From the Department of Medicine and Center for
Molecular Genetics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla,
California 92093-0822, ¶ Department of Biochemistry, Uniformed
Services University, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, and
First
Department of Anatomy, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
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ABSTRACT |
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An A role for the protease inhibitor
Therefore, the goal of this study was to determine the molecular
identity of the ACT cDNA expressed in AD and normal hippocampus, a
brain region abundant in amyloid plaques in AD, as well as to characterize the brain ACT. Direct reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and DNA sequence analyses have defined the
primary sequence of ACT in Alzheimer's and normal brains. Moreover,
the defined primary sequence of the human hippocampus ACT cDNA
sequence resolves its identity compared with reported variations in
human liver ACT cDNA sequences (5-8). Primary sequence comparisons
indicate that the human hippocampus and liver ACTs resemble one another
with greater than 90% homology. Further analyses of hippocampus and
liver ACTs were performed with respect to transcription initiation
sites and expression of the ACT gene as well as the glycoprotein nature
of ACT. This study has, thus, defined the primary sequence and
characteristics of ACT expressed in control and Alzheimer's disease brains.
RT-PCR and DNA Sequencing of ACT cDNAs from Hippocampus of
Alzheimer's Disease and Normal Brains--
To obtain the segment of
the hippocampus ACT cDNA corresponding to the predicted open
reading frame (ORF) encoding the primary sequence of the hippocampus
ACT, RT-PCR and DNA sequence analysis of overlapping 790- and 502-bp 5'
and 3' cDNA fragments, respectively, of human hippocampus ACT
cDNA from AD and normal brains was performed (see Fig. 1). In
addition, RT-PCR also generated a 296-bp DNA fragment that represents
the 3'-untranslated region (UTR) that overlaps with the 502-bp cDNA
fragment. PCR primers were designed based on reported human liver ACT
cDNA sequences (5-8). RT-PCR of poly(A)+ RNA from
normal and Alzheimer's hippocampus was conducted three times, each
time with RNA isolated from a separate sample of tissue; two to four
subclones from each PCR reaction were analyzed by DNA sequencing.
Total RNA was isolated from frozen hippocampus tissue from AD and
normal brains with the TRIZOLTM reagent (Life Technologies,
Inc.) (tissues were from the Harvard Brain Tissue Resource Center at
McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA and the First Department of Anatomy,
Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary). Frozen tissue (100 mg
aliquots) was pulverized in liquid N2, solubilized in 1.0 ml of TRIZOL reagent, extracted with 0.2 ml chloroform, isoamylalcohol
(49/1, v/v), and incubated at room temperature for 5 min. The sample
was then centrifuged at 12,000 × g at 4 °C for 15 min, and the resultant RNA in the aqueous phase was precipitated by
isopropanol and resuspended in 50 µl of TE buffer (10 mM
Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 1 mM EDTA).
Isolation of poly(A)+ RNA from total RNA utilized the
Poly(A)Tract mRNA Isolation System IV (according to the
manufacturer's protocol; Promega). Poly(A)+ in the RNA
sample (100 µg) was annealed to the biotinylated oligo(dT) probe at
room temperature. The oligo(dT)-poly(A)+ hybrid was bound
to streptavidin paramagnetic particles and washed with 0.1× SSC (1×
SSC, 0.15 M NaCl and 0.015 M sodium citrate), and bound poly(A)+ RNA was eluted with diethyl
pyrocarbonate-treated water and concentrated by ethanol precipitation.
In addition, poly(A)+ RNA from normal human hippocampus and
liver were purchased (CLONTECH) for RT-PCR.
RT-PCR of overlapping 790- and 502-bp cDNA fragments that span the
ORF of the ACT utilized SuperScript II reverse transcriptase (Life
Technologies, Inc.) and PCR reagents from Perkin-Elmer (according to
the manufacturer's protocols). RT-PCR of a 790-bp 5'-fragment of ACT
utilized the primers 5'-GGTTCTGCCCTGCTGTCCTCTGC-3' (sense, primer 1)
and 5'-GGGAGGATGAAGAGTGCGCTGGC-3' (antisense, primer 2). RT-PCR of a
502-bp 3'-fragment of ACT utilized the primers 5'-CGGGACGAGGAGCTGTCCTGCA-3' (sense, primer 3) and
5'-TGCTGGGATTGGTGACTTTGCTCAT-3' (antisense, primer 4) (primers were
from Life Technologies, Inc.). First strand cDNA synthesis utilized
0.5 µg of poly(A)+ RNA and antisense primer (0.15 µM) with SuperScript II reverse transcriptase (200 units)
at 50 °C for 50 min. After the addition of MgCl2 to 1.5 mM and sense primer (0.15 µM), PCR with
Taq polymerase (5 units) was conducted with 40 cycles of 1 min at 94 °C, 1 min at 60 °C, and 1 min at 70 °C, with a final
step at 70 °C for 7 min. PCR products were analyzed by DNA agarose
gel electrophoresis. Attempts to obtain the full-length coding region
of the ACT cDNA by one RT-PCR reaction (primers 1 and 4) were not
successful, most likely because of the lower efficiency of PCR in
amplifying larger DNA fragments. Therefore, the segment of the
hippocampus ACT cDNA corresponding to the predicted ORF was
assessed by DNA sequence analyses of the overlapping 790- and 502-bp
PCR fragments.
