From the Departments of a Ophthalmology, h Pharmacology, and i Chemistry, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington 98195, the c Department of Biochemistry, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, the d Department of Pediatrics, Section on Medical Genetics, Bowman Gray School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157, and f Moran Eye Center, University of Utah Health Science Center, Salt Lake City, Utah 84132
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ABSTRACT |
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The mammalian retina contains at least two
guanylyl cyclases (GC1 and GC2) and two guanylyl cyclase-activating
proteins (GCAP1 and GCAP2). Here we present evidence of the presence of
a new photoreceptor-specific GCAP, termed GCAP3, which is closely
related to GCAP1. The sequence similarity of GCAP3 with GCAP1 and GCAP2 is 57 and 49%, respectively. Recombinant GCAP3 and GCAP2 stimulate GC1
and GC2 in low [Ca2+]free and inhibit
GCs when [Ca2+]free is elevated, unlike
GCAP1, which only stimulates GC1. GCAP3 is encoded by a distinct gene
present in other mammalian species but could not be detected by genomic
Southern blotting in rodents, amphibians, and lower vertebrates. The
intron/exon arrangement of the GCAP3 gene is identical to that of the
other GCAP genes. While the GCAP1 and GCAP2 genes are arranged in a
tail-to-tail array on chromosome 6p in human, the GCAP3 gene is located
on 3q13.1, suggesting an ancestral gene duplication/translocation event. The identification of multiple Ca2+-binding proteins
that interact with GC is suggestive of complex regulatory mechanisms
for photoreceptor GC.
Absorption of light by rhodopsin results in a decrease of [cGMP]
within photoreceptor outer segments (1). This leads to the closure of
cGMP-gated cation channels and reduction in Ca2+ influx
(reviewed in Refs. 2 and 3). In addition, Ca2+ is
continuously extruded from the photoreceptor cells by a
light-independent Na+/Ca2+-K+
exchanger (4). The net result of photoactivation is a decrease in
intracellular [cGMP] and [Ca2+]. Guanylyl
cyclase-activating proteins
(GCAPs)1 are activated by
this decrease in [Ca2+] and accelerate cGMP production by
stimulating GCs. Increase in [cGMP] leads to the opening of the
cation channels and restores the dark conditions of photoreceptors (5).
Two GCAPs have been identified in photoreceptors, GCAP1 (6) and GCAP2
(7, 8), as well as two guanylyl cyclases, GC1 (9, 10) and GC2 (11). GCAP1 exclusively stimulates GC1, while GCAP2 stimulates both GC1 and
GC2 (12). Recently, a third GCAP-like photoreceptor protein, guanylyl
cyclase-inhibitory protein, termed GC1P, was identified in frog cone
photoreceptors and also was shown to interact with GC (13).
GCAPs are Ca2+-binding proteins belonging to the calmodulin
superfamily but they only have three functional EF-hand motifs. GCAP1
and GCAP2 genes are organized in a tail-to-tail array in vertebrates
(14-16). In humans, the array is located on the short arm of
chromosome 6 (p21.1). A defect in the GCAP1 gene (Y99C) has recently
been linked to autosomal dominant cone dystrophy (17-19), which
affects cones but not rods. The Y99C mutation has been shown to alter
Ca2+ sensitivity of GCAP1, leading to the constitutive
stimulating activity of GC1 at high [Ca2+], where normal
GCAP1 inhibits it. GCAP1 has been localized to rod and cone
photoreceptor outer segments in the retina of various species (8, 15,
20, 21), while GCAP2 has been detected in cone inner segments (22),
rods (7), and the inner retina (15, 21). GCAP1 has been proposed to be
a major regulator of GC in the preparations of bovine rod outer
segments (ROS) (6, 8). In humans, the most intense labeling with
anti-GCAP1 antibodies has been observed in cone outer segments, and
weaker labeling has been observed in rod outer segments (8, 21). Since
human rods are unaffected in autosomal dominant cone dystrophy, GCAP2 or a third GCAP-like Ca2+-binding protein may substitute in
part for the mutant GCAP1, or rods are less sensitive to elevated cGMP
levels (18). In this paper, we describe molecular cloning and
characterization of a third form of GCAP, GCAP3, which by sequence
similarity appears to be more closely related to GCAP1 than to GCAP2.
This novel isoform provides additional evidence of complex regulations
of cGMP production/degradation in photoreceptor cells from different species and of the existence of an evolving family of GCAP genes.
cDNA Cloning of GCAP3--
GCAP3 was amplified from a
Northern Blot Analysis--
Total RNA was isolated from human
retinal tissue, obtained from The Wisconsin Eye Bank at the University
of Wisconsin, or from bovine retinas (Schenk Packing Co., Inc,
Stanwood, WA) using the Ultraspec RNA isolation system (Biotecx, Inc.).
mRNA was purified from total RNA using the mRNA purification
kit (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech), resolved by agarose gel
electrophoresis in the presence of 0.66 M formaldehyde, and
transferred to nylon membranes. Hybridization with a
32P-labeled human GCAP3 cDNA (1 kb) was performed in
40% formamide, 10% dextran sulfate, 1% SDS, 1 M NaCl, 35 µg/ml of herring sperm DNA in 50 mM Tris, pH 7.4. Hybridizations were washed at room temperature in 0.3 M
NaCl, 0.03 M sodium citrate, 0.1% SDS for 30 min followed
by 30 min at 50 °C in 0.015 M NaCl,
0.0015 M sodium citrate, and 0.1% SDS. A human
multiple-tissue Northern blot containing 2 µg of poly(A)+
RNA from various human tissues (CLONTECH
Laboratories, Inc.) was hybridized with the 32P-labeled
GCAP3 or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase cDNA according to
the manufacturer's instructions.
