Arachidonic Acid Is Preferentially Metabolized by
Cyclooxygenase-2 to Prostacyclin and Prostaglandin E2*
Thomas G.
Brock
,
Robert W.
McNish, and
Marc
Peters-Golden
From the Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine,
University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
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ABSTRACT |
The two cyclooxygenase isoforms, cyclooxygenase-1
and cyclooxygenase-2, both metabolize arachidonic acid to prostaglandin H2, which is subsequently processed by downstream
enzymes to the various prostanoids. In the present study, we asked if
the two isoforms differ in the profile of prostanoids that ultimately arise from their action on arachidonic acid. Resident peritoneal macrophages contained only cyclooxygenase-1 and synthesized (from either endogenous or exogenous arachidonic acid) a balance of four
major prostanoids: prostacyclin, thromboxane A2,
prostaglandin D2, and 12-hydroxyheptadecatrienoic acid.
Prostaglandin E2 was a minor fifth product, although these
cells efficiently converted exogenous prostaglandin H2 to
prostaglandin E2. By contrast, induction of
cyclooxygenase-2 with lipopol- ysaccharide resulted in the preferential
production of prostacyclin and prostaglandin E2. This shift
in product profile was accentuated if cyclooxygenase-1 was permanently
inactivated with aspirin before cyclooxygenase-2 induction. The
conversion of exogenous prostaglandin H2 to prostaglandin E2 was only modestly increased by lipopolysaccharide
treatment. Thus, cyclooxygenase-2 induction leads to a shift in
arachidonic acid metabolism from the production of several prostanoids
with diverse effects as mediated by cyclooxygenase-1 to the
preferential synthesis of two prostanoids, prostacyclin and
prostaglandin E2, which evoke common effects at the
cellular level.
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INTRODUCTION |
Prostaglandins (PGs)1
are a family of intercellular and intracellular messengers derived from
arachidonic acid (AA). These mediators exert a wide range of effects on
processes such as smooth muscle tone, vascular permeability, cellular
proliferation, and inflammatory/immune function. In many cases,
different PGs will have opposing actions. For example, PGD2
and thromboxane (TxA2) cause smooth muscle contraction,
whereas PGE2 and prostacyclin (PGI2) cause
relaxation (reviewed in Refs. 1-4). Similarly, TxA2 increases, but PGI2 inhibits, platelet aggregation. The net
effect evoked by PGs may, ultimately, depend on the balance of these opposing forces.
The initial step in the synthesis of PGs from AA is mediated by
cyclooxygenase (COX, also known as prostaglandin H synthase or
prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase), of which two isoforms are
recognized (reviewed in Refs. 2-4). COX-1 is expressed constitutively in most cell types, and prostanoids derived from COX-1 are thought to
be important in gastric and renal homeostasis. COX-2, on the other
hand, is the product of an immediate early gene and is rapidly expressed only after exposure of cells to hormones, mitogenic stimuli,
and inflammatory mediators, like bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS).
The induction of COX-2, with the resultant production of prostanoids,
can contribute to parturition, inflammation, pain, fever, and certain
types of cancer. The ability of aspirin to permanently inactivate both
COX isoforms indiscriminately explains both its analgesic and
anti-inflammatory properties, through COX-2 inhibition, as well as its
damaging effects on the gastric mucosa, through COX-1 inhibition.
Both COX isoforms convert AA to PGH2, which is then acted
upon by discrete PG synthases to give rise to the different PG species. The current model for the regulation of PG synthesis posits that the
amount of each PG is determined by the availability of the substrate AA
(through the action of phospholipases A2) and by the total
mass of COX protein present. According to this model, COX-2 induction
results in more COX protein, more processing of AA to PGH2,
and more of each type of PG. The profile of different PGs produced by a
given cell type is thought to be determined primarily by the relative
amounts of the distal PG synthases present in that cell type. In simple
cases, as when a single distal enzyme predominates, this model may be
accurate. However, when several different PG synthases exist in a
single cell, the opportunity exists for COX-1 and COX-2 to selectively
deliver PGH2 to different distal enzymes and thus produce
different PGs. If so, then COX-2 induction and action could result in a
shift in the profile of PGs, rather than simply an increase in total PG
production. This could then change the integrated prostanoid signal
that is delivered to target cells.
