From the Department of Physiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118
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ABSTRACT |
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ERcalcistorin/protein-disulfide isomerase
(ECaSt/PDI) shows a 55% identity with mammalian protein-disulfide
isomerase (PDI) (Lucero, H. A., Lebeche, D., and Kaminer, B. (1994) J. Biol. Chem. 269, 23112-23119) is a high
capacity low affinity Ca2+-binding protein and behaves as a
Ca2+ storage protein in the ER of a living cell (Lucero,
H. A., Lebeche, D., and Kaminer, B. (1998) J. Biol.
Chem. 273, 9857-9863). Here we show that recombinant ECaSt/PDI
bound 26 mol of Ca2+/mol and a C-terminal truncated mutant
bound 14 mol of Ca2+/mol, both with a
Kd of 2.8 mM in 50 mM KCl
and 5.2 mM in 150 mM KCl. The percentage
reduction in Ca2+ binding in the mutant corresponded with
the percentage reduction of deleted pairs of acidic residues,
postulated low affinity Ca2+-binding sites. 5 mM Ca2+ moderately increased the PDI activity
of both ECaSt/PDI and the C-terminal truncated mutant on reduced RNase
and insulin. Surprisingly, ECaSt/PDI in the absence of Ca2+
prevented the spontaneous reactivation of reduced bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor. In the presence of 1-5 mM
Ca2+ (or 10 µM polylysine) ECaSt/PDI
augmented the bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor reactivation rate. In
contrast, the C-terminal truncated ECaSt/PDI augmented rBPTI
reactivation in the absence of Ca2+ and 1-5 mM
Ca2+ further accelerated the reactivation rate, responses
similar to those obtained with mammalian PDI.
The endoplasmic reticulum
(ER)1 is a multifunctional
organelle involved in post-translational modification of nascent
proteins, in lipid synthesis and regulation of intracellular
Ca2+. Protein folding in the ER associated with disulfide
bond formation is likely to be catalyzed by protein-disulfide isomerase
(PDI), the identification of which stemmed from the early findings of a
factor which catalyzed the renaturation of ribonuclease in
vitro (1, 2).
The properties and functions of mammalian PDI have been extensively
studied and characterized (3-6). In vitro, PDI catalyzes the formation and cleavage of protein disulfide bonds (7), it catalyzes
the glutathione-dependent reduction of
dehydro-L-ascorbic acid to ascorbic acid (8), it binds the
hormones, triiodothyronine (9) in a non-stoichiometric manner (10) and
estrogen (11), both of which inhibit PDI activity. It displays
chaperone (12-14) or anti-chaperone activity (13). PDI has also been
identified as a structural subunit of other enzymes, e.g.
prolyl-4-hydroxylase (15) and the triglyceride transfer complex
(16).
On the basis of sequence homology in the primary structure of PDI,
Edman et al. (17) identified multiple domains, a, b, b' and a'. The a domain
(at the N-terminal) and the a' (a portion of the C-terminal)
are homologous with thioredoxin in their sequence and folded structure and each contains the CGHC sequence, the active sites. b and
b' are two homologous central domains with folded structures similar to thioredoxin but with no thioredoxin sequence homology (18).
Interestingly, domain b shares a limited sequence identity
with calsequestrin (19). These four domains therefore resemble
thioredoxin folded structures (18). A domain, between the a
domain and b domain was designated e because of
its homology to the ligand-binding site of the estrogen receptor (11).
Whether this should be regarded as a separate domain is now being
questioned (19).
A sixth domain in the C-terminal was recently labeled c as a
putative Ca2+-binding domain (4). This speculation is in
keeping with our findings and hypothesis on calcium binding. We found
quantitatively, for the first time, that sea urchin (20) and mammalian
PDI (21) are high capacity low affinity Ca2+-binding
proteins. And it should be recognized that calcium binding by mammalian
PDI was not quantitated previously (22). Having determined the number
of calcium ions bound, we related them to the number of paired acidic
residues and hypothesized that paired acidic residues constituted low
affinity Ca2+-binding sites, a cluster of which resides in
the tail end of the C-terminal of mammalian and sea urchin PDI (23).
The C-terminal of PDI ends with a KDEL sequence characteristic of
ER-resident proteins (24). However, PDI has also been detected on the
cell surface by immunocytology (25) and other techniques (26), in
different cell types (27, 28) and platelets (29).
Mammalian PDI has been regarded for many years to behave as a homodimer
on gel filtration (30, 31) and to form a tetramer under certain
conditions (32). However, recent reports suggest that it exists as a
monomer under standard conditions (19, 33). Several properties of
mammalian PDI domains have been studied. Recent investigations on
recombinant fragments have elucidated domains involved in folding (18,
19, 34), catalysis (19, 34-36), chaperone activity (35, 37), and
peptide/protein recognition (38).
A purified microsomal protein from sea urchin eggs binds 23 mol of
Ca2+ at low affinity (20), shares certain characteristics
with calsequestrin (39), is localized within the ER (40), has 55%
identity with mammalian PDI and has PDI activity (23). Hence, we
designated it ERcalcistorin/protein-disulfide isomerase (ECaSt/PDI)
alluding to its putative dual functions within the ER (23). We
subsequently showed that mammalian PDI binds 19 mol of
Ca2+/mol of protein at low affinity (half-saturation
values, derived from the Hill equation were 2.77, 4.73, and 5.20 mM in the presence of 20, 100, or 100 mM KCl
plus 3 mM MgCl2, respectively (21)). Thus, PDI
presumably acts as a low affinity Ca2+ storage protein
within the ER of mammals and sea urchins. We have recently obtained
direct supporting evidence for such a role of ECaSt/PDI in the ER of a
living cell (41). Hence PDI besides calreticulin (42) may be another
major Ca2+ storage protein in the ER.