Expression of GCAP3 in Insect Cells--
The full coding
sequence for GCAP3 was amplified from human retina cDNA by PCR with
primers K9 (5'-CAT ATG GGG AAT GGC AAA TCT ATA GCTG), which placed an
NdeI site on the ATG, and K10 (5'-CTA GTG ATG GTG ATG GTG
ATG CTT CAT TTT CAC CTT CCC TAG ACC AG), which added a His6
tag at the 3'-end. PCR was performed using a denaturing temperature of
94 °C for 30 s and an annealing and extension temperature of
68 °C for 2 min through 35 cycles. The PCR product was cloned in
pCRII-TOPO vector (TOPO TA Cloning Kit, Invitrogen) and sequenced by
dyedeoxyterminator sequencing (ABI-Prism, Perkin-Elmer). An XbaI-HindIII fragment was inserted between
corresponding sites of the pFastBac1 expression vector (Life
Technologies, Inc.). Sf9 insect cells were transfected with the
recombinant baculovirus shuttle vector using cationic liposome-mediated
transfection (CellFECTIN reagent; Life Technologies) according to the
manufacturer's protocol.
Expression of GCAP3 in Escherichia coli--
The coding sequence
for GCAP3 was amplified from human retina cDNA by PCR with primers
K9 (5'-CAT ATG GGG AAT GGC AAA TCT ATA GCTG), which placed an
NdeI site on the ATG, and K20 (5'-CTA CTT CAT TTT CAC CTT
CCC TAGA), using a denaturing temperature of 94 °C for 30 s and
an annealing and extension temperature of 68 °C for 2 min through 35 cycles. The PCR product was cloned in pCRII-TOPO vector and sequenced
by dyedeoxyterminator sequencing. GCAP3 was inserted as a fragment
NdeI-BamHI in pET-3b vector (Novagen). GCAP3 was
expressed in BL21 bacteria after induction with 0.2 mM
isopropyl-1-thio- Preparation of Anti-GCAP3 Antibodies--
Rabbit anti-GCAP3
polyclonal antibodies (UW84) were raised in New Zealand White rabbits
by subcutaneous immunization with 100 µg of GCAP3 expressed in
E. coli mixed with an equal volume of complete Freund's
adjuvant (Cocalico Biologicals, Reanstown, PA). Animals were given
booster injections at 1-2-week intervals with 50 µg of GCAP3 mixed
with incomplete Freund's adjuvant. UW14 (anti-GCAP1) and UW50
(anti-GCAP2) were prepared following the same procedure (8, 23).
Purification of UW14, UW50, UW84, and UW87--
For UW50, 2 ml
of rabbit serum UW50 diluted 1:1 in 10 mM
1,3-bis[tris(hydroxymethyl)-methylamino]propane, pH 7.5, containing 50 mM NaCl, were depleted of antibodies cross-reacting with
GCAP1 by filtering through a GCAP1-Sepharose column (1.5 ml; 8 mg of protein/ml of CNBr-activated Sepharose 4B). The flow-through was then
applied on a GCAP3-Sepharose (1.5 ml; 8 mg of protein/ml of
CNBr-activated Sepharose 4B) to remove GCAP3 cross-reacting antibodies.
The anti-GCAP2 antibodies present in the flow-through were finally
purified on GCAP2-Sepharose (1.5 ml; 8 mg of protein/ml of
CNBr-activated Sepharose 4B) and eluted with 0.1 M glycine, pH 2.5. For UW14, rabbit serum UW14 was depleted of cross-reacting antibodies by passing through GCAP2 and GCAP3 columns and then purified
on GCAP1-Sepharose. For UW84, the flow-through of successive GCAP1 and
GCAP2 columns loaded with rabbit serum UW84 was purified on
GCAP3-Sepharose. UW87 antiserum was prepared against a 20-amino acid
peptide, amide-CETDSSKSPDKAGLGKVKMK prepared by Quality Controlled Biochemicals Inc., conjugated to keyhole limpet hemocyanin. The sequence is derived from the C-terminal region unique to GCAP3. The
peptide also contains the N-terminal Cys to facilitate conjugation to
keyhole limpet hemocyanin and CNBr-activated Sepharose. UW87 antiserum
was purified on GCAP3-Sepharose.
Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay--
Microtitration plates
were coated for 1 h at 37 °C with purified GCAP1 or GCAP2
at about 0.8 µg/well. After coating, plates were blocked with PBS,
3% bovine serum albumin for 1 h at room temperature. After
washing with PBS, 0.05% Tween, anti-GCAP1 (UW14), anti-GCAP2 (UW50),
or anti-GCAP3 (UW84), antibodies (0.45 µg) were added to the plates
with increasing amounts of competitors (GCAP1, GCAP2, and GCAP3) for
1 h at room temperature. After washing with PBS, 0.05% Tween, the
plates were incubated with alkaline phosphatase-conjugated goat
anti-rabbit IgG (Promega) for 30 min at room temperature. The plates
were read at 405 nm after the addition of p-nitrophenyl phosphate.
GC Assays--
The GC assays were performed using
[
The results of GC assays are an average of two determinations. Similar
results were obtained from at least three different sets of experiments
performed in duplicate. Due to the high sensitivity of the GC system
(for details, see Ref. 8), the absolute values of one series
occasionally varied from another by 10-20%, but with preservation of
the ratio between activity of two different preparations (for example,
the activity of GCAP1 versus GCAP3). Because only a limited
number of the test samples could be performed in a single assay
(maximally 24 samples) that always included a relevant control (low,
high [Ca2+]free and with or without GCAP1),
the results are shown without S.D. values. The IC50 and
EC50 with S.D. were calculated from these independent experiments.
Southern Blotting--
Genomic Southern blots containing
EcoRI-digested DNA from various species were purchased from
BIOS laboratories (New Haven, CT). The blots were probed with
32P-labeled human GCAP3 cDNA insert. The hybridization
and washing procedures were performed according to the manufacturer's
protocol. Briefly, hybridization was carried out overnight with
107 cpm/ml of labeled GCAP3 cDNA at 65 °C in 6× SSC
(0.9 M NaCl, 0.09 M sodium citrate), 1% SDS,
5× Denhardt's solution (0.1% polyvinylpyrrolidone, 0.1% Ficoll,
0.1% bovine serum albumin), 200 µg/ml sheared, denatured salmon
sperm DNA, and 10% dextran sulfate. The washing solution contained 1×
SSC (0.15 M sodium chloride, 0.015 M sodium
citrate), 0.5% SDS and was performed at room temperature and at
35 °C for 10 min each. The blots were finally exposed to Kodak XAR5
film in the presence of intensifying screens.
Gene Characterization--
A bacterial artificial chromosome
(BAC) clone containing the entire GCAP3 gene was purchased from Genome
Systems, Inc. BAC DNA was prepared using the Qiagen method for low copy
plasmids (Qiagen). Introns b and c of the GCAP3 gene were amplified
with exon-specific primers from human genomic DNA with Taq
(Promega) or Expand (Boehringer Mannheim) DNA polymerases.
Amplified introns were cloned into pCR2.1 vector and sequenced with
universal primers using a model LI-COR 4000L automatic DNA sequencer.
The junctions of intron a were directly sequenced from the BAC clone
using fluorescent chain terminators and an ABI automatic sequencer. PCR
was performed with 2 µg of BAC DNA, and 20 pmol of primer. The cycle
conditions (MJ cycler, MJ Research) were 95 °C for 5 min (96 °C
for 20 s, cooling at 1 °C/s to 50 °C, 50 °C for 15 s, heating at 1 °C/s to 60 °C, 60 °C for 4 min). The cycle
shown in parentheses was repeated 49 times. The length of intron a was
estimated from EcoRI-digested fragments of the BAC clone,
probed after Southern blotting with DNA containing exons 1 and 2 (results not shown). Genomic sequences upstream of ATG and downstream
of the translational stop codon were obtained by direct BAC sequencing
with sequence-specific primers.
Chromosomal Localization--
The chromosomal location of the
human GCAP3 gene was identified by PCR with primers 654 (5'-ATG GGG AAT
GGC AAA TCT ATAG) and 655 (5'-CGT GTC AAA GGT ATT ATA AAC TTG) using
human-hamster somatic cell hybrids (BIOS Laboratories) as templates.
The PCR amplification was performed as described previously (24). For subchromosomal localization, the GCAP3 cDNA probe was labeled with
biotin-14-dATP using the BioNick labeling system (Life Technologies). The probe was hybridized to prometaphase chromosomes prepared from
chromosomal normal peripheral blood lymphocytes obtained by standard
clinical laboratory techniques. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) was performed as described previously (24) with
some modifications. Pretreatment was performed with 0.1 µg/ml proteinase K (Sigma) in 0.3 M NaCl, 0.03 M
sodium citrate (2× SSC). The probe (200 ng) was combined with Cot-1
DNA, precipitated with ethanol, and hybridized to metaphase chromosomes
for 72 h. Postwashing was done at 45 °C with a 5-min incubation
in 50% formamide, 2× SSC followed by a 2-min rinse in 2× SSC and
PBS. The labeled probe was detected after two layers of
avidin-fluorescein (ONCOR, Gaithersburg, MD). Slides were
counterstained with 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (Vysis, Downer's
Grove, IL) diluted 1:1 with antifade (Vectashield, Vector, Burlingame,
CA). Hybridized G band-like metaphase cells were obtained and viewed
using the M-FISH version 3.012 software program in the VYSIS QUIPS
Imaging system.