To obtain a cDNA fragment representing the 3'-UTR of human
hippocampus ACT, RT-PCR was utilized to generate a 296-bp fragment that
overlaps with the 502-bp PCR-generated fragment. The first strand DNA
synthesis utilized 2 µg of human hippocampus poly(A+) RNA
(CLONTECH) primed with 0.5 µg of
oligo(dT)20 and incubated with SuperScript II reverse
transcriptase (200 units, Life Technologies, Inc.) at 42 °C for
1 h. PCR was then conducted with sense and antisense primers at
0.4 µM (primers 5 and 6, respectively) consisting of
5'-CAGACACCCAGAACATCTTCTT-3' and 5'-GGCCAACGAAATTATTTATTGCTG-3', respectively, Taq polymerase (0.5 unit, Qiagen), and
thermocycling consisting of 35 cycles of 50 s at 94 °C, 1 min
at 42 °C, and 1 min at 72 °C, with a final incubation at 72 °C
for 10 min.
PCR-generated DNA fragments were subcloned (by ligation with T4 DNA
ligase) into the PCR 2.0 plasmid vector (Invitrogen) and amplified in
XL-1 Blue supercompetent Escherichia coli cells
(Stratagene). DNA inserts of appropriate size (assessed by digestion of
the plasmid with EcoRI) were subjected to automated DNA
sequencing with fluorescent-labeled dideoxynucleotides and the Applied
Biosystems 373A automated DNA sequencer, as well as manual DNA
sequencing (with the U. S. Biochemical Corp. Sequenase Version 2.0 sequencing kit, Amersham Pharmacia Biotech), as described previously
(3, 4). Primers for DNA sequencing utilized reverse and forward primers
corresponding to vector M13 sequences that flank the DNA insert. DNA
sequencing of the 5' fragment also required primers corresponding to
the ACT cDNA to walk the sequencing along the length of the
cDNA. These sequencing primers were designated ACT N1, ACT N2, and
ACT N3, which corresponded to 5'-TGTCTCTGGGGGCCCATAAT-3', 5'-ACGGAGGATGCCAAGAGGCT-3', and 5'-CTTTGACCCCCAAGATACTC-3',
respectively. The MacVector DNA sequencing software was used to align
DNA sequences from overlapping sequencing reactions. The determined
nucleotide sequence of the human hippocampus ACT cDNA has been
submitted to GenBank with accession number AF089747.
Northern Analysis and Slot Blots--
For Northern blots, total
RNA was isolated from hippocampus of Alzheimer's disease and normal
aged (50-80 years old) brains (from the Harvard Brain Tissue Resource
Center at McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA) by cesium trifluoroacetate
density ultracentrifugation, as described previously (3). The
precipitated RNA was resuspended in TE buffer (10 mM
Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 1 mM EDTA), subjected to 1.2%
agarose/denaturing formaldehyde gel electrophoresis (10 µg RNA/lane),
and blotted to GeneScreen PlusR membrane (NEN Life Science Products)
for Northern analysis. The DNA probe was a
XmnI-BglII 652-bp fragment of the human liver ACT
cDNA (6), labeled by nick-translation (kit from Stratagene) with
[
RNA slot blots were performed with poly(A)+ RNA from human
hippocampus and liver (purchased from CLONTECH)
diluted to 9, 1, 0.1, and 0.1 ng/µl. One hundred µl of each
dilution was combined with 300 µl of 6.15 M formaldehyde
in 10× SSC and incubated at 67 °C for 15 min. Samples were applied
onto nitrocellulose membranes under vacuum, washed with 10× SSC, and
cross-linked by exposure to UV irradiation. The DNA probe,
EcoRI-SalI human ACT cDNA fragment of 943 bp,
was labeled to a specific activity of 1 × 108
cpm/µg with [ Genomic Blot--
Genomic DNA from the midbrain of normal adults
(from the Harvard Brain Tissue Resource Center at McLean Hospital,
Belmont, MA) was isolated by cesium chloride equilibrium density
gradient centrifugation, as described previously (3). An aliquot of genomic DNA (10 µg) was digested with 40 units of EcoRI,
BamHI, KpnI, or HindIII and subjected
to 0.8% DNA-agarose gel electrophoresis. The gel was dried at 60 °C
for 1-2 h and subjected to in situ hybridization (3) with
human liver ACT cDNA of 1.5 kilobase (EcoRI digests)
(ACT cDNA from Dr. Harvey Rubin, University of Pennsylvania) (6).