Suggestions that other ER proteins may serve a Ca2+ storage
role have been based on their quantitation as high capacity low affinity calcium-binding proteins, e.g. CaBP2, previously
designated ERp72 and characterized as containing three thioredoxin-like
active site domains (43). CaBP2 binds 12 mol of Ca2+/mol of
protein, CaBP4 binds 11 mol of Ca2+/mol of protein (44),
and endoplasmin 8-10 mol of Ca2+/mol of protein (45).
CaBP4 (44) shows identity with GRP94 (46) and endoplasmin (45).
Increased Ca2+ storage is also based on increased
Ca2+ release by cells transfected with a putative
Ca2+ storage protein, e.g. BiP (47).
The approximate correspondence of the number of calcium ions bound by
ECaSt/PDI (20), mammalian PDI (21), and calreticulin (48) with the
number of paired acidic residues in the respective molecules, led us to
postulate, as already mentioned, that pairs of acidic residues were low
affinity Ca2+-binding sites, but not exclusively, since
Ca2+ could bind to single carboxyl group bridged to other
groups (23). In support of our hypothesis we found, in this
investigation, a correspondence between the percentage loss of paired
acidic residues in the C-terminal truncated mutant and the percentage reduction in its Ca2+ binding capacity.
One might reasonably consider whether the abundant low affinity
Ca2+ binding might also influence the enzyme activity of
PDI. Hence, we studied the effect of Ca2+ on PDI activity
using concentrations within the range and somewhat above the
Kd values for Ca2+ binding which vary
depending on ionic conditions. The choice of such concentrations was
based on the assumptions that the free Ca2+ concentration
within the intimate microenvironment of ECaSt/PDI in the ER would be in
equilibrium with the Kd values and that the
published ER concentrations of free Ca2+ in the micromolar
range (for review, see Ref. 49), would not necessarily reflect the
concentrations in the microenvironment of ECaSt/PDI or might not be
accurate. Free Ca2+ concentrations in the ER up to 400 µM have been recently detected in cells transfected with
a unique construct of green fluorescent protein fused with calmodulin
(50). A considerably higher concentration of about 2 mM was
considered to exist using Sr2+ as a surrogate for
Ca2+ in cells transfected with an aequorin-BiP chimera
(51). In any event, there are difficulties in obtaining accurate
measurements of free Ca2+ in the ER (49, 52). The latter
finding of an average Ca2+ concentration of about 2 mM suggests the possibility that the concentration may well
be in the range of the Kd values for
Ca2+ binding by ER Ca2+ storage proteins.
We now report that whereas 1 mM Ca2+ had a
negligible effect on the enzyme activity of either ECaSt/PDI or the
C-terminal truncated mutant using rRNase or insulin as substrates, 5 mM Ca2+ had a moderate stimulating effect.
However, with respect to the reactivation of reduced BPTI, 1-5
mM Ca2+ augmented the enzyme activity of
ECaSt/PDI and the C-terminal truncated mutant. 5 mM
Ca2+ also augmented this reactivation catalyzed by
mammalian PDI. Surprisingly, ECaSt/PDI, in contrast to the C-terminal
truncated mutant and mammalian PDI, prevented the spontaneous
reactivation of rBPTI in the absence of Ca2+ suggesting
that the C-terminal of ECaSt/PDI, differs from that of mammalian PDI,
and has a charge distribution which enable it to complex with rBPTI and
lock it in the reduced state in the absence of
Ca2+.
Materials--
Polylysine (molecular mass range 30-70 kDa),
polyglutamic acid (31.4 kDa), poly(Glu,Ala,Tyr) (6:3:1, 50 kDa), and
poly(Glu,Tyr) (1:1, 39 kDa) were supplied by Sigma. The Superose 12 column was supplied by Pharmacia. Iodination of reduced BPTI was
performed using IODO-BEADS supplied by Pierce.