Cloning of GCAP3 cDNA--
An expressed sequence tag
(GenBankTM accession number AA364442) with homology to GCAPs was found
by searching data bases with GCAP2 sequence using the TFASTA program
(GCG Package). Primers designed within this expressed sequence tag were
used to amplify the 5'- and 3'-ends of GCAP3 in two overlapping
fragments by PCR employing a human retina cDNA library. A
contiguous cDNA comprising the complete coding sequence, suitable
for expression, was amplified using N- and C-terminal primers. The
first ATG present on the cDNA matched the Kozak consensus sequence
(25) for initiation of translation with a G residue following the ATG
and a purine, preferably A, three nucleotides upstream (Fig. 3). The
cDNA encodes a protein of 209 amino acids with a calculated
molecular mass of 23.8 kDa (Fig. 1). The
sequence shows a putative site for N-myristoylation at
Gly2 and three putative EF hands involved in
Ca2+ binding. The amino acid sequence of GCAP3 shares
closest homology with the human GCAP1, displaying 58% similarity and
45% sequence identity (Fig. 1, dendrogram). GCAP3 is an
acidic protein with an isoelectric point of 4.8. This value is
similar to those calculated for GCAP1 (pKa = 4.1)
and GCAP2 (pKa = 4.5).
Splice Variants--
PCR amplification of GCAP3 and screening of a
human retina cDNA library yielded normal GCAP3 cDNA clones and
also two distinct variants, which have retained 40 base pairs of intron
c (Fig. 3). One variant carried a G Tissue Distribution of GCAP3 Expression--
The expression of
GCAP3 was tested in different human tissues by Northern blot analysis
(Fig. 2). A single mRNA of 1.3 kb was
detected primarily in human retina. A low intensity band of the same
mobility was detectable in skeletal muscle, but no attempt has been
made to verify its identity. Using human GCAP3 cDNA as a probe, a
GCAP3 ortholog was not detectable in bovine (Fig. 2) and mouse retina
(data not shown), suggesting low levels of expression or a low degree
of sequence conservation.
Gene Structure of GCAP3--
A human BAC genomic DNA library was
screened with the full-length GCAP3 cDNA probe (Genome Systems,
Inc.) and two positive clones were obtained. One of the BAC clones was
used for direct sequencing to determine the positions of the intron and
exon splice junctions. The GCAP3 gene (Fig.
3A) consists of four exons and three introns localized at the same positions as those of GCAP1 and
GCAP2 genes. The lengths of the GCAP3 introns are larger, and the
intron sequences show no sequence similarity with corresponding introns
of the GCAP1 and GCAP2 genes (Fig. 3C). The GCAP3 gene encompasses more than 25 kb of genomic DNA, while the GCAP1/GCAP2 gene
array is contained in less than 20 kb. The identical gene structure of
the GCAP genes suggests that they were generated by gene duplication
from a common ancestral gene.
Chromosomal Localization of the GCAP3 Gene--
Amplification of a
portion of exon 1 of the GCAP3 gene with primers 654 and 655 (Fig.
3A) from human-hamster somatic hybrid panels located the
gene to chromosome 3. The GCAP3 gene localization was further analyzed
by FISH using a GCAP3 cDNA probe, which fine-mapped the gene to
3q13.1 on banded metaphase chromosomes (Fig. 3D). The locus
of the GCAP3 gene on chromosome 3, at band q13.1, is different from the
loci of GCAP1 and GCAP2 both arranged in a tail-to-tail cluster on
chromosome 6 (p21.1). This suggests that GCAP genes not only have been
duplicated but also have been translocated to another chromosome.
Southern Blot Analysis--
The presence of the GCAP3 gene in
diverse species was analyzed by genomic Southern blotting under
stringent hybridization conditions. A signal, distinct from those
observed with GCAP1 and GCAP2 genes, was detected in tamarin, human,
pig, cat, chicken, cow, sheep, and dog, but not in rodents. Under the
hybridization conditions, the GCAP3 gene was not detectable in
amphibians, fish, invertebrates, and prokaryotes (Fig.
4). The results suggest that the GCAP3
gene sequence is well conserved only in some of the higher
vertebrates.
Activity of GCAP3 Expressed in Insect Cells--
GCAP3 was
expressed in insect cells, purified by affinity chromatography, and
assayed for stimulation of GC. GCAP3 was partially myristoylated
(>75%, data not shown) as determined using [3H]Leu and
[3H]myristic acid (28). Myristoylation of GCAP3 was not
absolutely required for activity, since unmyristoylated GCAP3 expressed
in E. coli had approximately 50% of the specific activity
of GCAP3 expressed in insect cells. In contrast, GCAP1 and GCAP2
expressed in E. coli were only ~5 and ~20% as active as
the native GCAPs, respectively.