In the current study, we used intact rat peritoneal macrophages (PMs)
to compare the products derived from either COX-1 or COX-2 action on
AA. These primary cells were chosen because they contain several PG
synthases and would thus allow detection of selective metabolism of
PGH2, if it existed. Freshly isolated PMs, which lack
COX-2, provide an indication of the prostanoids that are derived from
COX-1 action. By contrast, cells treated first with aspirin to
permanently inactivate COX-1 and then with LPS to induce COX-2
demonstrate those prostanoids that are derived from COX-2. Our results
indicate that AA metabolized by COX-1 gives rise to balanced amounts of
PGI2, TxA2, PGD2, and
12-hydroxyheptadecatrienoic acid (HHT) as well as smaller amounts of
PGE2, whereas COX-2 preferentially metabolizes AA to
PGI2 and PGE2. Because PGI2 and
PGE2 can evoke similar effects on target cells and tissues,
the result of COX-2 induction may be a dramatic shift in the balance of
PG action.
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES |
Cells--
Resident PMs were obtained by peritoneal lavage of
specific pathogen-free, female Wistar rats (Charles River Laboratories, Portage, MI) as described previously (5). Lavaged cells were centrifuged at 600 × g for 5 min at 4 °C,
resuspended, and subjected to hypotonic lysis to remove contaminating
erythrocytes. Cells were then centrifuged again and resuspended at
0.5 × 106 cells ml
1 in M199 and either
maintained in suspension in Teflon tubes ("freshly isolated cells")
or plated on 24-well plates (for metabolic studies) or glass slides
(for imaging). Cells were incubated at 37 °C in a humidified
atmosphere of 5% CO2 in air.
Cell Fractionation and Immunoblot Analysis--
As described
previously (6), cells were disrupted by sonication (10 bursts at 20%
duty cycle) in ice-cold homogenizing buffer (50 mM
Tris-HCl, 25 mM KCl, 5 mM MgCl2, 1 mM dithiothreitol, 0.5 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl
fluoride, 1 mM leupeptin, pH 7.4) and separated into
soluble and pelletable fractions by centrifugation (100,000 × g, 30 min, 4 °C); and protein concentrations were
determined by a modified Coomassie Blue dye binding assay (Pierce).
Samples containing 10 µg of protein were separated by
SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis under reducing conditions and
transferred to nitrocellulose membranes. Following blocking, membranes
were probed with antibodies to COX-1 (rabbit polyclonal raised against sheep seminal vesicle COX (7)) and COX-2 (rabbit polyclonal raised
against murine COX-2, from Cayman Chemical Co., Ann Arbor, MI;
1:10,000) and then peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-rabbit secondary
antibody (1:5000) with ECL detection (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech).
Indirect Immunofluorescent Microscopy--
Cells were prepared
for indirect immunofluorescent microscopy as described previously (8).
Following mounting on glass slides, cells were fixed using methanol
(
20 °C, 30 min), permeabilized with acetone (
20 °C, 3 min),
air-dried, rehydrated with sterile PBS, and blocked for 30 min using
0.1% (w/v) bovine serum albumin in PBS containing 1% (v/v) nonimmune
goat serum. Preparations were then probed with antibodies to either
COX-1 or COX-2, each at 1:200 in PBS supplemented with 0.1% fatty
acid-free bovine serum albumin, followed by rhodamine-conjugated goat
anti-rabbit antibody (1:200, Sigma). Preparations were examined and
photographed using a Zeiss Aristoplan microscope equipped for epifluorescence.
Cell Treatment and Stimulation--
For overnight incubations,
cells were adhered for 1 h, washed twice with sterile PBS, and
cultured overnight in M199 containing 10% heat-inactivated newborn
calf serum (Life Technologies, Inc.). In some experiments, aspirin
(acetylsalicylic acid (ASA); 200 µM) was included during
the 1 h adherence phase; this treatment did not affect cell
adherence or survival, as determined by trypan blue staining and
visualization of cells. During overnight incubation, some cells were
cultured with LPS (1 µg/ml), TNF-
(100 ng/ml), IL-1 (5 ng/ml), or
polymyxin B sulfate (10 µg/ml). For prelabeling of cellular lipids,
0.5 µCi of [3H]AA (specific activity, 76-100 Ci/mmol,
NEN Life Science Products) was included in the incubation medium.