Construction of cDNAs--
Clone 8a1a1 cDNA in
pBluescript encoding ECaSt/PDI (23) was amplified by the polymerase
chain reaction using a sense primer in combination with reverse primers
to produce the complete molecule and the C-terminal truncated
(
Polymerase chain reaction amplification was carried out using AmpliT
transformed aq kit (Perkin-Elmer protocol). Polymerase chain reaction
products were ligated into pCRII(A/T) cloning vector and
Escherichia coli HB101 was transformed with the ligation
products as described (Invitrogen protocol). The fidelity of the
sequence of the polymerase chain reaction products was confirmed by DNA sequencing (53). The complete cDNA was ligated into the
NdeI/XhoI sites of the E. coli
expression vector pAED4 and the truncated gene into the
NdeI/KpnI sites of the vector (54). Ligation
products were used to transform BL21DE3 pLys(S) E. coli
cells, a protease-deficient strain expressing T7 DNA polymerase under
control of the isopropyl-1-thio- Purification of Recombinant ECaSt/PDI and the Mutant--
The
purification was according to the protocol described for the
purification of recombinant human PDI (55) with some modifications. E. coli cells, expressing ECaSt/PDI and the mutant in 250 ml
of culture, were collected by centrifugation at 5,000 × g for 15 min, resuspended in 50 ml of 100 mM
Tris-HCl (pH 7.4), 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM EGTA, 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, and 30 µM
leupeptine. Cells were disrupted by sonication and the lysate was spun
down at 20,000 × g for 30 min. The supernatant was
dialyzed 3 times against 4 liters of 25 mM sodium phosphate
(pH 6.3). Partial purification was attained by ion exchange
chromatography. The dialysate was applied to a 2.5 × 35-cm column
of DEAE-Sephacel equilibrated with the same buffer. The column was
washed with 300 ml of 25 mM sodium phosphate (pH 6.3) and
proteins were eluted by a linear gradient of 0 to 0.7 M
NaCl (200 ml each) in 25 mM phosphate buffer (pH 6.3).
Fractions (4 ml) containing PDI activity that eluted at approximately
0.37-0.43 mM NaCl were analyzed by SDS-PAGE, combined,
concentrated to 2-2.5 mg/ml by ultrafiltration, dialyzed against 100 volumes of 25 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.4), 1 mM EDTA,
1 mM EGTA and stored frozen at Purification of ECaSt/PDI from Sea Urchin Eggs and Rabbit PDI
from Liver--
ECaSt/PDI from sea urchin eggs (39) and mammalian PDI
from rabbit liver (56) were purified as described.
Calcium Binding--
The E. coli expressed ECaSt/PDI
and the mutant (0.5-0.6 mg/ml) were predialyzed and calcium binding
was measured by equilibrium dialysis essentially as described (20).
Briefly, protein samples (150 µl) were dialyzed in a Spectropor
semimicrodialysis tubing (4 mm, 12-14 kDa cut-off) against a buffer
solution (20 ml) containing 20 mM MOPS (pH 7.0), 3 mM MgCl2, and 50 or 150 mM KCl, and
various concentrations of CaCl2 with specific
radioactivity of 250-300 cpm/nmol, at 4 °C for 24 h in capped
polyethylene scintillation vials. At equilibrium, quadruplicate samples
(30 µl) were taken from inside and outside the dialysis tubing to
determine radioactivity and duplicate samples (15 µl) from inside the
dialysis tubing were taken to measure protein concentration (57).
Calcium binding for each CaCl2 concentration was determined
in three experiments.
Reduction and Denaturation of BPTI--
BPTI was reduced and
denatured essentially as described (58). BPTI (4 mg) was suspended in a
medium (200 µl) containing 8 M guanidinium-HCl, 150 mM dithiothreitol, 200 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.5),
and stirred for 24 h at room temperature. The reduced, denatured protein was isolated by gel filtration on a Sephadex G-25 column equilibrated and eluted in 10 mM HCl. The presence of
reduced BPTI in the column fractions (0.5 ml) was detected using
5,5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) as described (59). Fractions
containing rBPTI (1.5-2.0 mg/ml) were pooled and kept frozen at
Reactivation of rBPTI--
The reactivation of rBPTI was assayed
by monitoring its stoichiometric inhibitory effect on trypsin activity
(58). PDI catalysis on refolding of BPTI occurs even in the absence of
thiol redox buffer (61). Since we found the rate of spontaneous
reactivation in the presence of redox buffer to be too rapid to study
the effects of other agents such as Ca2+, we eliminated the
redox buffer and observed the reactivation over a prolonged period of
time. In one assay rBPTI was incubated in a reactivation medium (125 µl) containing 100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.4), 0.5 mM EDTA, 0.5 mM EGTA. In another assay the
reactivation was measured in the same medium as for the
Ca2+ binding measurements (20 mM MOPS, pH 7.0, 150 mM KCl, 3 mM MgCl2). Additional
components included ECaSt/PDI (10 µM), the C-terminal truncated mutant (10 µM), mammalian PDI (10 µM), polyglutamate, polylysine, Mg2+, and
Ca2+ as indicated in the legend of Fig. 4. The mixtures
were incubated for 5 min at 22 °C before adding rBPTI (20 µg) to
initiate the reactivation. Aliquots (10 µl) of each medium were
transferred at time intervals up to about 230 min in a cuvette
containing trypsin assay medium (see below).
Trypsin Activity Assay--
Trypsin activity was assayed using
the substrate
N- Other PDI Activity Assays--
PDI activity was assayed by the
reactivation of reduced RNase or the net reduction of insulin as
described (23).
Isolation of ECaSt/PDI·rBPTI Complex by Gel
Filtration--
125I-rBPTI (20 µg containing 400 cpm/µg) was mixed with complete ECaSt/PDI (140 µg) in 125 µl of a
buffer containing 100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.4), 0.5 mM EDTA, 0.5 mM EGTA, with or without 5 mM CaCl2 at 22 °C for 30 min. Samples of
ECaSt/PDI, 125I-rBPTI, and a mixture of them in the
presence or absence of 5 mM CaCl2 were loaded
on a Superose 12,000 column (Pharmacia) that was equilibrated and
eluted (0.5 ml/min) with the corresponding buffer. Fractions were
collected at 0.5-min intervals and absorbance at 280 nm and
radioactivity were monitored.