At low [Ca2+], GCAP3 stimulated photoreceptor GC in
washed ROS and in recombinant GC1 with similar affinity and
efficiency (Fig. 5, A and
B, insets) and displayed Ca2+
sensitivity comparable with GCAP1 (Fig. 5, A and
B). To test if GCAP3 and GCAP1 interact with the same site
on GC1, competition assays were done with a constitutively
active GCAP1(E75D,E111D,E155D) triple mutant. This mutant does not
bind Ca2+ and thus activates GC at high
[Ca2+]free (28). Similar amounts of GCAP1 and
GCAP3 competed with the triple mutant (Fig. 5C), suggesting
that the binding sites for both proteins are at least partially
overlapping. Inhibition of the basal activity of GC was also observed
with GCAP3. GCAP1, GCAP2, and GCAP3 stimulated recombinant GC1 (Fig.
6, A, C, and E), while only GCAP2 and GCAP3 were capable of significant
stimulation of GC2 (Fig. 6, B, D, and
F).
Specificity of Anti-GCAP Antibodies--
To avoid cross-reactivity
between anti-GCAP antibodies, each anti-GCAP serum was depleted of
contaminating IgGs by affinity chromatography and subsequently
individually purified using the original antigen as affinity matrix.
Western and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used to test the
specificity of purified anti-GCAP1 (UW14), anti-GCAP2 (UW50), and
anti-GCAP3 (UW84) (see "Materials and Methods"). In addition,
anti-peptide antibody UW87, specific to the unique C terminus of GCAP3,
was obtained. On Western blot, all antibodies were monospecific (Fig.
7A). The binding of anti-GCAP1
antibody UW14 to GCAP1-coated plates was competed only by GCAP1 and not
by GCAP2 and GCAP3 in a molar range of dilution 1:1000 (Fig.
7B). The two other antibodies were also completely specific,
UW50 to GCAP2 and UW84 to GCAP3. These antibodies were used to verify
the level of expression of GCAP1, GCAP2, and GCAP3 in human and bovine
retina (Fig. 7C). GCAP1 and GCAP2 were readily detectable in
both tissues, while GCAP3 was not detected by UW84 under Western
conditions similar to those used with UW14 and UW50 (Fig.
7C). Longer exposure of the blot to the alkaline phosphatase substrate revealed weak staining (data not shown). In contrast, UW87
readily detected GCAP3 in human tissue and not in bovine tissue when
incubated overnight with the blot (Fig. 7C).
In this paper, we describe the characterization of a new guanylyl
cyclase-activating protein, termed GCAP3. The GCAP3 protein shows high
sequence similarity to GCAP1 (57%) and to a lesser degree to GCAP2
(49%) and other Ca2+-binding proteins (40% and 35%
similarity with recoverin and calmodulin, respectively). The homology
is localized mostly in and around the EF-hands able to bind
Ca2+ (Fig. 1). All GCAPs are predicted to have three
functional EF-hands for binding of Ca2+ and have acidic
isoelectric points, similar molecular masses (GCAP3, 23.4 kDa; GCAP1,
22.9 kDa; GCAP2, 23.4 kDa), and a consensus sequence for
N-myristoylation at Gly2. The myristoylation of
GCAP3 was confirmed by heterologous expression in insect cells in the
presence of [3H]myristic acid. The precise function of
the myristoylation in GCAPs is unclear, although this modification is
conserved among GCAPs and among related recoverins/neurocalcins (6, 29,
30).
Multiple-tissue Northern blot analysis revealed a single band of 1.3 kb
abundantly detectable only in human retina. The level of GCAP3
mRNAs in human retina was found at least as high or higher than
that of GCAP1 and GCAP2. This was surprising, since GCAP3 proteins
appear to be less abundant than GCAP1 and GCAP2 as judged by Western
blots with monospecific antibodies (Fig. 7). This discrepancy between
the mRNA and protein levels may be explained by the abundant transcription of mRNA encoding a splice variant retaining part of
intron c. Alternatively, the amount of GCAP3 in the retina may be
regulated at a posttranscriptional level. GCAP3 mRNA was not
detectable in bovine retina with human cDNA as a probe. Attempts to
clone GCAP3 from bovine and mouse cDNA by PCR or library screening were so far unsuccessful. However, the bovine GCAP3 gene was detectable in Southern blot analysis. Rodent genomic DNA, in contrast, did not
reveal distinct signals under the same stringency (Fig. 4), suggesting
the absence of the GCAP3 gene or lower sequence conservation within
these species.
Recently, localization of GCAP1 and GCAP2 has been investigated by
immunocytochemical methods in various species (15, 21). Clear
differences of the levels and cell distributions of GCAPs between
species were observed. Since the regulation of GCs by GCAPs is a key
step in light adaptation (desensitization) (3), these results were not
surprising, since different animals may evolve unique desensitization
mechanisms in controlling the levels of cGMP. The apparent differences
in the mRNA GCAP3 levels would be consistent with varying levels of
GCAP1 and GCAP2 in other species. In situ hybridization
results indicate that in human retina, GCAP3 mRNA is present in the
myoid region of
photoreceptors.2 GCAP3
monospecific antibodies suitable for immunocytochemical studies are
currently not available. A separate study dedicated to cellular
expression and subcellular localization of GCAP3 is currently under way.