The probe was labeled by nick translation (kit from Stratagene) with
[ Primer Extension--
Primer extension utilized
poly(A)+ RNA from human hippocampus and liver (purchased
from CLONTECH) with a primer corresponding to
5'-CTGCCTCAGGGAGCTGGA-3' (primer A, see Fig. 1). The primer was labeled
by T4 polynucleotide kinase with 5 pmol of [ Deglycosylation of Hippocampus ACT--
Proteins were extracted
from frozen hippocampus (approximately 4 g of tissue) from
Alzheimer's disease or normal brains (tissues were from the Harvard
Brain Tissue Resource Center at McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA) by the
TRIZOLTM reagent (Life Technologies, Inc.). For
deglycosylation of protein extracts from hippocampus and of human liver
ACT (from Athens Research and Technology Biochemicals), ACT samples
were incubated with N-glycosidase F (0.2 units, Boehringer
Mannheim) at 37 °C for 18 h in buffer (25 µl total volume)
consisting of 20 mM sodium phosphate, pH 7.2, 10 mM sodium azide, 50 mM EDTA, and 0.5% (w/v) octyloglucoside. Samples were then subjected to Western blots, as
described previously (11, 12), with affinity-purified anti-ACT IgGs
(1:100 final dilution), detected with anti-rabbit goat IgGs conjugated
to alkaline phosphatase (from Promega, performed according to the
manufacturer's procedure).
For affinity purification of anti-ACT for Western blots, IgGs
(immunoglobulins) were purified from anti-ACT serum (ART Biochemicals) by protein A-Sepharose chromatography (according to the manufacturer's protocol, Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). Anti-ACT IgGs were then affinity-purified on an ACT-Sepharose affinity column. The ACT affinity
column was obtained by covalently linking ACT (from human liver, ART
Biochemicals) to CNBr-activated Sepharose (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech,
according to the manufacturer's instructions). The anti-ACT IgGs were
bound to the ACT affinity column in equilibration buffer consisting of
60 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, and 0.05%
Tween 20. After washing with equilibration buffer, anti-ACT IgGs were
eluted with elution buffer 1 (50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 750 mM NaCl, 0.05% Tween 20), followed by elution buffer 2 (0.1 M citric acid-NaOH, pH 4.0, 750 mM NaCl,
0.05% Tween 20). Fractions containing anti-ACT IgGs were detected by
binding to ACT in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, performed as
described previously (13). Affinity-purified anti-ACT IgGs were
concentrated by a Centricon-30 apparatus (Pierce).
RT-PCR of Hippocampus ACT cDNA Defines the ORF Encoding the ACT
Primary Sequence--
RT-PCR was used to determine the primary
sequence of ACT expressed in hippocampus from AD and normal brains.
Primers for RT-PCR were designed based on reported homologous sequences
of neuroendocrine and liver ACTs (3-8) for amplification of the mature
coding region of ACT (without the NH2-terminal signal
sequence) (Fig. 1). RT-PCR and DNA
sequence analyses for each overlapping DNA segment were performed from
three separate tissue samples of control hippocampus and from three
separate samples of AD hippocampus. Poly(A)+ RNA from each
tissue sample was subjected to RT-PCR to amplify 3' and 5' regions of
the ACT cDNA. From each RT-PCR reaction, DNA inserts from two to
four subclones were subjected to DNA sequence analyses.
The predicted 790-bp and 502-bp DNA fragments representing 5' and 3'
domains of the ORF of the ACT cDNA were generated from AD and
normal hippocampus as well as from liver poly(A)+ RNA (Fig.
2). Southern blots confirmed that these
790- and 502-bp PCR-amplified DNA fragments hybridized with the human
liver ACT cDNA as probe (data not shown). DNA sequence analyses of
these RT-PCR-generated DNA fragments, with alignment of overlapping 5'
and 3' DNA fragments, provided the nucleotide and deduced the primary
sequence of the hippocampus ACT cDNA from AD and normal brains
(Fig. 3). Importantly, the ACT cDNAs
isolated from AD and normal hippocampus were identical in nucleotide
and deduced primary sequences for the mature ACT protein translation
product. It is predicted that the mature ACT in hippocampus may begin
with His or Asn at its NH2 terminus, consistent with
removal of the NH2-terminal signal peptide sequence (14,
15) to form functional ACT. Similarly, mature ACT from liver and plasma
begins with His (residue +1) or Asn (+3) (6, 16).