Nondenaturing Gel Electrophoresis--
Purified ECaSt/PDI and
the ECaSt/PDI·125I-rBPTI complex, isolated by gel
filtration under conditions described above, were electrophoresed under
nondenaturing conditions as described for the electrophoresis of acidic
proteins using a high pH discontinuous buffer system (63). The lane
containing purified ECaSt/PDI was cut from the gel and stained with
Coomassie Blue. The presence of the ECaSt/PDI·125I-rBPTI
complex in other lanes of the gel was detected immediately after
electrophoresis by exposing the wet, unstained gel to x-ray film (Kodak
X-Omat) for 24 h at 4 °C.
Acid Gel Electrophoresis--
ECaSt/PDI (20 µg) and rBPTI (7 µg) were mixed in 20 µl of buffer containing 100 mM
Tris-HCl (pH 7.4), 0.5 mM EDTA, 0.5 mM EGTA at
22 °C for 30 min. The mixture was then subjected to acidic gel
electrophoresis under nondenaturing conditions as described (64).
Depicted in Fig. 1 are the six
mammalian PDI domains (4) placed in corresponding positions in the
block diagrams of the primary structures of ECaSt/PDI and its
C-terminal truncated mutant. The boundaries of the domains were
assigned on the basis of sequence homology. The domains a
and a' of ECaSt/PDI are 32% identical, share 59 and 62%
identity with the corresponding domains in mammalian PDI and each one
contains the thioredoxin-like active site (CGHC). The domains
b and b' in ECaSt/PDI are 20% identical and
share 50 and 51% identity with the corresponding domains in mammalian
PDI. The e domain is 50% identical to the e
domain of mammalian PDI and 20% identical to the human estrogen
receptor. The c domain of ECaSt/PDI contains the last 29 residues (451-479) of the C-terminal to correspond with the 29 residues (463-491) of the c domain of human PDI (18) and
they have a 28% identity. The chosen human c domain
originally contained 43 residues (4). Interestingly, the more recent
changed number of residues (463-491) (18, 35) in the human
c domain we had previously designated the "tail end" of
its C-terminal (23). The C-terminal truncated mutant
(
INTRODUCTION
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Abstract
Introduction
References
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
385-475) mutant. The forward primer M106
(5'-ATATTCTAGACATATGGCAGTCGAGGTCGAAATCGAAGAAGATGTC-3') was
designed to hybridize with the first 33 nucleotides encoding the mature
protein at the 5' terminus of the ECaSt/PDI cDNA and contains a
NdeI site (in bold) at the position of the initiation codon.
The reverse primer M107
(5'-GATTGAGCGGCCGCTTAAAGTTCATCCTTGGCT(TGATCCTC-3') was used for generation of the cDNA encoding the complete
ECaSt/PDI. For the generation of a cDNA encoding the mutant the
reverse primer M108
(5'-GTATGAGCGGCCGCTTAAAGTTCATCCTTATAAATGGGAGCAAGCTGTTT-3') included the NotI site (in bold), a stop codon
(italics), and the sequence encoding the KDEL retention
signal (underlined).
-D-galactopyranoside inducible promoter. Cultures were grown at 37 °C in LB broth (250 ml) supplemented with 50 µg/ml ampicillin until absorbance at 600 nm
reached 0.4. Isopropyl-1-thio-
-D-galactopyranoside was added to a final concentration of 1 mM and cells were grown
for an additional 3 h.
20 °C. Further
purification was achieved by gel filtration in a Superose 12 column
equilibrated and eluted in the same buffer. Samples (100 µl) were
loaded onto the column and 0.5-ml fractions were collected at a flow
rate of 0.5 ml/min. Protein elution was monitored by the absorbance at
280 nm and the eluate with the major absorbance peak and PDI activity
was concentrated to 1.5-2 mg/ml by ultrafiltration and stored at
20 °C.
20 °C until used. Under these conditions the reduced, denatured
inhibitor was stable for at least 3 months. BPTI protein concentration
was estimated spectrophotometrically at 280 nm (60).
-benzoyl-DL-arginine-p-nitroanilide
as described (60). Briefly, trypsin (240 pmol of active trypsin) was
added to a medium (500 µl) containing 100 mM Tris-HCl (pH
7.4), 2 mM CaCl2, 0.15 µg of
N-
-benzoyl-DL-arginine-p-nitroanilide. The increase in absorbance at 405 nm was recorded for at least 1 min
before and after the addition of the 10-µl aliquot from the
reactivation medium containing BPTI. The percent of remaining trypsin
activity after addition of BPTI was converted to the percent of
reactivated BPTI using the following equation: % reactivated BPTI = [T
(% trypsin activity × T/100)] × 100/P, where T is the total number of picomoles
of active trypsin in the trypsin assay medium and P is the
total number of picomoles of BPTI transferred to the trypsin assay
medium. The molarity of active trypsin was determined using the active
site titrant p-nitrophenyl-p'-guanidinobenzoate (62).
RESULTS
385-475) lacks part of the a' and the
c domain. It was designed to retain the thioredoxin active
site at residues 374-377 and to truncate the cluster of paired acidic residues in the C-terminal.
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Fig. 1.
PDI domains represented in ECaSt/PDI and its
deletion mutant ( 385-475).
