From the Department of Plant Biology, University of
Zürich, Zollikerstrasse 107, CH-8008 Zürich, Switzerland
and the
Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Innsbruck,
Innrain 52a, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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ABSTRACT |
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Chlorophyll breakdown in green plants is a long-standing biological enigma. Recent work has shown that pheophorbide a (Pheide a) derived from chlorophyll (Chl) is converted oxygenolytically into a primary fluorescent catabolite (pFCC-1) via a red Chl catabolite (RCC) intermediate. RCC, the product of the ring cleavage reaction catalyzed by Pheide a oxygenase, which is suggested to be the key enzyme in Chl breakdown in green plants, is converted into pFCC-1 by a reductase. In the present study, an in vitro assay comprising 18O2 Pheide a oxygenase and RCC reductase yielded labeled pFCC-1. Fast atom bombardment-mass spectrometric analysis of the purified pFCC-1 product revealed that only one of the two oxygen atoms newly introduced into Pheide a in the course of the cleavage reaction is derived from molecular oxygen. Analysis of the fragment ions located the oxygen atom derived from molecular oxygen on the formyl group of pyrrole B. This finding demonstrates that the cleavage of Pheide a in vascular plants is catalyzed by a monooxygenase. Chlorophyll breakdown is therefore indicated to be mechanistically related in higher plants and in the green alga Chlorella protothecoides.
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INTRODUCTION |
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The phenomenon of chlorophyll (Chl)1 breakdown in degreening plants has long been a topic of general biological interest (1). Although an estimated 1 billion tons of Chl are degraded annually on earth, the biochemical pathway of Chl catabolism has remained poorly defined because of difficulties in extracting and identifying the catabolic products of the porphyrin moiety (2). Only in the last few years have the colorless end products of catabolism been discovered in senescent leaves of several plant species (3-7). These nonfluorescent Chl catabolites (NCCs) share a 1-oxo-19-formylbilane structure (see Fig. 1). Oxidative cleavage at the C4/C5 meso position of the chlorin macrocycle appears to be a common step in Chl degradation and the formation of NCCs. NCCs formed in different organisms have the same basic tetrapyrrolic skeleton but differ from each other by species-specific modifications of the side chains (3-7).
The key step in Chl breakdown in green plants, the cleavage reaction of the porphinoid macrocycle, is catalyzed by an oxygenase that specifically recognizes pheophorbide a (Pheide a) (8). This iron-containing enzyme, Pheide a oxygenase (PaO), is located in the envelope of senescent chloroplasts (9). The oxygenase is the key enzyme in Chl catabolism; in two cases of stay-green mutants, one of them Mendel's "green peas," the genetic lesion responsible for high Chl retention during leaf senescence was shown to result in reduced PaO activity (10, 11). The conversion of Pheide a to a primary blue fluorescent catabolite (pFCC; Ref. 12) requires the joint action of PaO and a soluble stroma-located enzyme that reduces an intermediary red catabolite (RCC; Ref. 13) to pFCC (Fig. 1, Ref. 14). Both PaO and RCC reductase require reduced ferredoxin (Fd) as reductant. Although RCC reductase was found to be present at all stages of development and in all tissues examined (15), PaO seems to occur in gerontoplasts exclusively (16).
Chl breakdown has also been studied in the green alga Chlorella protothecoides. This alga excretes red pigments from the cells when grown in a glucose-rich, nitrogen-deficient medium (17, 18). These pigments were characterized as a mixture of bilins with the structure of 1-oxo-19-formylbilanes (18, 19), suggesting a similar mechanism of oxygenolytic cleavage (at C4/C5 of the porphinoid macrocycle) in green algae and degreening plants (6, 19). 18O-Labeling experiments with cultures of C. protothecoides that were degrading Chl demonstrated that only one of the two O atoms incorporated into the red pigments was derived from dioxygen (at the formyl group attached to pyrrole B) (20). These studies strongly suggest that the oxygenolytic cleavage is performed by a monooxygenase (19, 20).