The human hippocampus ACT possesses the RSL domain within the
COOH-terminal region of the inhibitor (Fig. 3) that is characteristic of serpins. The hippocampus ACT possesses Leu-Ser as the predicted P1-P1' residues that are presumably recognized
and cleaved by putative chymotrypsin-like target brain proteases. In
addition, the glycoprotein nature of hippocampus ACT is indicated by
consensus glycosylation sites of Asn-Xaa-Ser/Thr at residues 10, 70, 83, 104, 163, and 248 (Fig. 3).
The deduced primary sequence of human hippocampus ACT cDNA
resembles previously reported variant human liver ACT sequences (5-8).
The hippocampus ACT differs by 37 residues from the human liver
cDNA sequence reported by Chandra et al. (5) at residues 79-93, 100-105, and 398-400 as well as by 10 residues at the COOH terminus. In addition, the hippocampus ACT, compared with the liver ACT
cDNA reported by Chandra et al. (5), possesses different amino acids for residues 69, 199, and 338. However, the human hippocampus ACT cDNA sequence is identical to the human liver ACT
cDNA reported by Rubin et al. (6) and others (7, 8). These results have, therefore, defined the primary sequence of human
hippocampus ACT and have resolved its similarity to human liver ACT.
Northern Analysis--
Northern blots were performed to compare
ACT mRNAs in human hippocampus and liver (Fig.
4). The hippocampus and liver ACT mRNAs were similar in electrophoretic mobility corresponding to 1.5 and 1.6 kilobases, respectively; these results also show slight differences in apparent size of the ACT mRNAs from these two
tissues. It is noted that no significant differences in ACT mRNA
levels were detected in hippocampus from AD (n = 5) and
normal (n = 8) brains.
Further studies compared the 3'-UTR region of the hippocampus ACT
cDNA with that of the liver ACT cDNA. RT-PCR of hippocampus poly(A+) RNA was performed (primers 5 and 6, Fig. 1) to
generate a 296-bp DNA fragment encoding the 3'-UTR region (data not
shown). DNA sequence analysis indicated that the 3'-UTR of the
hippocampus ACT cDNA (shown in Fig. 3) is nearly identical to the
reported human liver ACT cDNAs (5, 6), with greater than 98%
homology in nucleotide sequence within the 296-bp 3'-UTR region. It is possible that slight differences in apparent electrophoretic mobility of hippocampus and liver mRNAs may be explained by possible
differences in polyadenylation or features that influence
electrophoretic mobility such as variations between Northern blots.
Northern blots indicated large differences in ACT mRNA levels in
liver and hippocampus. Semiquantitative slot blots (Northern blots)
with specified amounts of poly(A)+ RNA showed that liver
contains approximately 900-fold higher levels of ACT mRNA compared
with that in hippocampus (Fig. 5). These
differences in ACT gene expression suggest specialized functions of ACT
in brain compared with liver.
Genomic Blot and Primer Extension--
The hippocampus ACT
cDNA identified by RT-PCR indicates the existence of the human ACT
gene. Further assessment of the ACT gene(s) was obtained by genomic
blots. Human genomic DNA was digested with restriction enzymes and
probed with the human liver ACT cDNA (6). The genomic blot (Fig.
6) demonstrated the presence of the ACT
gene(s) as several DNA bands after digestion of genomic DNA, indicating
the presence of at least one or possibly several ACT genes.
To compare transcriptional initiation sites of ACT gene expression in
human hippocampus and liver, primer extension analyses were performed.
Primer extension of poly(A)+ RNA utilized a primer
corresponding to a 5' region of the ACT cDNA (Fig. 1), and the
extended cDNA was sized on a DNA sequencing gel. For both
hippocampus and liver, primer extension resulted in a 58-bp cDNA
(Fig. 7), indicating identical
transcription initiation sites for ACT gene expression in hippocampus
and liver. Based on these primer extension results and the ACT gene
sequence (18), the corresponding the 5' nucleotide sequence of the
hippocampus ACT cDNA is illustrated in Fig. 3.
Deglycosylation of ACT--
Multiple glycosylation sites
(Asn-Xaa-Thr/Ser) are indicated by the hippocampus ACT cDNA,
suggesting that brain ACT exists as a glycoprotein. Therefore, the
extent of glycosylation of ACT in hippocampus was examined by
deglycosylation with N-glycosidase F, which cleaves the
N-glycan linkage of glycoproteins between Asn residues and
the carbohydrate chain (19). Western blots (Fig.