385-475 above the dotted line indicate the
extent of the deletion made to produce the mutant. Numbers
under each block indicate the extent of each
domain in the primary sequence. Dashed segments within
a and a' domains indicate the thioredoxin-like
active sites (CGHC). The end segments of the C-terminal represent the
KDEL retention signals.
Apparent Molecular Weights of Recombinant ECaSt/PDI and the C-terminal Truncated Mutant-- Recombinant ECaSt/PDI and the mutant were produced in E. coli with yields and purity similar to those reported for recombinant human PDI (55). Full-length ECaSt/PDI and the C-terminal truncated mutant migrated at 58 and 45 kDa, respectively, on SDS-PAGE (Fig. 2) and are close to the 53- and 43-kDa values deduced from the amino acid content of the respective molecules.
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Calcium Binding Properties of Recombinant ECaSt/PDI and the C-terminal Truncated Mutant-- In previous studies ECaSt/PDI isolated from the sea urchin egg bound 23 mol of Ca2+/mol of protein. The half-binding maxima determined from the Hill equation were 1.6, 3.63, 4.81, and 5.73 mM in the presence of 20 mM KCl, 100 mM KCl, 100 mM KCl plus 3 mM MgCl2, and 250 mM KCl plus 3 mM MgCl2, respectively (20). Similarly, the half-binding maxima of Ca2+ to mammalian PDI increased with increasing ionic strength of the media (21); the values are given under "Introduction." The Ca2+ binding properties of recombinant ECaSt/PDI and the C-terminal truncated mutant were studied in the medium described for native ECaSt/PDI (20) at two different concentrations of KCl. At 50 mM recombinant ECaSt/PDI bound 26 mol of Ca2+/mol of protein with a Kd of 2.8 mM (Fig. 3A). The truncated mutant bound 14 mol of Ca2+/mol of protein with a Kd of 2.8 mM (Fig. 3A). At 150 mM KCl the Kd for Ca2+ binding was 5.2 mM for both molecules while the maximal Ca2+ binding was 25.6 and 14.2 mol of Ca2+/mol of protein for ECaSt/PDI and the truncated mutant, respectively (Fig. 3B). Therefore the C-terminal truncated ECaSt/PDI showed a 46% reduction in the binding capacity which interestingly corresponds to a reduction of 45% of pairs of acidic residues, a reduction of 9 out of a total of 20 pairs in ECaSt/PDI. This is in keeping with our previous hypothesis that carboxyl pairs are the main low affinity Ca2+-binding sites (23). The above increasing Kd values for Ca2+ binding to ECaSt/PDI with the increments of ionic strength are expected due to the weak ionic interactions associated with low affinity Ca2+ binding.
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Effect of Ca2+ on the PDI Isomerase Activity Using Insulin or Reduced RNase as Substrates-- Under the conditions optimized for mammalian PDI (23), recombinant ECaSt/PDI and its C-terminal truncated mutant displayed similar specific activities on rRNase and insulin as substrates. The refolding of reduced rRNase and the reduction of insulin by GSH were catalyzed by both ECaSt/PDI and the mutant with specific activities of 0.21 µmol of RNase renatured/min/µmol of protein and 0.2 µmol/min/mg of protein, respectively. Thus the deletion of the C-terminal, involving part of the a' domain and c domain, does not seem to affect ECaSt/PDI activity when insulin or rRNase are substrates. Those activities were augmented moderately, 1.8- and 2.2-fold, respectively, by 5 or 10 mM CaCl2; 1 mM CaCl2 or 10 mM MgCl2 had negligible effects (data not shown).
Effects of Ca2+ or Polylysine on the Reactivation of rBPTI by ECaSt/PDI, the C-terminal Truncated Mutant and Mammalian PDI-- We studied the effects of ECaSt/PDI, its C-terminal truncated mutant, and mammalian PDI on reactivation of rBPTI in the absence and presence of Ca2+ or polylysine. Reactivation of rBPTI was assayed by monitoring the rate of recovery of its inhibitory activity on trypsin. The assay carried out in the absence of redox buffer resulted in a slow rate of spontaneous reactivation of rBPTI which displayed biphasic kinetics with a lag phase of about 60 min preceding a linear increment (Fig. 4, A-D). Fifty percent (t1/2) of spontaneous reactivation of rBPTI occurred in 220 min and was insensitive to Ca2+ or polylysine (data not shown). This reaction was done at pH 7.4, slightly alkaline, to promote spontaneous disulfide bond formation and reactivation but at a rate slow enough to assess any influence of a possible activator such as Ca2+ (Fig. 4).
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Surprisingly, recombinant ECaSt/PDI prevented this spontaneous reactivation observed over a period of 3 days in the absence of Ca2+ (Fig. 4A). Native ECaSt/PDI purified from the sea urchin eggs had a similar effect (data not shown). The addition of 5 mM CaCl2 (or 10 µM polylysine) to the solution prior to mixing of ECaSt/PDI with rBPTI accelerated the reactivation of rBPTI by ECaSt/PDI, the t1/2 was reduced from 220 to 85 min (Fig. 4A). The addition of 5 mM MgCl2 to the solution, prior to mixing of the two proteins, had no effect on the inhibition of rBPTI reactivation (Fig. 4, panel A). Neither 5 mM CaCl2 nor 10 µM polylysine reverted the inhibitory effect of ECaSt/PDI when added after both proteins were mixed (not shown).