The intron/exon arrangement of human GCAP3 is identical to that of the
GCAP1/GCAP2 gene array. However, the GCAP3 gene is not arranged within
the GCAP1/GCAP2 cluster but has been translocated to chromosome
3(q13.1) (Fig. 3D). Another cluster of genes comprises the
S-100 Ca2+-binding protein gene family on chromosome 1q21.
Some of the S-100 genes, however, are found also on other chromosomes
(31). Thus, the chromosomal location of GCAP1 and GCAP2 in a cluster on
6p and another homologous gene, GCAP3, on 3q has other precedents. It
is interesting to note that the positions of the two introns of the
human recoverin gene (located on 17q) are exactly as those of introns b
and c of the GCAP genes (Fig. 3C). The close relationship between the GCAP and recoverin gene structure suggests that these genes
were generated by gene duplication from a common ancestor. While GCAP1
on 6p21.1 is associated with autosomal dominant cone dystrophy, the
3q13.1 locus has not yet been associated with any known retinal disease.
The three GCAPs interact with GC1 employing overlapping sites, in part,
because they all compete with the constitutively active mutant of
GCAP1. The three GCAPs stimulate recombinant GC1 with a similar
affinity and efficiency. GCAP3 and GCAP2 activate both GC1 and GC2,
whereas GCAP1 activates only GC1. What is particular to GCAP2 and GCAP3
that would account for the specific interaction with GC2? Only seven
amino acids are identical or represent conservative substitutions
(Ser6, His38, Asn82,
Gln127, Pro131, Ile135, and
Ile168; see Fig. 1) between GCAP3 and GCAP2 on one side and
GCAP1 on the other. It is known, from hybrid studies between bovine
GCAP2 and neurocalcin (32), that the amino acids between
Lys30 and Phe49, and between Asn168
and Asn189, are necessary for GCAP2 to activate GCs. This
suggests that His38 and/or Ile168 of GCAP3
might be important for the interaction with GC2.
GCAP3 is the fifth Ca2+-binding protein that interacts with
GC. This list includes GCAP1, GCAP2, guanylyl cyclase-inhibitory protein, and perhaps S100
INTRODUCTION
Top
Abstract
Introduction
References
MATERIALS AND METHODS
gt10 human retina cDNA library in two overlapping fragments
using primers designed based on the expressed sequence tag clone
(a364442 deposited A. R. Kerlavage, The Institute for Genomic
Research, Rockville, MD). The 3'-end was amplified with primers K3
(5'-TGT GAG TCA AGA TGG GGA ATG GCA, gene-specific primer) and
gt10S
(5'-AGC AAG TTC AGC CTG GTA AG). After heating at 95 °C for 5 min,
the reaction was cycled 35 times through 94 °C for 30 s,
68 °C for 2 min. A secondary nested PCR amplification was carried
out with primers K4 (5'-GGC AAA TCT ATA GCT GGT GAT CAGA) and
gt10S
as described above. The 5'-end was amplified following the same PCR
conditions with primers K6 (5'-GGC CTT CTG ATT CAG ACC TTG CAG,
gene-specific primer) and
gt10S. At least two amplification products
for each PCR were subcloned into pCRII-TOPO vector (TOPO TA Cloning
Kit, Invitrogen) and sequenced by dyedeoxyterminator sequencing
(ABI-Prism, Perkin-Elmer).
-D-galactopyranoside. The bacteria were
sonicated for 5 min in water, and the extract was centrifuged at
80,000 × g for 20 min. The pellet containing the
inclusion bodies was solubilized in 8 M urea, 80 mM
-mercaptoethanol and incubated for 90 min at room
temperature. The insoluble material was centrifuged for 60 min at
340,000 × g. The supernatant was dialyzed against water.
-32P]GTP and washed ROS or using recombinant GC1 and
GC2 as described previously (23). GCAP1 and GCAP3 proteins used in the
GC assays were purified from insect cells on
Ni2+-nitrilotriacetic acid columns in nondenaturing
conditions according to the manufacturer's protocol (Qiagen).
[Ca2+]free was adjusted by EGTA/Ca buffer as
described previously (8). Bovine GC1 (obtained from Dr. R. Sharma) and
human GC2 (obtained from Dr. A. Dizhoor) were cloned into pVL941 and
expressed in High Five insect cells as described previously (8). The
cells were harvested; washed with 10 mM
1,3-bis[tris(hydroxymethyl)-methylamino]propane, pH 7.5, containing
100 mM NaCl, and resuspended at ~0.5 mg/ml for the GC assays.
RESULTS
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Fig. 1.
Alignment of GCAPs with recoverin and
calmodulin. 1, human GCAP3; 2, human GCAP1
(34); 3, human GCAP2 (14); 4, frog guanylyl
cyclase-inhibitory protein (13); 5, human recoverin (35);
6, human calmodulin (36) amino acid sequences.