8) showed hippocampus ACT of 60-65 kDa
in normal and AD brains, which was deglycosylated by
N-glycosidase F to a band of approximately 46 kDa. The
deglycosylated 46-kDa hippocampus ACT is consistent with the
theoretical molecular weight of the ACT polypeptide calculated from its
primary sequence, deduced from its cDNA. The liver ACT of 66-75
kDa was slightly larger than the hippocampus ACT. Deglycosylation of
liver ACT to a 46-kDa polypeptide indicates that both liver and
hippocampus ACT consist of similar molecular weight polypeptide
backbones. Differences in apparent molecular weights of hippocampus and
liver ACTs and the similar molecular weights of their polypeptide
backbones suggest that the two forms of ACT may undergo different types
of glycosylation. Overall, these results indicate that the hippocampus
and liver ACTs are both glycoproteins.
Immunochemical detection of the protease inhibitor ACT in amyloid
plaques in the hippocampus region of AD brains suggests a role for a
protease inhibitor in AD (1, 2). Recent identification of isoforms of
neuroendocrine ACTs in bovine adrenal medulla and pituitary (3, 4) and
reports of variations in the primary sequences of isolated human liver
cDNAs (5-8) lead to the question of the molecular identity of ACT
in AD and normal brains. In this study, direct RT-PCR and DNA sequence
analyses of hippocampus ACT cDNAs from AD and normal brains show
that the hippocampus ACT possesses the reactive site loop that is
characteristic of serpins, with Leu as the predicted P1 residue for
inhibition of putative brain chymotrypsin-like proteases. The
hippocampus ACT cDNAs from control and AD brains were identical in
nucleotide and deduced primary sequences and resemble the human liver
ACT with greater than 90% homology. Further comparison of ACT in
hippocampus and liver showed that ACT gene expression in these two
tissues utilizes identical transcription initiation sites. However,
significantly lower levels of ACT mRNA are expressed in hippocampus
compared with liver. In addition, the hippocampus ACT protein appears
to be differentially glycosylated compared with liver ACT. These studies have defined the primary sequence and molecular characteristics of hippocampus ACT expressed in control and Alzheimer's disease brains.
Before this study, ACT in human hippocampus was thought to resemble
human liver ACT based on recognition of the brain ACT with antibodies
against human liver ACT (1, 2). However, several reports have indicated
variations in nucleotide and deduced primary sequences for full-length
and partial human liver ACT cDNAs (5-8). In this study, direct DNA
sequence analyses of the hippocampus ACT cDNA indicates that its
deduced primary sequence differs by 37 residues compared with the human
liver ACT cDNA reported by Chandra et al. (5). However,
the hippocampus ACT cDNA is identical to human liver cDNAs
characterized by other groups (6-8). These results indicate that the
ACT expressed in human hippocampus and human liver ACT (5-8) are
nearly identical in nucleotide and deduced primary sequences.
The hippocampus ACT possesses the RSL domain (Fig. 3, boxed
region) that participates in the specificity of the serpin to regulate target proteases. The predicted Leu-Ser as
P1-P1' residues are known to inhibit
chymotrypsin, suggesting that ACT may inhibit a brain chymotrypsin-like
protease. It is noteworthy that cross-class inhibition of cysteine
proteases by serpins occurs. For example, the interleukin
1 The characterization of a single hippocampus ACT cDNA is consistent
with the demonstration of the human ACT gene(s), as demonstrated by
genomic blots. Furthermore, primer extension analyses showed that ACT
gene expression in hippocampus and liver utilizes the same
transcription initiation site. However, the hippocampus possesses significantly lower levels of ACT mRNA than liver, with differences of approximately 900-fold. These findings suggest differential tissue
regulation of ACT gene expression in hippocampus compared with liver.
In addition, examination of ACT mRNAs by Northern blots showed that
hippocampus and liver ACT mRNAs were close in size, 1.5-1.6
kilobases, and possess nearly identical 3'-UTRs.
Subsequent to translation of the ACT mRNA, ACT undergoes
posttranslational modification as a glycoprotein. Differential
glycosylation demonstrated by sensitivity to N-glycosidase F
suggests that there may be different types of glycosylation for the ACT
in hippocampus compared with liver. Hippocampus and liver ACT proteins
appear as 60-65-kDa and 66-75-kDa proteins, respectively, on
SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. After deglycosylation by
N-glycosidase F, the ACT polypeptide backbone is represented
by a 45-46-kDa band in both tissues. The apparent molecular mass
of deglycosylated ACT is consistent with the theoretical
molecular mass of mature ACT of 46,248 daltons, calculated from the ACT cDNA.