Before cell stimulation, the unincorporated label was removed by
washing three times with PBS. Cell stimulation was with 1 µM A23187 for 15 min at 37 °C. Inhibitors added during
cell stimulation in designated experiments included NS-398 (3 µM) and indomethacin (1 µM). Metabolism of exogenous AA was evaluated by the addition of 0.5 µCi of
[3H]AA (~5 pM) to unlabeled cells during
stimulation with A23187; the addition of additional cold, carrier AA
did not alter results. Metabolism of exogenous PGH2 was
evaluated by the addition of 0.1 µM
[3H]PGH2 (for HPLC analysis) or unlabeled
PGH2 (for enzyme immunoassay analysis) to unlabeled cells
during stimulation with A23187.
Eicosanoid Analysis--
Radiolabeled eicosanoids were assayed
as described (5). Briefly, eicosanoids were extracted from culture
medium using Sep-Pak C18 cartridges (Waters Associates,
Milford, MA), dried under nitrogen, resuspended in water:acetonitrile
(2:1), and separated by reverse-phase HPLC using a Waters µBondapak
C18 column with a mobile phase of acetonitrile/water/trifluoroacetic acid. Radiolabeled products were
identified by their coelution with authentic standards and quantitated
by on-line radiodetection. Enzyme immunoassay (EIA) of conditioned
media was performed according to the supplier's instructions (Cayman Chemicals).
Statistical Analysis--
Statistical significance was evaluated
by paired Student's t test using p < 0.05.
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RESULTS |
COX-1 Products--
Freshly isolated PMs were evaluated for the
presence of the two COX isoforms. By immunoblot analysis, fresh PMs
contained abundant COX-1 in membrane-containing fractions but lacked
detectable COX-2 (Fig. 1A).
Similarly, COX-1, but not COX-2, was detectable in individual PMs by
immunofluorescent microscopy (Fig. 1B). By this technique,
COX-1 appeared to extensively decorate membranes throughout the cell,
including perinuclear membranes and the endoplasmic reticulum.

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Fig. 1.
Presence of COX-1, but not COX-2, protein in
freshly isolated resident rat PMs. A, for immunoblot
analysis, cells were disrupted, separated into soluble (S)
and pelletable (P) fractions, and analyzed with authentic
standard (Std). B, for immunofluorescent
microscopy, cells were fixed, permeabilized, and stained for COX-1 or
COX-2 as described under "Experimental Procedures." Results are
representative of at least three independent experiments.
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To determine the profile of prostanoids synthesized by COX-1 alone,
freshly isolated PMs were prelabeled with [3H]AA for
2 h, maintained in suspension in Teflon tubes, washed to remove
the unincorporated label, and stimulated with the calcium ionophore
A23187 (1 µM, 15 min, 37 °C) to release cellular AA from endogenous membrane phospholipids. By this method, several products were identified after HPLC separation with approximately 60%
of the released AA converted to COX metabolites, including PGI2 (detected as 6-keto-PGF1
),
TxA2 (detected as TxB2), PGE2,
PGD2, and HHT and 30% metabolized to products of the
5-lipoxygenase pathway (Fig.
2A). This profile is similar
to that reported previously (5). The production of prostanoids was
inhibited by indomethacin (1 µM), a nonselective COX
inhibitor, resulting in increases in free AA and 12-HETE but not the
5-lipoxygenase products, leukotriene (LT)B4 and 5-HETE
(Fig. 2B).

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Fig. 2.
Products from COX-1. Representative
profiles of AA metabolites derived from fresh PMs are shown. Cells were
prelabeled with [3H]AA for 2 h, washed, and
stimulated with 1 µM A23187 for 15 min at 37 °C
without (A) or with (B) 1 µM
indomethacin. Radiolabeled metabolites in the conditioned media were
separated by HPLC and identified by co-elution with unlabeled authentic
standards. I, PGI2; T,
TxA2; E, PGE2; D,
PGD2; B, LTB4; H, HHT;
12, 12-HETE; 5, 5-HETE. Results are
representative of four independent experiments.
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Pooled results from four independent experiments indicated that freshly
isolated PMs generated a balance of four prostanoids from endogenous
AA: PGI2, TxA2, PGD2, and HHT
(Table I). PGE2 was a minor
fifth product, accounting for less than 10% of all COX-1 products.
Similar results were obtained when the AA was supplied exogenously; if
trace levels of [3H]AA were provided to fresh PMs in the
absence of an agonist, then prostanoid ratios similar to those
generated by prelabeled, A23187-stimulated cells were produced (Table
I). Acute stimulation of cells with A23187 in the presence of
exogenously supplied radiolabeled AA increased the synthesis of
radiolabeled 5-lipoxygenase products but did not significantly change
the ratios of the COX-1 products (data not shown).