Top left, dendrogram generated by PC/Gene
(Intelligenetics, Inc.) based on amino acid sequence similarity. The
numbers inside the dendrogram reflect percentage identities
with GCAP3 as 100%. Shaded areas denote EF-hand
motifs. Amino acid residues conserved in all six sequences are printed
white on black. Amino acids common to GCAP2 and
GCAP3, but distinct from GCAP1, are boxed.
T transition at the first base
of intron c, abolishing the exon/intron junction consensus sequence (Fig. 3). Conceptual translation of these variants predicts 196-residue polypeptides, which, if produced, would have a C-terminal domain distinct from other GCAPs. The fourth EF-hand motif would be in part
deleted and rendered nonfunctional. The 49-amino acid-long sequence
specific for the splice variants has 61% sequence similarity over a
stretch of 31 residues with human calbindin, a S100-like Ca2+-binding protein (26, 27). It is unclear whether these
variants would have GC-stimulating activity, since the C-terminal
region of GCAP1 is necessary for its interaction with GC (28), and the
truncation of the C terminus in the GCAP3 variant may lead to
inactivation. Preliminary quantitative PCR using specific primers suggested that the cDNA encoding GCAP3 may be less abundant than the splice variant (data not shown).
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Fig. 2.
Tissue distribution of GCAP3 mRNA.
A, a Northern blot containing 2 µg of poly(A) RNA from
human retina and from various human tissues was probed with
32P-labeled GCAP3 cDNA or with a control
32P-labeled glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase probe.
B, a Northern blot containing 2 µg of poly(A) RNA from
human and bovine retina was probed with 32P-labeled GCAP1,
GCAP2, or GCAP3 cDNA. The positions of size markers are shown on
the side.
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Fig. 3.
Partial gene sequence, exon/intron junctions
of human GCAPs, and chromosomal localization of human GCAP3.
A, gene sequence. Exons (x1-x4) are shown
in capital letters, introns (a-c) in
lowercase. All intron sequences are shown only partially.
Primers used for amplification of exons and introns are indicated by
arrows pointing to the left (antisense) or to the
right (sense). The predicted amino acid sequences of the
exons are shown in single letter code, and the residues are
numbered on the right. Capital letters
denote the normal GCAP3 sequence, and lowercase
letters show the predicted sequence of the splice variant
13b. The amino acid sequence of the splice variant is
numbered on the right in parentheses.
The putative area of sequence similarity to human calbindin is
boxed. The alternative splice site in intron c is marked by
a triangle. Potential polyadenylation sites (37) in the
3'-untranslated region are boxed. The beginning and end of
the 13b DNA sequence are identified by arrows. Functional
EF-hand consensus sequences for Ca2+ binding are
shaded. B, schematic
diagram of the gene structure that is identical for all
known GCAPs. C, intron/exon junctions of GCAP1 to -3 and
recoverin. The approximate lengths of the introns are given in the
far right column. bp, base
pairs. D, fluorescence in situ hybridization of a
GCAP3 cDNA probe to human chromosomes. The arrow
identifies the location of the GCAP3 gene on 3q13.1.
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Fig. 4.
Southern blots of various vertebrates
and invertebrates probed with GCAP3 cDNA. A,
EcoRI digests of genomic DNA from 11 mammalian species.
B, EcoRI digests of three mammalian DNAs, three
vertebrates, three invertebrates, yeast, and E. coli. Size
markers are indicated on the left. Fragments containing
coding sequences of the human GCAP3 gene are identified on the
right.
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Fig. 5.
Stimulation of GC activity by GCAP3.
A, Ca2+ titration of GC activity in washed ROS
membranes in the presence of 4 µg of GCAP3 or GCAP1. For GCAP1,
IC50 = 240 ± 42 nM
[Ca2+]free; for GCAP3, IC50 = 254 ± 48 nM [Ca2+]free.
Inset, dose dependence of GC activity in washed ROS by GCAP1
(EC50 = 0.7 ± 0.2 µM) and GCAP3
(EC50 = 0.6 ± 0.2 µM). B,
Ca2+ titration of GC1 activity in insect cell membranes in
the presence of 4 µg of GCAP3 or GCAP1. For GCAP1, IC50 = 180 ± 35 nM [Ca2+]free; for
GCAP3, IC50 = 204 ± 42 nM
[Ca2+]free. Inset, dose dependence
of GC1 activity in insect cells membranes by GCAP1 (EC50 = 0.8 ± 0.1 µM) and GCAP3 (EC50 = 1.0 ± 0.2 µM). C, inhibition of GC
stimulation by GCAP1 triple mutant. GC in washed ROS was stimulated by
1.5 µM GCAP1(E75D,E111D,E155D) mutant at
[Ca2+]free = 2 µM in the
presence of various concentrations of GCAP1 (IC50 = 0.7 ± 0.1 µM) and GCAP3 (IC50 = 0.6 ± 0.1 µM). , bovine GCAP1;
, human
GCAP3
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Fig. 6.