The cellular localization of ACT is an important consideration for
future studies of proteases that may be regulated by ACT, because
protease inhibitor(s) and target protease(s) must be co-localized to
allow their interaction in vivo. The
NH2-terminal signal sequence of ACT suggests cellular
routing of the ACT to the secretory pathway. The predicted transport of
ACT within neurosecretory vesicles from neuronal cell bodies along the
axon to nerve terminals is supported by the disappearance of ACT from
nerve terminals following axotomy (26). Subsequent to secretion,
extracellular ACT accumulates with 1-antichymotrypsin-like
serpin has been implicated in Alzheimer's disease (AD) based on
immunochemical detection of
1-antichymotrypsin (ACT) in
amyloid plaques from the hippocampus of AD brains. The presence of
neuroendocrine isoforms of ACTs and reported variations in human liver
ACT cDNA sequences raise the question of the molecular identity of
ACT in brain. In this study, direct reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and cDNA sequencing indicate that the hippocampus ACT possesses the reactive site loop that is characteristic of serpins,
with Leu as the predicted P1 residue interacting with putative
chymotrypsin-like target proteases. The deduced primary sequence of
the human hippocampus ACT possesses more than 90% homology with
reported primary sequences for the human liver ACT. Moreover, identical
ACT primary sequences deduced from the cDNAs were demonstrated in
the hippocampus of control and AD brains. Northern blots showed that
ACT mRNA expression in hippocampus was 900 times lower than that in
liver. Also, hippocampus and liver ACT proteins demonstrated
differential sensitivities to deglycosylation. Overall, reverse
transcription-polymerase chain reaction combined with cDNA and
primary sequence analyses have defined the molecular identity of human
hippocampus ACT in control and AD brains. The determined reactive site
loop domain of hippocampus ACT will allow prediction of potential
target proteases inhibited by ACT in AD.
INTRODUCTION
Top
Abstract
Introduction
Procedures
Results
Discussion
References
1-antichymotrypsin in Alzheimer's disease
(AD)1has been suggested based
on immunochemical detection of ACT in amyloid plaques in brains of AD
patients (1, 2). ACT is a member of the serine
protease inhibitor family, known as serpins, which typically possesses a reactive site loop (RSL) domain that interacts with target proteases (9, 10). Recently, molecular cloning
has identified isoforms of ACT in bovine neuroendocrine tissues of
adrenal medulla and pituitary that differ in their RSL domains (3, 4).
Differences in RSL predict that these ACT isoforms inhibit different
target proteases; indeed, expression of these isoforms have
demonstrated the protease-specific nature of these ACT
isoforms.2 Furthermore,
variations in the deduced primary sequences of human liver ACT
cDNAs have been reported (5-8). Because these ACT isoforms are all
recognized by anti-ACT sera, these observations raise the question of
the molecular identity of ACT-like immunoreactivity in Alzheimer's
disease brains. However, the primary structure of ACT encoded by human
brain ACT cDNA has not been elucidated.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
Top
Abstract
Introduction
Procedures
Results
Discussion
References
-32P]dCTP (5,000 Ci/mmol, NEN Life Science Products).
Hybridization with 32P probe was conducted in 10% dextran
sulfate, 1% SDS, and 1.0 M NaCl at 60 °C overnight. The
membrane was then washed 2 times in 2× SSC at room temperature for 5 min, 2 times in 2× SSC, 1% SDS at 60 °C for 30 min, and in 0.1×
SSC at room temperature for 30 min. Autoradiography with Kodak X-Omat
AR-5 film was conducted.
-32P]dCTP by Stratagene's random
priming kit. The membrane was hybridized with the probe (1 × 106 cpm/ml) in 5× SSPE, 5× Denhardt's solution, 0.1%
SDS, 100 µg/ml denatured salmon sperm DNA at 68 °C overnight. The
membrane was washed three times in 1× SSPE, 0.1% SDS for 15 min at
room temperature, twice in 0.1× SSPE, 0.1% SDS at 42 °C for 15 min, in 0.1× SSPE, 0.1% SDS at 60 °C for 5 min, and then in 0.1×
SSPE at room temperature. Autoradiography was performed using Kodak
X-Omat AR-5 film.
-32P]dCTP (5,000 Ci/mmol, NEN Life Science Products)
to a specific activity of 1 × 108 cpm/µg of DNA.
Unincorporated [
-32P]dCTP was removed by G-50 gel
filtration. Hybridization was conducted by incubating the genomic DNA
gel with ACT cDNA probe (at 5 × 106 cpm/ml) in
5× SSPE, 5× Denhardt's solution, 0.1% SDS, 100 µg of salmon sperm
DNA at 60 °C overnight, followed by washing in 1× SPPE, 0.1% SDS
at 60 °C for 2 h, and a final wash in 0.1× SSPE, 0.1% SDS at
60 °C for 1 h. The genomic blot was then subjected to
autoradiography with Kodak X-Omat AR-5 film.