The C-terminal truncated mutant, in contrast to full-length ECaSt/PDI, catalyzed the reactivation of reduced BPTI with a t1/2 of 149 min in the absence of CaCl2 (Fig. 4B). This reactivation was accelerated by 5 mM CaCl2 or 10 µM polylysine (t1/2 = 80 min) and was insensitive to 5 mM MgCl2 (Fig. 4B). We confirmed the previous finding that mammalian PDI reactivated rBPTI in the absence of CaCl2 (3, 61). Under our experimental conditions the reactivation showed a t1/2 of 63 min (Fig. 4, panel C) that was further reduced to 32 min (Fig. 4, panel C) by 5 mM CaCl2. The reactivation of rBPTI by ECaSt/PDI, the mutant, and mammalian PDI are compared in Table I.
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These experiments were also done at pH 7.0 in the presence of 150 mM KCl, in the same medium used for Ca2+ binding assay, and the effects of Ca2+ at 1, 2.5, and 5 mM were tested. As expected the spontaneous reactivation took place at a much reduced rate, too slow to determine the t1/2 (Fig. 5, A and B). However, the effects of ECaSt/PDI and the C-terminal truncated mutant were essentially similar to those described in Fig. 4. ECaSt/PDI prevented the spontaneous reactivation of rBPTI in the absence of Ca2+. A progressive acceleration of rBPTI reactivation was observed with increasing concentration of Ca2+. The t1/2 for reactivation were 240, 170, and 87 min in the presence of 1, 2.5, and 5 mM Ca2+, respectively (Fig. 5A). Thus, 5 mM Ca2+ further augmented the activation by 1 mM Ca2+ 2.8-fold. The C-terminal truncated mutant reactivated rBPTI with t1/2 of 125 min in the absence of Ca2+. The reactivation increased progressively with t1/2 of 110, 90, and 75 min in the presence of 1, 2.5, and 5 mM Ca2+, respectively (Fig. 5B).
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Thus 1-5 mM Ca2+ augments the reactivation of rBPTI by ECaSt/PDI, by its C-terminal truncated mutant and by mammalian PDI. The C-terminal truncated ECaSt/PDI behaves essentially like mammalian PDI. Both molecules enhance the reactivation of rBPTI in the absence of Ca2+ and Ca2+ further augments the reactivation. It appears therefore that the C-terminal portion of ECaSt/PDI differs from that of mammalian PDI and somehow allows for complex formation of the molecule with rBPTI in the absence of Ca2+, a state which prevents the spontaneous refolding of rBPTI. Once the complex is formed Ca2+ or polylysine cannot dissociate the molecules. Such a complex did form and is described below.
It should be noted that there are quantitative differences between the activation by mammalian and sea urchin PDI under the same in vitro conditions. ECaSt/PDI and the mutant have less ability to reactivate rBPTI than does mammalian PDI (see Table I). Similarly, the activity of ECaSt/PDI in a previous study was less; it had 30% of the activity of mammalian PDI when insulin and rRNase were the substrates (23).
Effects of Polyglutamate on the Reactivation of rBPTI-- On the supposition that certain glutamate and/or aspartate residues in the C-terminal of ECaSt/PDI were responsible for the prevention of rBPTI reactivation in the absence of Ca2+, we tested the effect of synthetic polyglutamates on this process. No measurable spontaneous reactivation of rBPTI was observed up to 3 days when poly(Glu) (average molecular mass = 31.4 kDa), poly(Glu,Ala,Tyr) (average molecular mass = 50 kDa), or poly(Glu,Tyr)(average molecular mass = 39 kDa) were present at 10 µM concentration in the reactivation medium. Thus the polyglutamates mimicked the behavior of ECaSt/PDI. Only the effect of the homopolymer polyglutamate is presented (Fig. 4, panel D).
Isolation of an ECaSt/PDI·125I-rBPTI Complex by Gel Filtration-- The prevention of rBPTI reactivation by ECaSt/PDI (Fig. 6A) in the absence of Ca2+ suggested the formation of a complex between the two molecules. To study this possibility 125I-rBPTI and ECaSt/PDI were mixed in the presence and absence of 5 mM CaCl2 and the mixtures were analyzed by gel filtration chromatography. Fig. 6A shows the elution peak of ECaSt/PDI detected by absorbance at 280 nm. Fig. 6B shows the overlapping radioactive and absorbance peaks of 125I-rBPTI. A mixture of ECaSt/PDI and 125I-rBPTI in the absence of Ca2+, eluted as a complex with overlapping absorbance and radioactive peaks, with a retention time close to that of ECaSt/PDI alone (Fig. 6C). When 5 mM CaCl2 was added to the incubation medium before ECaSt/PDI and 125I-rBPTI were mixed, two distinct peaks of radioactivity were detected; a large radioactive peak that co-eluted with rBPTI and a small radioactive peak that co-eluted with ECaSt/PDI (Fig. 6D). Thus, in the absence of Ca2+, rBPTI and ECaSt/PDI form a complex that is stable during gel filtration and the presence of Ca2+ prevented the complex formation.