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Table I
Products from COX-1 in freshly isolated PMs
Cells were either prelabeled with [3H]AA for 2 h,
washed, and stimulated with A23187 (1 µM, 10 min,
37 °C) or given exogenous [3H]AA without A23187 (2 h,
37 °C). Radioactive metabolites in conditioned media were
separated by HPLC; results indicate the disintegrations/min per product
as a percentage of all prostanoid disintegrations/min. Values are the
mean of four experiments; S.E. is in parentheses.
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COX-2 Products--
COX-2 induction in rat PMs was pronounced in
response to LPS (1 µg/ml, 24 h), appearing as two bands of
approximately 69 and 70 kDa on immunoblots (Fig.
3A). By indirect
immunofluorescent microscopy, the degree of expression of COX-2 protein
varied greatly among cells within a culture treated with LPS for
24 h (Fig. 3B). Some cells were largely negative for
COX-2, some cells showed intermediate expression with COX-2 restricted
to the nuclear envelope and perinuclear membranes, and others showed
that COX-2 was concentrated on the nuclear envelope and was also
abundant on the endoplasmic reticulum. By Nomarski optics, it appeared
that cells staining greatest for COX-2 were spread and commonly
binucleate, whereas those staining the least were rounded and
mononucleate. In parallel experiments, all cells excluded trypan blue
dye, indicating that the rounded cells were not dead. COX-2 protein was
also induced to a lesser extent by TNF-
(100 ng/ml), appearing as a
single 69-kDa band (Fig. 3A). There was no detectable
induction by IL-1 (5 ng/ml). COX-1 expression was unchanged following
treatment with LPS, TNF-
, or IL-1 (Fig. 3A), and it was
not altered by overnight incubation alone, ASA pretreatment, or the
combination of ASA pretreatment and LPS treatment (Fig. 3C).
Based on these results, subsequent experiments focused on LPS-induced
COX-2.

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Fig. 3.
Induction of COX-2 protein synthesis by LPS
or TNF- , but not IL-1, in PMs. Cells were
treated with LPS (1 µg/ml), TNF- (100 ng/ml), or IL-1 (5 ng/ml)
for 24 h, separated into soluble (S) and pelletable
(P) fractions, and compared by immunoblot analysis
(A) with authentic standards (Std).
Alternatively, cells were treated with LPS for 24 h, washed,
fixed, and probed for COX-2 by immunofluorescent microscopy
(B) as described under "Experimental Procedures." The
inset presents the same field of cells as viewed by light
microscopy using Nomarski optics. C, COX-1 protein
expression in freshly isolated PMs (Fresh) or in PMs
cultured overnight (O/N) with ASA pretreatment
alone before overnight incubation, with LPS treatment, or with ASA
pretreatment followed by washing and treatment with LPS overnight.
Results are representative of at least three independent
experiments.
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According to current models, the result of elevated mass of COX protein
via COX-2 induction should be a nonselective increase in the synthesis
of all PGs that the given cell type can make. However, when PMs were
treated with LPS for 24 h to induce COX-2, washed, and stimulated
with A23187 (1 µM, 15 min, 37 °C) to release AA from
cell membranes, selective changes in PG production were readily
apparent, as compared with that seen in freshly isolated cells. These
PMs, which contained both active COX-1 and COX-2, synthesized the same
products as freshly isolated PMs (Fig.
4A). However, following LPS
treatment, the proportion of radiolabeled AA metabolized to
PGE2 was increased, whereas that converted to TxA2, as well as the 5-lipoxygenase product 5-HETE, was
reduced. One explanation for the altered PG profile following LPS
treatment would be that COX-2 preferentially metabolizes AA to
PGI2 and PGE2, whereas the other prostanoids
were derived from COX-1 action. To address this, COX-1 was irreversibly
inactivated in fresh PMs with ASA, the ASA was washed away, and COX-2
was induced with LPS for 24 h. The treatment with ASA (200 µM) alone for 1 h effectively eliminated COX
activity, and continued culture (after washing to remove ASA) in
LPS-free medium for 24 h did not result in significant new COX
activity (Fig. 4B). The cells treated with ASA that were washed and given LPS produced predominantly PGI2 and
PGE2, as well as LTB4 (Fig. 4C).