-32P]ATP
(5,000 Ci/mmol, NEN Life Science Products) to a specific activity of
1 × 109 cpm/µg. Unincorporated
[
-32P]ATP was removed by G-25 gel filtration. The
32P-labeled primer (1 × 107 cpm) was
annealed to 5.0 µg of poly(A)+ RNA by heating at 65 °C
for 1.5 h in 1× SuperScript II buffer (from Life Technologies,
Inc.) and then cooled to room temperature. Primers were extended with
SuperScript II reverse transcriptase (200 units, Life Technologies,
Inc.) at 48 °C for 90 min in 0.5 mM dNTP, 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.3, 2 mM MgCl2, 27 mM KCl, 10 mM dithiothreitol, and 120 µM actinomycin D (Boehringer Mannheim). RNase A (10 µg
from Boehringer Mannheim) was added, and incubation continued at
37 °C for 15 min. Sodium acetate was added to a final concentration
of 0.27 M, and the sample was subjected to
phenol/chloroform extraction, followed by chloroform extraction. The
aqueous phase was precipitated with ethanol, and the resultant
sedimented cDNA was resuspended in 10 µl of 40 mM
Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 20 mM MgCl2, 50 mM NaCl, 33% formamide, 0.05% bromphenol blue, and 0.05%
xylene cyanol FF. This sample was electrophoresed on an 8.0%
acrylamide-bis-acrylamide 19:1 (w/w) 7 M urea sequencing
gel in 1× TBE buffer (0.1 M Tris-HCl, 83 mM
boric acid, 1 mM EDTA). After electrophoresis, the gel was soaked for 15 min in 5% acetic acid, 15% methanol to remove urea and
was then dried for 1.5 h at 80 °C under vacuum. Autoradiography was performed with Kodak X-Omat AR-5 film.
RESULTS
Top
Abstract
Introduction
Procedures
Results
Discussion
References
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Fig. 1.
Strategy for RT-PCR of ACT cDNA from
hippocampus. Primers 1 and 2 and primers 3 and 4 were designed to
amplify 5' and 3'domains of the hippocampus ACT cDNA, respectively.
The overlapping 5' and 3' domains were predicted to include the RSL and
the NH2 terminus of mature, processed ACT, which
begins at the COOH terminus of the signal peptide sequence. Primers 5 and 6 allowed amplification of the 3'-UTR of the cDNA. Primer A was
used in primer extension analyses of ACT gene transcripts.
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Fig. 2.
RT-PCR of 5'and 3' domains of ACT cDNA
from hippocampus of AD and normal brains. A, RT-PCR of
the 5' domain of ACT cDNA, detected by DNA agarose gels. RT-PCR
with primers 1 and 2 generated a 790-bp DNA band from
poly(A)+ RNA isolated from hippocampus (H) of AD
and normal (N) brains (lanes 1 and 2,
respectively) as well as from human liver (L) (lane
3). B, RT-PCR of the 3' domain of ACT cDNA. RT-PCR
with primers 3 and 4 generated a DNA band of approximately 500 bp from
poly(A)+ RNA isolated from hippocampus (H) of AD
and normal (N) brains (lanes 1 and 2,
respectively) as well as from human liver (L) (lane
3).
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Fig. 3.
Complementary DNA sequence of human
hippocampus ACT. The ACT cDNAs obtained from hippocampus of
normal brains is illustrated. The open reading frame domains of ACT
cDNAs from normal and Alzheimer's disease brains were identical.
The DNA sequence of the 3'-UTR domain of the hippocampus ACT cDNA
(from normal brain) was also determined. Alignment of the DNA sequences
determined for overlapping 5' and 3' PCR fragments indicates the human
hippocampus ACT cDNA (shown in bold for nucleotides 111 to 1576), whose deduced primary sequence (shown in bold for
residues 7 to 398) corresponds to the mature ACT protein. The
positions of primers 1-6 used in RT-PCRs are shown by dotted
lines with arrows. Arrows above the His (+1)
and Asn (+3) residues indicate the predicted NH2 terminus
of the mature ACT, which lacks the signal sequence. The RSL domain is
boxed, with the predicted P1 residue as Leu
underlined. Consensus glycosylation sites are indicated by
asterisks under the Asn residues as possible sites of
glycosylation. The predicted 5'-region analyzed by primer extension is
shown (not bold) for nucleotides 1-110 (6, 17).
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Fig. 4.
