/D212A, respectively. A similar trend was observed for the
K0.5 values for calcium binding of these mutant
enzymes (Table II).
A second observation derived from this study is that both CB-1 and CB-2 are involved in calcium binding; however, CB-2 plays a more prominent role in heparinase I activity. As shown in the fluorescence competition study, mutations in both CB-1 and CB-2 decreased the calcium binding affinity of heparinase I. On the other hand, mutations in CB-2 (N375A, Y379A, E381A, G378A/Y379A, and E381A/T382A) decreased enzymatic activity drastically (kcat values were decreased by ~10-fold), whereas none of the mutations in CB-1 reduced enzymatic activity by >5-fold. Together with the K0.5 data (see below), these results indicate that mutations in CB-2 exert a more pronounced effect on heparinase I, and thereby, the residues in CB-2 mediate their effect on heparinase I activity through interactions that are more complex compared with CB-1.
If CB-2 is involved in calcium binding to heparinase I, why does a mutation in CB-2 result in a decrease in K0.5? One interpretation of these results is that both CB-1 and CB-2 bind calcium; CB-1, which conforms more readily to the calcium-chelating consensus motif, is a high affinity site. On the other hand, CB-2, which conforms less readily to the calcium-chelating consensus motif, is presumably a lower affinity calcium-binding site (Table I). Mutations in CB-1 result in a CB-1 site with decreased affinity for calcium; however, selected mutations in CB-2 completely eliminate its ability to bind calcium. In this case, the K0.5 for CB-2 mutants is reflective of calcium binding to site 1.
This interpretation is consistent with three observations. First, in the fluorescence competition experiments, mutations in CB-2 resulted in an enzyme that was more like wild-type heparinase I as compared with CB-1 mutants in competing calcium away from rhod-5N. This points to the fact that CB-1 binds calcium better than CB-2. Second, there is very little variation in the K0.5 value for the CB-2 mutants, consistent with the hypothesis that any mutation in CB-2 eliminates the ability of CB-2 to bind calcium. Also, the K0.5 value for the CB-2 mutants (~50-90 µM) is probably reflective of the affinity of calcium for CB-1. Finally, the heparin binding properties of the CB-2 mutants suggests that other possible effects, including unfolding of the protein, are not likely to occur here. These results, coupled with the biochemical studies of the previous paper (19), point to two sites in heparinase I that bind calcium, a high affinity site (CB-1) and a lower affinity site (CB-2).
Role of Calcium in Heparinase I Activity-- Although we have shown that CB-1 and CB-2 of heparinase I are essential for maximum heparinase I activity, it remains to be seen by what mechanism CB-1 and CB-2 mediate a role for calcium in heparinase activity. Since calcium has been best known for its ability to induce a conformational change upon binding to many calcium-binding proteins (16, 17), one would expect calcium to play a similar role in heparinase I. However, CD studies with heparinase I in the presence and absence of calcium revealed no conformational change.2 In addition, based on our previous study (19), which posited the importance of a ternary complex between heparin, heparinase I, and calcium in terms of the enzymatic activity of heparinase I, it would seem likely that calcium plays a more fundamental role in the enzymatic mechanism of heparinase I.
There are potentially two roles that calcium binding can play in the
enzymatic activity of heparinase I. One possibility is that calcium is
directly involved in the active-site chemistry of heparinase I. Based
on a general mechanism proposed by Gerlt and Gassman (18) for
enzyme-catalyzed -elimination reactions of carboxylic
acid-containing substrates, a cation, such as calcium, can interact
directly with the anionic carboxylate group of the substrate and
sufficiently decrease the pKa of the carbon acid
such that abstraction of the
-proton can be achieved by a basic
amino acid of the enzyme.