Stimulation of GC1 and GC2 by GCAP1, GCAP2,
and GCAP3. Dose dependence of bovine GC1 (bGC1) and
human GC2 (hGC2) stimulation at low and high
[Ca2+]free by recombinant bovine GCAP1
(bGCAP1; A and B), recombinant bovine
GCAP2 (bGCAP2; C and D), and
recombinant human GCAP3 (hGCAP3; E and
F). 50% of maximal stimulation was observed for the
following pairs: GCAP1/GC1, 0.8 ± 0.1 µM;
GCAP1/GC2, not measurable; GCAP2/GC1, 0.3 ± 0.1 µM;
GCAP2/GC2, 0.5 ± 0.2 µM; GCAP3/GC1, 1.0 ± 0.2 µM; and GCAP3/GC2, 1.1 ± 0.3 µM. ,
50 nM [Ca2+]free;
, 2 µM [Ca2+]free.
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Fig. 7.
Western blot analysis of the expression of
GCAPs in human and bovine retina using specific anti-GCAP
antibodies. A, specificity of anti-GCAP
antibodies. Anti-GCAP sera were depleted from cross-reactive IgGs and
purified as described under "Materials and Methods."
Lane 1, purified GCAP1 (1 µg); lane
2, purified GCAP2 (1 µg); lane 3,
purified GCAP3 (1 µg). a, SDS-polyacrylamide
gel stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250. Lane
S, standard proteins (94, 67, 43, 30, 20, and 14 kDa);
b-d, reactivity of GCAP1/GCAP2/GCAP3 by Western blot
analysis (loaded as in a) with anti-GCAP1 (UW14), anti-GCAP2
(UW50) and anti-GCAP3 (UW84), respectively. Lane
S, standard proteins (104, 81, 47.7, 34.6, 28.3, and 19.2 kDa). B, specificity of anti-GCAP antibodies tested by
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. a, anti-GCAP1. UW14
antibody (0.45 µg) and increasing amounts of GCAPs were added to
GCAP1-coated plates. GCAP2 and GCAP3 had no effect, and for GCAP1,
IC50 = 0.09 ± 0.02 µg; b, anti-GCAP2
antibodies; UW50 antibodies (0.45 µg) and increasing amounts of GCAPs
were added to GCAP2-coated plates. GCAP1 and GCAP3 had no effect, and
for GCAP2, IC50 = 0.10 ± 0.02 µg; c,
anti-GCAP3. UW84 antibodies (0.5 µg) and increasing amounts of GCAPs
were added to GCAP3-coated plates. GCAP1 and GCAP2 had no effect, and
for GCAP3, IC50 = 0.25 ± 0.04 µg. C,
Western blot analysis of the expression of GCAPs in bovine and human
retina. Human (H) or bovine (B) retinal extracts
(~8 µg each) were probed with anti-GCAP1 (UW14), anti-GCAP2 (UW50),
anti-GCAP3 (UW84), or anti-GCAP3 peptide (UW87).
DISCUSSION
(6, 7, 8, 13, 33). These findings do not
come as a surprise, since Ca2+ has been postulated to
control the rate of recovery to dark condition upon illumination and to
establish the level of desensitization during light adaptation (3). The
identification of multiple proteins that sense changes in
[Ca2+] within the cone and rod cells, including GCAP3
described in these studies, suggest complex regulatory mechanisms for
controlling the activity of photoreceptor GCs.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We are indebted to Dr. R. Sharma and Dr. A. Dizhoor for clones of GC1 and GC2. We thank Christopher von Kap-Herr for technical assistance in subchromosomal localization.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This research was supported by National Institutes of Health Grants EY08061 and EY08123 (to W. B.), a center grant from the Foundation Fighting Blindness (to W. B.), and awards from Research to Prevent Blindness, Inc. to the Departments of Ophthalmology at the University of Washington and the University of Utah.The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
The nucleotide sequence(s) reported in this paper has been submitted to the GenBankTM/EMBL Data Bank with accession number(s) AF109998-AF110001 (exons 1-4 of human genomic sequence, respectively) and AF110002 and AF110003 (for the cDNA sequence of GCAP3 and its splice variant, respectively).
b To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of Ophthalmology, University of Washington, Box 356485, Seattle, WA 98195-6485. Fax: 206-543-4414; Tel.: 206-543-7588; E-mail: fanfan{at}u.washington.edu.
e Present address: UCLA School of Medicine, 300 UCLA Medical Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095.
g Recipient of a Senior Investigator Award from Research to Prevent Blindness, Inc.
j Recipient of a Jules and Doris Stein Professorship.
2 R. N. Farris and K. Palczewski, unpublished results.
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ABBREVIATIONS |
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The abbreviations used are: GCAP, guanylyl cyclase-activating protein; GC, guanylyl cyclase; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; BAC, bacterial artificial chromosome; kb, kilobase(s); FISH, fluorescence in situ hybridization; ROS, rod outer segment(s).
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REFERENCES |
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