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Such complex formation was confirmed by gel electrophoresis under nondenaturing conditions and by autoradiography. An elution sample containing the ECaSt/PDI·125I-rBPTI complex in the absence of Ca2+ (see peaks in Fig. 6C) migrated electrophoretically as a complex; the autoradiogram in Fig. 7A, lane 2, shows a single radioactive band that co-migrates with ECaSt/PDI in the absence of Ca2+ (lane 2 also shows that no detectable radioactive band was associated with the minor protein impurities traveling above ECaSt/PDI (lane 1)). On the other hand, a sample containing mainly ECaSt/PDI in the presence of Ca2+ (see peaks in Fig. 6D) shows no radioactive band (lane 3), thus confirming that Ca2+ dissociated the complex.
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Redox State of BPTI in the Complex--
To determine if rBPTI in
the complex with ECaSt/PDI remained reduced or underwent some partial
reoxidation, the complex was electrophoresed in an acidic nondenaturing
gel which resolves reduced and partially or completely oxidized forms
of BPTI (64). The acidity dissociates the complex and a single band is
seen in Fig. 7B, lane 1, traveling with identical mobility
of rBPTI (Fig. 7B, upper band in lane 2). The
lower band in lane 2 is nBPTI. The absence of
protein bands below the rBPTI band in lane 1 indicates the
absence of partially oxidized BPTI intermediates which might have been
formed in the complex.
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DISCUSSION |
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The correspondence of a 46% reduction of Ca2+ binding with a 45% reduction in the number of paired acidic residues in the C-terminal truncated mutant compared with the complete ECaSt/PDI supplements our recent findings which show that the maximal Ca2+ uptake by Chinese hamster ovary cell microsomes containing the full-length ECaSt/PDI is 41% higher than the maximal uptake in microsomes containing the C-terminal truncated ECaSt/PDI (41). These findings lend support to our hypothesis that paired acidic residues constitute low affinity calcium-binding sites, but not to the exclusion of other low affinity sites formed by single carboxyls paired with other groups (23). The designated c domain, the tail end of the C-terminal of ECaSt/PDI contains 7 pairs of acidic residues out of a total of 20 and would constitute according to our hypothesis 35% of the total binding capacity. Applying the same approximations, the c domain in human PDI would bind 37% of the total binding capacity. On the other hand, in calreticulin the defined c domain which contains 19 pairs of acidic residues apparently binds all 20 molecules of Ca2+ (48).
Calsequestrin does not have sufficient carboxylic pairs in its primary structure to account for the number of low affinity Ca2+ bound but has 110 acidic residues. If our hypothesis is correct, the necessary carboxyl pairs, or a single one in association with another group, would be formed in the folded molecule (23). The crystal structure of calsequestrin from rabbit skeletal muscle has now been determined and the authors describe the presence of three folded thioredoxin domains each having a hydrophobic core with acidic residues having 13-36 negative charges on the surface generating an electronegative potential (65). This together with clefts formed in the dimeric state constitute the sites for low affinity Ca2+ binding. The number of pairs of negatively charged groups that may have been formed in these configurations is not given (65). MacLennan and Reithmeier (66), on reviewing the significance of this article, succinctly place these and the other structural findings into the context of the function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the ER in intracellular Ca2+ regulation. With regard to calcium storage in relation to its release, calsequestrin is better understood than any of the calcium storage proteins in the ER. For example, information is evolving on its coupling to the ryanodine Ca2+ release channel involving conformational changes (67) and connections with the junctional membrane (68), triadin (69), and junctin (70).
On determining that both sea urchin and mammalian PDI could bind an abundant number of calcium ions, we supposed that Ca2+ would play a role in their isomerase activities at concentrations in the range of and above their Kd values for Ca2+ binding. And indeed, 5 mM Ca2+ augmented the activity of ECaSt/PDI and the C-terminal truncated mutant about 2-fold, a moderate degree, using RNase and insulin as substrates. Primm et al. (71) using the same concentration of Ca2+ and denatured RNase as a substrate, obtained a negligible effect on the activity of mammalian PDI. However, the chaperone and anti-chaperone activities of PDI were modulated by Ca2+ in the millimolar range of concentration, with a maximal effect at around 5 mM (71).
The effect of Ca2+ was more dramatic on the activity of ECaSt/PDI when rBPTI was the substrate (Fig. 4). In the absence of Ca2+, ECaSt/PDI prevented the spontaneous reactivation of rBPTI due to a complex formation between the two molecules which was determined by gel filtration and electrophoresis under nondenaturing conditions. The presence of 5 mM Ca2+ prevented complex formation with ECaSt/PDI and resulted in a 2.6-fold augmentation of the spontaneous reactivation of rBPTI at pH 7.4. At pH 7.0, 1 mM Ca2+ reduced markedly the immeasurable t1/2 of spontaneous reactivation to 240 min which was further accelerated by increasing concentrations of Ca2+; 5 mM Ca2+ further augmented the reactivation 2.8-fold. Zapun et al. (72) found no effect of 1 mM CaCl2 on the PDI activated refolding of rBPTI under completely different conditions at pH 8.7 and higher ionic strength (100 mM Tris-HCl and 200 mM KCl).