These cells, with only COX-2 active, had approximately 85% of all
released AA converted to PGs, as compared with 60% in COX-1-containing
fresh PMs. Interestingly, there were only minor changes in
LTB4 production. Finally, the production of PGs was
inhibited by the selective COX-2 inhibitor NS-398; in cells pretreated
with ASA and then given LPS to induce COX-2, PGE2 synthesis
was completely inhibited by 1 µM NS-398, as determined by
EIA, with an IC50 of 0.12 µM NS-398. In
contrast, in freshly isolated PMs, 50% inhibition of PGE2
synthesis required 8.3 µM NS-398 (approximately 70-fold
more than the IC50 of ASA-pretreated, LPS-treated cells);
PGE2 synthesis was inhibited only 75% by 30 µM NS-398, the highest dose tested.

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Fig. 4.
Products from COX-2. Representative
profiles of AA metabolites derived from PMs treated with LPS. PMs were
cultured with: A, LPS (1 µg/ml) for 24 h to produce
cells containing both active COX isoforms; B, ASA (200 µM) for 1 h, washed, and cultured in LPS-free medium
for 24 h for cells with no active COX enzyme; or C, ASA
for 1 h, then LPS for 24 h for active COX-2 only. In these
experiments, all cells were prelabeled with [3H]AA during
the overnight incubation, then washed, and stimulated with 1 µM A23187 for 15 min at 37 °C. Radiolabeled
metabolites in the conditioned media were separated by HPLC and
identified by co-elution with unlabeled authentic standards:
I, PGI2; T, TxA2;
E, PGE2; D, PGD2;
B, LTB4; H, HHT; 12,
12-HETE; 5, 5-HETE. Results are representative of three
independent experiments.
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Pooled data from three independent experiments indicated that cells
given LPS overnight and thus with both active COX isoforms produced
predominantly PGI2, TxB2, and PGE2,
with PGD2 and HHT being less pronounced (Table
II). This pattern was also generally seen
when the radiolabeled AA was supplied exogenously. Pretreatment of PMs
with ASA to inactivate COX-1 and thus leave COX-2 as the only active
isoform following LPS treatment resulted in PGI2 and PGE2 being the major products of stimulated cells, with
TxB2 occasionally found in significant amounts (Table II).
In contrast, PGD2 and HHT were barely detectable. Similar
results were obtained if radiolabeled AA was supplied exogenously and
cells were not acutely stimulated. The two products, PGI2
and PGE2, constituted 85.8 ± 14.8% of all PGs
released via COX-2, as compared with 26.2 ± 13.9% of all PGs released from cells containing only COX-1 (Table I). PMs incubated overnight in LPS-free medium with or without polymyxin B, which binds
and inactivates LPS, generated the same profile of products as freshly
isolated PMs, except that PGD2 tended to be reduced and
LTB4 elevated with overnight culture (data not shown).
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Table II
Products from LPS-treated PMs
Cells were adhered in media with or without ASA (200 µM) for 1 hr, washed, and incubated in media with
LPS (1 µg/ml) for 24 h with [3H]AA. Cells were then
washed and stimulated with A23187 (1 µM, 10 min,
37 °C). Radioactive metabolites in conditioned media were
separated by HPLC; results indicate the disintegrations/min per product
as a percentage of all prostanoid disintegrations/min. Values are the
mean of three experiments; S.E. is in parentheses.
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Distal Enzymes--
A second possible explanation for the altered
PG profile following LPS treatment would be that LPS selectively
changed the amount or activity of all enzymes that act distal to the
COX isozymes. Specifically, LPS might have had up-regulating effects on
PGI2 and PGE2 synthases and down-regulatory
effects on synthases giving TxA2, PGD2, and
HHT. To address this possibility, we examined the effects of LPS on the
processing of the COX product, PGH2. Exogenous
PGH2 (0.1 µM) was efficiently metabolized to
a variety of PGs by freshly isolated PMs (Fig.
5A). The most abundant product was PGE2 at about 24% of all recovered product. This was
surprising because freshly isolated PMs released little
PGE2 from either endogenous AA (following ionophore
stimulation) or exogenous AA (Table I). A similar profile of products
was obtained when PGH2 was given to unfractionated cell
lysates (data not shown). When PMs were first treated with LPS for
24 h, the proportion of PGH2 converted to
PGE2 increased from 24 to approximately 30% of all recovered disintegrations/min (Fig. 5B), consistent with a
slight increase in PGE2 synthase activity. However, in
three independent experiments using both whole cells and cell lysates,
there were no significant differences between freshly isolated and
LPS-treated PMs in the profiles of products generated from
PGH2.