Northern blot of ACT mRNA in hippocampus
from AD and normal hippocampus as well as liver. Northern blots of
total RNA isolated from hippocampus of normal (N) and AD
brains (10 µg of RNA each, lanes 1 and 2,
respectively) and liver poly(A)+ RNA (1 µg, lane
3) probed with the human ACT cDNA (6), as described under
"Experimental Procedures." Autoradiography of Northern blots (15 h
exposure to x-ray film) (lanes 1-3) showed ACT mRNA in
hippocampus and a high level of ACT mRNA in liver. Intact ribosomal
RNAs were detected by ethidium bromide staining of the RNA samples on
denaturing formaldehyde gels (data not shown). kb,
kilobases.
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Fig. 5.
Slot blot of ACT mRNA in hippocampus and
liver. Slot blots of poly(A)+ RNA (with the indicated
amounts of RNA) from hippocampus and liver were performed to compare
ACT mRNA levels in these two tissues. Hybridization of slot blots
with ACT cDNA as probe was performed identically as described for
Northern blots of ACT mRNA (Fig. 4). Northern blots were subjected
to autoradiography (15 h exposure to x-ray film) for detection of ACT
mRNA.
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Fig. 6.
Genomic blot of human ACT. DNA agarose
(0.8%) gel electrophoresis of KpnI-, HindIII-,
or EcoRI- (lanes 1-4 respectively) digested
human genomic DNA (10 µg) as well as undigested control DNA
(lane 5) was subjected to in situ hybridization
with the human liver ACT cDNA as probe (6), as described under
"Experimental Procedures." kb, kilobases.
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Fig. 7.
Primer extension of ACT mRNA from
hippocampus and liver. Primer extension of poly(A)+
RNA from hippocampus and liver (lanes 1 and 2,
respectively) was conducted with 32P-labeled primer
5'-CTGCCTCAGGGAGCTGGA-3'. The 32P-extended cDNA was
analyzed on 8% acrylamide, bis-acrylamide, 7 M urea DNA
sequencing gels, with detection of the extended cDNA by
autoradiography, as described under "Experimental Procedures."
Arrows indicate the radiolabeled cDNAs of 58 bp obtained
by primer extension.
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Fig. 8.
Deglycosylation of ACT in hippocampus of
Alzheimer's disease and normal brains as well as in liver.
Deglycosylation by N-glycosidase F of ACT in tissue extracts
from hippocampus of AD and normal brains as well as human liver ACT was
assessed by Western blots with anti-ACT serum. Panel A shows
ACT in normal (N) and AD hippocampus (lanes 1 and
3, respectively). ACT in these tissues was also incubated
with (+) N-glycosidase F (lanes 2 and
4, respectively). Panel B shows human liver ACT
without and with N-glycosidase F treatment (lanes
1 and 2, respectively).
DISCUSSION
Top
Abstract
Introduction
Procedures
Results
Discussion
References
-converting enzyme (20, 21) and caspase cysteine proteases (22, 23)
are inhibited by the CrmA serpin encoded by the cowpox virus (24). In
addition, ACT has been demonstrated as a potent inhibitor of a cysteine
protease, known as prohormone thiol protease (PTP), that is involved in
pro-neuropeptide processing (25). It may, therefore, be logical to
predict that ACT in Alzheimer's disease or normal brains may regulate
a serine or cysteine protease.
-peptide in amyloid plaques of AD
brains (1, 2). Target proteases regulated by ACT in brain may be
colocalized with intracellular or extracellular ACT. Knowledge of the
molecular identity of ACT obtained in this study will allow future
identification of target proteases that may be regulated by ACT in
normal and AD brains.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We appreciate the encouragement and enthusiasm of the late Professor Tsunao Saitoh (Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego) for this study. We also thank the Harvard Brain Tissue Center (McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA) for brain tissues and the DNA core facility at the Center for AIDS Research at the University of California, San Diego for automated DNA sequencing.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported by a National Institutes of Health grant (NINDS).The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
The nucleotide sequence(s) reported in this paper has been submitted to the GenBankTM/EMBL Data Bank with accession number(s) AF089747.
§ The first two authors contributed equally to this study.
** To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr. 0822, La Jolla, CA 92093-0822. Tel.: 619-543-7161; Fax: 619-543-2881; E-mail: vhook{at}ucsd.edu.
The abbreviations used are: AD, Alzheimer's disease; RSL, reactive site loop; RT-PCR, reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; ORF, open reading frame; bp, base pair(s); UTR, untranslated region; SSPE, saline/sodium phosphate/EDTA; PTP, prohormone thiol protease.
2 S-R. Hwang and V. Y. H. Hook, manuscript in preparation.
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REFERENCES |
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