The C-terminal truncated mutant, in contrast to ECaSt/PDI, displayed enzymatic activity in the absence of Ca2+ and the activity was stimulated about 2-fold in the presence of 5 mM Ca2+ at pH 7.4. At pH 7.0 a progressive acceleration occurred with increasing concentrations of Ca2+; in 5 mM Ca2+ the reactivation was increased 1.7-fold. Therefore, regions in part of the a' domain and the c domain of the C-terminal end of ECaSt/PDI, the sequence truncated in the mutant, are involved in stable interactions and complex formation with rBPTI in the absence of Ca2+. The binding sites in these regions of ECaSt/PDI are presumably acidic negatively charged residues which in the presence of Ca2+ were shielded and were not available for complexing with cationic sites in rBPTI. These negatively charged residues were apparently similarly neutralized by polylysine which, like Ca2+ augmented the reactivation of rBPTI (Fig. 4A). The suggestion that negatively charged residues in the C-terminal of ECaSt/PDI are responsible for the complex formation and consequent inhibition of the spontaneous reactivation of rBPTI is supported by a similar effect of polyglutamate on rBPTI (Fig. 4D). The apparent shielding of negative charges by polylysine at low concentrations (10 µM) suggests the possibility that ER proteins with a cluster of basic residues could shield negative charges in ECaSt/PDI resulting in a modulation of its interactions with other proteins.
Unlike ECaSt/PDI, mammalian PDI catalyzes the refolding of rBPTI in the absence of Ca2+ (Fig. 4C, also see Refs. 3, 61, and 72) and others found that the deletion of its c domain had no effect on the catalysis of disulfide bond rearrangement in BPTI intermediates as substrates (36). Furthermore, a fragment of BPTI could not be cross-linked to the isolated a'-c domains of mammalian PDI in the absence of Ca2+, suggesting that these mammalian PDI domains do not interact strongly with BPTI (38). Hence, the C-terminals of ECaSt/PDI and mammalian PDI which have a 44% identity must differ in charge distributions and electrostatic potential on their surfaces even though they have a similar number of acidic residues (23). ECaSt/PDI and mammalian PDI also differed in the degree of isomerase activities. ECaSt/PDI has 30% of the activity of mammalian PDI on substrates rRNase and insulin (23) and in this investigation similarly augmented to a lesser extent the reactivation of rBPTI than did mammalian PDI (see Table I).
These in vitro results demonstrate a role of
Ca2+ on mammalian PDI and ECaSt/PDI isomerase activity. In
cells in culture, Ca2+ also appears to play a role in
maintaining the structure of ER proteins. Lodish and co-workers (73)
have shown, by the use of Ca2+ ionophores, an inhibition of
the exit of secretory proteins, to different extents depending on the
protein, probably due to a disruption of their folding associated with
the depletion (or reduction) of Ca2+ in the ER. In another
study, Ca2+ ionophores and thapsigargin impaired the
maturation and proper disulfide bonding of an expressed "model
protein," the H1 subunit of the asialoglycoprotein receptor,
containing 8 cysteine residues in its exoplasmic domain (74). The
authors speculate that the unfolded state of the H1 subunit, probably
due to the reduced PDI activity in the absence (or in reduced
concentration) of Ca2+, may be the cause preventing its
exit from the ER. However, ionophores and thapsigargin had a marginal
effect on secretion of albumin (73, 74), a protein containing many
cysteine residues, 35 in human serum albumin. If the H1 subunit and
albumin are substrates of PDI in vivo then their
PDI-catalyzed folding differs in response to the decrease of
Ca2+ concentration in the ER. Similarly, our in
vitro results also show differences in
Ca2+-dependent responses of the substrates
RNase, insulin, and rBPTI. Furthermore, mammalian PDI and ECaSt/PDI
respond differently to Ca2+ for a given protein substrate.
The depletion (or reduction) of Ca2+ in the ER also
facilitates the dissociation of variants of another expressed protein,
the T-cell antigen receptor chain from the immunoglobulin heavy
chain binding protein (BiP) (75). In summary, proper folding (73),
including disulfide bonding (74) and protein-protein interactions (75)
in the secretory pathway of the cell seem to be effected by the
Ca2+ content in the ER and interestingly, different
secretory proteins are affected differently.
Our in vitro experiments show that the effect of Ca2+, in the millimolar range of concentrations, on ECaSt/PDI activity was dependent on the protein substrate. With insulin or RNase the activity was insensitive to 1 mM Ca2+ and moderately stimulated at 5 mM Ca2+. However, ECaSt/PDI activity on rBPTI was absolutely dependent on Ca2+ which produced a substantial effect at 1 mM concentration, by dissociating ECaSt/PDI from rBPTI and then accelerating the activity of ECaSt/PDI. Our studies also show activation of mammalian PDI by 5 mM Ca2+.
Whether the modulations of Ca2+ concentrations around the Kd values for Ca2+ binding to PDI play a role in regulating PDI activity in the ER of a cell remains to be determined. Also worthy of further considerations is whether Ca2+ affects any particular substrate directly.
The continuing studies on the domains of mammalian PDI and ECaSt/PDI
and the possible future elucidation of their tertiary structures will
lead to a better understanding of their roles as isomerases and
Ca2+ storage proteins and the relationship between these
two functions within the endoplasmic reticulum.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
1 The abbreviations used are: ER, endoplasmic reticulum; PDI, protein-disulfide isomerase (EC 5.3.4.1); rBPTI, reduced bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor; nBPTI, native bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor; PAGE, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; MOPS, 4-morpholinepropanesulfonic acid; CaBP, calcium-binding protein.
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REFERENCES |
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