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Fig. 5.
Effect of LPS treatment on the conversion of
PGH2 to PGs. Freshly isolated PMs (A) or
PMs incubated for 24 h with LPS (B) were washed and
given [3H]PGH2 for 10 min at 37 °C.
Radiolabeled metabolites were separated by HPLC and identified by
co-elution with unlabeled authentic standards: I,
PGI2; T, TxA2; E,
PGE2; D, PGD2; H, HHT.
Results are representative of three independent experiments.
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The increase in PGE2 synthase activity was further assessed
using EIAs to specifically measure PGE2 production.
Following ionophore stimulation to liberate endogenous AA, freshly
isolated PMs made significant amounts of PGE2, and
PGE2 production following acute stimulation increased
approximately 2.5-fold when PMs were treated with LPS for 6 or 24 h (Fig. 6A). Exogenous
PGH2 was efficiently converted to PGE2 by
untreated, freshly isolated PMs, consistent with the HPLC analysis.
After 6 or 24 h of LPS treatment, PGE2 production from
PGH2 increased significantly. However, this increase, although statistically significant, was only by 30%. These effects were further extended to TNF-
, which also induced COX-2 synthesis in
these cells (Fig. 3). The treatment of PMs with TNF-
for 24 h
also increased PGE2 synthesis from AA by 3-fold, whereas it increased PGE2 production from PGH2 again by
only 30% (Fig. 6B). It should be noted that
PGE2 production from PGH2, as presented in Fig.
6, is measured on a different scale than PGE2 production from AA, with the former being 8 times the latter.

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Fig. 6.
PGE2 production via COX-2 plus
PGE2 synthase or via PGE2 synthase alone.
A, a time course of changes is shown. Freshly isolated PMs
were cultured in media containing LPS (1 µg/ml) for the indicated
times, washed, and stimulated with 1 µM A23187 to release
endogenous AA (circles) or stimulated with exogenous
PGH2 (0.1 µM, squares) for 15 min
at 37 °C. PGE2 levels were measured in conditioned media
by EIA. B, comparative effects of overnight culture with
polymyxin B, LPS, or TNF- are shown. PMs were cultured in media
containing polymyxin B (open bars), LPS (slashed
bars) or TNF- (filled bars) for 24 h, washed,
and stimulated with 1 µM A23187 to release endogenous AA
or stimulated with exogenous PGH2 (0.1 µM)
for 15 min at 37 °C. PGE2 levels were measured in
conditioned media by EIA. Results are from one experiment in triplicate
and are representative of three independent experiments.
Bars show S.E.
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 |
DISCUSSION |
In this study, we found that freshly isolated PMs, which have
COX-1 but not COX-2, make a balance of four major prostanoids from AA.
A fifth prostanoid, PGE2, is only a minor product, although these cells can readily convert PGH2 to PGE2.
Similar results were obtained if PMs were maintained overnight in
LPS-free medium. In stark contrast, when PMs were incubated with LPS to
induce COX-2, the profile of PG products shifted to emphasize two PGs, PGI2 and PGE2. Pretreatment with ASA to
inactivate COX-1, leaving COX-2 as the only active isoform, accentuated
this change. These results were surprising because increasing COX mass
through LPS treatment did not result in an across-the-board increase in
production of all COX products. Instead, COX-2 induction caused a
profile shift characterized by preferential synthesis of
PGI2 and PGE2 with reduced production of
TxB2, PGD2, and HHT.
A shift in product profile may arise from a change in the amounts of
each of the distal enzymes, which process the COX product, PGH2. Indeed, Oh-ishi and colleagues (9, 10) have shown
that PGE2 synthase activity was induced by LPS in
inflammatory PMs, whereas PGD2 synthase and
TxA2 synthase activities were unaffected. In their studies,
cell lysates from these cells lacked any detectable PGE2
synthase activity; this would serve to make this enzymatic step
rate-limiting in the synthesis of PGE2. In this study,
using resident PMs, we found significant PGE2 synthase
activity in both whole cells and cell lysates before treatment with LPS
as reported previously (6). Treatment with LPS resulted in a small
(30%) but significant increase in PGE2 synthase activity.