We proposed that, in heparinase I, Cys135 exists as a
thiolate anion in the active-site pocket of heparinase I and initiates the abstraction of the C-5 proton of uronate (9). In addition, His203 and Lys199 have been shown to play a
role in catalysis (11, 12). In extending the above-mentioned theory of
a concerted acid-base catalysis to the -elimination reaction of
heparinase I, the abstraction of the C-5 proton by the base, presumed
to be the thiolate anion of Cys135, would require a general
acid catalyst acting on the carboxyl group. Ca2+ could
potentially satisfy such a requirement by acting as a Lewis acid (Fig.
6). Alternatively, Lys199
could act as an acid catalyst to protonate the carbonyl oxygen in the
carboxyl group, and Ca2+ could act to stabilize either
deprotonated Lys199 or Cys135 (Fig. 6). The
polarization of the carboxyl group by Ca2+ or
Lys199 would acidify the
-proton at C-5 and facilitate
the abstraction by Cys135 of heparinase I. Histidine could
act as a second acid catalyst to protonate the leaving
-substituent
(Fig. 6). If calcium plays such a role in heparinase I, then CB-1 would
seem to be an attractive candidate in chelating calcium for this
purpose. Its proximity to the heparin-binding site of heparinase I as
well as to the catalytically critical Lys199 or
His203 and the direct correlation between loss of enzymatic
activity and loss of enzyme binding upon mutation of CB-1 strongly
argue that CB-1 may play a direct role in the enzymatic turnover of heparinase I.
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An additional possible role for calcium is that it can be involved in the processivity of heparinase I and/or modulate the exolytic preference of heparinase I. Recently, we have shown that heparinase I is an exolytic/processive enzyme (13). Thus, heparinase I preferentially cleaves at the nonreducing end of the HLGAG substrate, but instead of releasing the products, heparinase I retains the product, moving to the next scissile bond and clipping the substrate. In this case, the mode of action of heparinase I is characterized as processive, starting from the nonreducing end and clipping the substrate toward the reducing end. Instead of being directly involved in the catalytic mechanism as outlined above, calcium might be involved in "shuttling" the HLGAG substrate through the active-site core of heparinase I without release of the substrate. If calcium is involved in this activity, then the presence of a low affinity calcium-binding site, such as CB-2 in heparinase I, would be essential for proper shuttling of the substrate. Such a role for CB-2 is also consistent with the observation that loss of activity is associated with the production of higher order digestion fragments such as would be formed if the processivity of heparinase I were affected (Fig. 4, A-D). Experiments are in progress to address this issue especially whether calcium is involved in the processivity of heparinase I.
In summary, this study confirms the accompanying biochemical
investigation (19) into calcium binding to heparinase I. Furthermore, we have identified key residues in CB-1 and CB-2 that are critical for
proper functioning of heparinase I. Within CB-1, the latter half of the
calcium-chelating sequence (including Gly213, and
Thr216) is more critical for activity. Mutation of selected
residues within this sequence affects both enzymatic activity and
calcium binding activity by heparinase I. Mutations within the second binding site (CB-2) have a greater effect on the enzymatic activity of
heparinase I, arguing for a more pronounced role for CB-2 as compared
with CB-1 in the enzymatic activity of heparinase I. It remains to be
seen if calcium plays a direct role in the catalytic reaction mechanism
or in the exolytic/processive preference of heparinase I, or both.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank Dr. Steffen Ernst for providing suggestions and Yini Hu for helpful comments and suggestions in the preparation of this manuscript.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported by the Sloan-Cabot Foundation, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and National Institutes of Health Grant GM 57073.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
To whom correspondence should be addressed: Div. of
Bioengineering and Environmental Health, MIT, 16-561, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA 02139. Tel: 617-258-9494; Fax: 617-258-9409; E-mail: ramnat{at}mit.edu.
The abbreviations used are: HLGAGs, heparin-like glycosaminoglycans; CB-1, calcium-binding site 1; CB-2, calcium-binding site 2; HPLC, high pressure liquid chromatography; MOPS, 4-morpholinepropanesulfonic acid.
2 D. Liu, Z. Shriver, R. Godavarti, G. Venkataraman, and R. Sasisekharan, unpublished observations.
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REFERENCES |
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