Here we report experiments that examine the basic mechanism of the oxygenolytic cleavage of Pheide a by PaO in the dicot Brassica napus. Our major goal was to determine whether PaO from higher plants is a monooxygenase, as suggested for its algal counterpart. Because 18O-labeling in vivo was not feasible, an in vitro system employing partially purified PaO from senescent canola cotyledons was used to determine the mechanism of the oxygenolytic cleavage.
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES |
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Cultivation of Plants
Seedlings of canola, B. napus L. cv. Lirajet, were grown as described (8).
Isolation of PaO and RCC Reductase
Chloroplast membranes were prepared as described (8). The
supernatant of the first washing step was employed as the source of RCC
reductase in the labeling experiments. Washed gerontoplast membranes
were diluted to a [Chl] of 3 mg ml 1, solubilized with
1% (v/v) Triton X-100, and, after centrifugation at 150,000 × g for 1 h (8), PaO was partially purified from the
supernatant by chromatography on EAH-activated Sepharose (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) (12). The supernatant was loaded onto the EAH-activated Sepharose column that had been equilibrated with 25 mM Tris-Mes, pH 8.0, 0.1% Triton X-100, the column was
washed with the same buffer containing 0.1 M KCl (10 column
volumes), and the PaO activity was eluted with 0.2 M KCl in
equilibration buffer. Active fractions were pooled (EAH-Sepharose pool)
and concentrated 5-fold by ultrafiltration employing Centriplus-50 concentrators (Amicon). PaO activity was monitored in a standard assay
(8), and protein concentrations were determined by the method of
Bradford (21) following the protocol of Peterson (22).
18O-Labeling Experiments
The assay mixtures contained 0.5 ml of partially purified PaO
(equivalent to 20 g fresh weight), 0.5 ml RCC reductase
(equivalent to 20 g fresh weight), 30 µl each of NADPH (60 mM), glucose-6-phosphate (100 mM),
glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (10 units ml 1), and Fd
(10 mg ml
1). These components were pipetted into a 10-ml
flask equipped with a three-way stopcock to allow evacuation and
gassing. The flask was placed on ice and purged with N2 for
1 min followed by the addition of Pheide a to a final
concentration of 1 mM. After purging the reaction mixture
for an additional 5 min, the flask was evacuated (vacuum pump) for 5 min and than aerated with 18O oxygen (97%; Cambridge
Isotope Laboratories). After incubating the air-tight flask for 2 h at room temperature in the dark, the reaction was stopped by the
addition of 1.5 ml of ice-cold methanol. The solution was clarified by
centrifugation (12,000 × g; 5 min) and then stored in
liquid N2. Identical incubations were performed either in
the presence of air (i.e. 16O oxygen) or under
reduced pressure (i.e. under vacuum).
Purification of Reaction Products
18O-Labeled pFCC-1 (Bn-FCC-2) was isolated from the pooled reaction mixtures by reverse-phase HPLC (10). After two cycles of purification, pFCC-1 was desalted on a C18-SepPak cartridge (Waters) and lyophilized; the yield was approximately 30 µg of 18O-pFCC, as determined spectrophotometrically (10). 16O-pFCC-1 formed under 16O2 atmosphere was isolated in an identical manner; the yield was approximately 25 µg. For analysis by FAB-MS (Finnigan MAT-95, cesium gun at 20 keV; 2 µA; positive-ion mode; glycerin matrix), the samples of pFCCs were dissolved in methanol.
18O-pFCC-1--
m/z (%) = 633.4 (15),
632.1 (44), 631.1 (100, C35H41O618O
[M+1]+), 630.1 (36), 629.2 (18), 511.3 (13), 510.4 (40),
509.2 (59, [M + 1 C7H8NO]+ = [M + 1
ring
A]+), 493.0 (15), 492.2 (34, [M + 1
C8H1118O]+ = [M + 1
ring B]+), 490 (9).