This change certainly may contribute to the increase in
PGE2 production in LPS-treated cells. However, two results
suggest that changes in distal enzymes were not sufficient to account
for the change in PG profile. First, the changes in product profile
from distal enzymes alone (Fig. 5) were not comparable to the changes
in products derived from COX isoforms plus distal enzymes (Figs. 2 and
4). Second, the magnitude of increase in PGE2 production
from PGH2 was much less than that from AA (Fig. 6). The
difference in scale for PGE2 synthesis from
PGH2 versus AA, noted in Fig. 6, argues that the
activity of COX, not PGE2 synthase, is rate-limiting in the
production of PGE2, and thus the small changes in
PGE2 synthase activity cannot account for the increased
production of PGE2 following LPS treatment. These results
suggest that other factors contributed to the shift in product profile
following COX-2 induction.
Previous researchers have suggested that the COX-1 and COX-2 metabolic
pathways are at least partially independent from one another,
particularly in terms of when and where the pathways are expressed
(11-13). However, we propose that the COX-1 and COX-2 pathways differ
in the profile of their products. A model of this relationship in PMs,
based on the results of this study, is given in Fig.
7. According to this model, AA metabolism
by COX-1 produces PGH2 that is directed in a balanced way
to enzymes that give rise to PGI2, TxA2,
PGD2, and HHT. In contrast, COX-2 metabolism is much more
tightly coupled to the PGI2- and
PGE2-synthesizing enzymes than to other downstream enzymes.
Then the result of COX-2 induction by inflammatory mediators is not
simply an increase in all PGs that a given cell type can produce.
Instead, there is a shift in the balance of PGs toward the preferential
production of PGI2 and PGE2.

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Fig. 7.
Proposed model for differential processing of
endogenously derived AA by COX-1 and COX-2 in resident rat PMs.
The widths of lines leading to end products are intended to indicate
the proportion of PGH2 derived from each COX isoform that
is metabolized to the given end product. Variations in AA delivery to
the COX isoforms are not considered here.
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A simple explanation for the shift in product profile relates to the
subcellular distribution of the metabolic enzymes. First, the two COX
isoforms appear to differ in their subcellular distribution. COX-1 is
dispersed throughout the intracellular membrane system, whereas COX-2
is preferentially accumulated on and around the nuclear envelope (14,
15). It should be noted that a recent study has questioned whether this
difference is real or artifactual (16), but our results support
distinct distributions for the two isoforms (Fig.
8, see also Figs. 1 and 3). Second, the
different PG synthases appear to differ in their subcellular
distribution, as has been recently reviewed (17). For example, the
glutathione-requiring form of PGD2 synthase is found in the
cytoplasm of a variety of cell types (18, 19), whereas PGE2
synthase activity has been localized to the endoplasmic reticulum and
nuclear envelope (20). Finally, different pools of AA, liberated by
distinct phospholipase A2 isoforms, may feed into the
different COX pathways (21-23). Thus, COX-1, because of its diffuse
subcellular distribution, may deliver PGH2 relatively
nonselectively to downstream enzymes. On the other hand, COX-2 may
monopolize AA liberated from the nuclear envelope, e.g. by
the action of the 85-kDa phospholipase A2 acting at that
site (24-26), and preferentially deliver PGH2 to distal
enzymes located on and around the nuclear envelope, such as
PGE2 synthase and, perhaps, PGI2 synthase.

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|
Fig. 8.
Subcellular localization of COX-1 and COX-2
by indirect immunofluorescent microscopy. Rat PMs were adhered to
glass slides and incubated for 24 h in media containing LPS (1 µg/ml) and then stained for either COX-1 (A, B)
or COX-2 (C, D). Preparations were imaged with
Nomarski optics (A, C) to visualize entire cells
and by fluorescence to localize either COX-1 (B) or COX-2
(D). Results are representative of at least three
independent experiments.
|
|
The paired production of PGI2 and PGE2 is a
common response to inflammatory mediators in a wide range of settings.
Both PGI2 and PGE2 increased significantly in
vascular endothelial cells in response to LPS or TNF-
(27), in
ciliary epithelial cells in response to LPS (28), in gingival
fibroblasts in response to IL-1 or TNF-
(29), and in myometrial
cells in response to IL-1 or TNF-
(30). Similarly, PGI2
and PGE2 production by aortic endothelial cells was
elevated in response to xenoreactive antibodies and complement (31). In
ex vivo culture, the saphenous vein released
PGI2 and PGE2 in response to IL-1 (32). In
whole animal models, plasma levels of PGI2 and
PGE2 were elevated when TNF-
was administered
intravenously to rats (33) or sheep (34) and also when bleomycin was
given intratracheally to hamsters (35). Because COX-2 induction is
common to all these experimental systems, these results are consistent
with the thesis that COX-2 preferentially metabolizes AA to
PGI2 and PGE2.
What is the impact of the paired production of PGI2 and
PGE2? Both PGs evoke a number of common cellular responses,
including smooth muscle relaxation, decreased fibroblast and smooth
muscle proliferation, diminished collagen deposition, and decreased
leukocyte function. Although other signaling pathways are also used,
both PGs evoke many of these effects through receptor-mediated
elevation of cAMP (reviewed in Refs. 34 and 35). Also through cAMP
signaling, both PGI2 and PGE2 inhibit
activation-initiated responses of many leukocytes, including
neutrophils, macrophages, mast cells, and some T lymphocytes (reviewed
in Refs. 36 and 37). Thus, PGI2 and PGE2
inhibit cytokine production by Th1-type lymphocytes, resulting in
decreased secretion of IL-2, interferon-
, IL-8, IL-12, and TNF-
(38, 39). Signaling through cAMP has variable effects on Th2-type
lymphocytes, and thus these PGs may either have no effect or actually
increase the production of Th2-type cytokines, including IL-4, IL-5,
IL-10, and IL-13 (40).
These results suggest that the induction of COX-2 may, by shifting the
profile of PG secretion, serve to actually diminish the inflammatory
response in some tissues. Thus, in the absence of inflammatory
mediators, COX-1 serves to generate a balance of PGs that may maintain
a level of system homeostasis. Inflammatory mediators, like bacterial
LPS, would evoke a number of responses, including the synthesis of
Th1-type cytokines and COX-2. Our data, as well as the studies cited
above, indicate that COX-2 metabolism of AA will tip the balance of
secreted PGs to emphasize PGI2 and PGE2. Via
cAMP signaling, these PGs would subsequently begin the resolution of
the inflammatory response through the suppression of the synthesis of
Th1-type cytokines and, at least indirectly, favor the development of a
Th2-type profile of cytokines. According to this model, a defect in the
ability to induce COX-2 expression would both suppress the synthesis of
PGI2 and PGE2 and augment inflammation in some
circumstances. Indeed, fibroblasts from patients with idiopathic
pulmonary fibrosis have a severely impaired capacity to express COX-2,
but not COX-1, and make much less PGE2 than do control
fibroblasts (41). The failure to induce COX-2 and produce prostanoids
that can suppress inflammation, fibroblast proliferation, and collagen
synthesis can thus contribute to disease progression.
 |
FOOTNOTES |
*
This work was supported by National Heart, Lung, and Blood
Institute Grant R01 HL47391, National Institutes of Health Training Grant T32 HL07749, Specialized Center of Research Grant P50 HL46487 (to
M. P. G.) and a Specialized Programs of Research Excellence in
Prostate Cancer Grant CA69568-02 and an American Lung Association research grant (to T. G. B.).The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the
payment of page charges. The article
must therefore be hereby marked
"advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section
1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Parker B. Francis Fellow in Pulmonary Research, Edward Livingston
Trudeau Scholar of the American Lung Association, and Amgen Research
Grant Awardee. To whom correspondence should be addressed: Division of
Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Michigan Medical
Center, 6301 MSRB III, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0642. Tel.: 734-763-9077;
Fax: 734-764-4556; E-mail: brocko{at}medmail.med.umich.edu.
 |
ABBREVIATIONS |
The abbreviations used are:
PG, prostaglandin;
AA, arachidonic acid;
PGI2, prostacyclin;
LT, leukotriene;
COX, cyclooxygenase;
HETE, hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid;
HHT, 12-hydroxyheptadecatrienoic acid;
LPS, lipopolysaccharide;
PM, peritoneal macrophage;
Tx, thromboxane;
PBS, phosphate-buffered saline;
ASA, acetylsalicylic acid;
TNF, tumor necrosis factor;
IL, interleukin;
HPLC, high pressure liquid chromatography;
EIA, enzyme
immunoassay.
 |
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