16O-pFCC-1--
m/z (%) = 631.1 (18),
630.1 (46), 629.1 (100, C35H41N4O7 [M + 1]+), 628.3 (27), 627.3 (13), 509.1 (15), 508.3 (45),
507.0 (50, [M + 1 C7H8NO]+ = [M + 1
ring
A]+), 506.2 (25), 505.2 (11), 493.1 (14) 492.3 (28 [M + 1
C8H11O]+ = [M + 1
ring B]+), 491.3 (12).
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION |
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Chlorophyll breakdown in higher plants proceeds via an oxygenolytic opening of the porphinoid macrocycle that is essentially irreversible (3). This reaction is catalyzed by an oxygenase only detectable during leaf senescence. Present evidence supports the existence of a single major pathway of Chl breakdown in green plants in which Pheide a is converted, via RCC, to fluorescing catabolites, such as pFCC-1. The FCCs are further rapidly modified and deposited in the vacuoles as colorless, nonfluorescing tetrapyrroles (such as Bn-NCC-3, see Fig. 1). The biochemical mechanism of the decisive oxygenolytic cleavage of Pheide a in senescent plants is of particular interest. However, it is not possible to perform specific in vivo 18O-labeling from molecular oxygen, the suspected source of the oxygen atoms for the oxygenolytic cleavage, because high rates of respiration in senescing leaves would lead to the accumulation of labeled water. As an alternative approach, we performed enzymic cleavage of Pheide a in vitro using partially purified PaO; this would exclude interference with other oxygen-consuming reactions. The experiments were designed to yield isolatable quantities of pFCC-1 rather than RCC because accumulation of the latter inhibits the oxygenase reaction (14). According to a formal analysis, the formation of RCC from Pheide a involves, overall, the addition of two atoms each of oxygen and hydrogen, whereas the conversion from RCC into pFCC-1 requires two additional atoms of hydrogen (12, 13).
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To minimize nonspecific oxygen consumption by residual oxygen-dependent reactions likely to be present in the reaction assays employed for 18O-labeling experiments, PaO was partially purified from senescent canola cotyledons (Table I). Because the enzyme is localized in gerontoplast membranes (8, 9), it was possible to achieve a 6-fold purification by washing of membranes three times, solubilizing the activity with Triton X-100, and sedimenting Chl·protein complexes by centrifugation at 150,000 × g. After a chromatographic separation on EAH-activated Sepharose, PaO activity was enriched 121-fold, whereas 86% of the total initial activity was recovered.
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When partially purified PaO was incubated with RCC reductase in an in vitro assay containing Fd and a Fd-reducing system (NADPH, glucose-6-phosphate, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase), about the same quantities of pFCC-1 were formed from Pheide a in the presence of 16O2 oxygen and 18O2 oxygen, respectively. In contrast, the yield of pFCC-1 was reduced to only 9% when the incubation was performed under vacuum; the low level of pFCC-1 synthesis was probably due to residual oxygen present in the reaction mixture even after flooding the reaction flask with N2 and subsequent evacuation. 18O-Labeled and unlabeled pFCC-1 were purified by reverse-phase HPLC with a recovery of approximately 83 and 72%, respectively. As judged by their chromatographic behavior and spectroscopic properties (UV absorption and fluorescence), the samples were identical to authentic pFCC-1 (Bn-FCC-2) synthesized under natural atmospheric conditions (8, 12) (data not shown).
A molecular mass of m/z = 629.301 ± 0.004 was determined by high resolution FAB-MS for the authentic Bn-FCC-2, corresponding to a molecular formula of C35H41N4O7 (12). The identical result was obtained upon FAB-MS of 16O-pFCC-1 with an experimental m/z of 629.1 (Fig. 2 bottom). In the presence of 18O2, cleavage of Pheide a yielded a pFCC-1 with m/z = 631.1 (Fig. 2, top) for the molecular ion. The signal pattern of the molecular ion was similar in both cases, and the isotopic composition of 18O-pFCC-1 for oxygen could be estimated as 5% 16O7, 95% 18O16O6, and 0% 18O216O5 (3% S.D.). Accordingly, one of the two oxygen atoms introduced into pFCC-1 during 18O-labeling is derived from the 18O2 oxygen gas supplied.
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In the mass spectra of both 18O-pFCC-1 and
16O-pFCC-1, a fragment ion was observed (at
m/z = 507.1 versus
m/z = 509.1) to arise from the molecular ion
by loss of 122 mass units, corresponding to loss of an unlabeled ring
A-unit (C7H8NO) (Fig.
3). In contrast, in both mass spectra a
common fragment was found at m/z = 492.1, indicating loss of the ring B-unit as
C8H11N16O (137 mass units) and
C8H11N18O (
139 mass units),
respectively, in the spectra of 16O-pFCC-1 and
18O-pFCC-1. These results show that 18O
incorporation had occurred at the formyl group attached at pyrrole B,
whereas the lactam oxygen of ring A is not derived from molecular oxygen.
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The mass spectrometric analysis of 18O-pFCC-1 revealed the incorporation of one oxygen atom derived from molecular oxygen, indicating that PaO catalyzes the regioselective attachment of that oxygen atom at the C5 position of Pheide a. As to the fate of the second O atom of dioxygen, which is not incorporated into the catabolite, the in vitro system may provide a preliminary answer because it is defined in terms of the cofactors added to the incubation mixture. It has been demonstrated that PaO isolated from senescent leaf tissues is an iron-containing enzyme that requires reduced Fd for the operation of its redox cycle (23). There seems little doubt that the second O atom of dioxygen is reduced to water and that the two electrons required are ultimately derived from reduced Fd (Fig. 4). On the other hand, the second oxygen atom that appears in the catabolite as the lactam oxygen at C4 of ring A is in all probability derived from water.
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We conclude that PaO, the enzyme that opens the ring of Pheide
a during Chl breakdown in degreening plants is a
monooxygenase that delivers an oxygen atom to the C5 position of the
Pheide a macrocycle. Earlier 18O-labeling
experiments with the green alga C. protothecoides yielded evidence for the incorporation of a single atom of dioxygen into the
tetrapyrrolic cleavage products. The algal enzyme responsible for the
ring cleavage reaction has correspondingly been suggested to be a
monooxygenase (20). It was further proposed that oxygenation proceeds
via formation of an epoxide at position C4/C5, which is subsequently
hydrolyzed to yield upon intramolecular rearrangement a red bilin
(related to RCC) in which the -methine bridge is saturated (19, 20).
This mechanism and the formation of an epoxide intermediate remain to
be verified.
It is not known whether the oxygenase reaction in C. protothecoides requires reduced Fd, as is the case in angiosperms.
However, the algal enzyme certainly appears to be distinct from its
counterpart in higher plants in several respects. First, in the alga,
the red tetrapyrrolic cleavage product is released and eventually excreted into the culture medium. In the case of higher plants, the
release of the oxygenation product RCC from PaO requires the action of
a second enzyme, RCC reductase, which catalyzes the reduction of the
-methine bridge to yield pFCC (12). The formation of pFCC is the
first in a series of modifications and conjugations that result in the
synthesis of NCCs, which are finally deposited in the vacuoles of
senescent mesophyll cells (24, 25). Furthermore, the monooxygenases of
C. protothecoides and of higher plants differ from each
other in their substrate specificity. Although the natural substrate of
the cleavage reaction (as well as its product) has yet to be elucidated
in the alga, red pigments derived from both Chl a and
b have been isolated from the medium of degreened algal cultures (26). In contrast, all catabolites that have been isolated from higher plants have been shown to be derived from Chl a
(3-7) and, in addition, the porphyrin-cleaving monooxygenase from
canola specifically recognizes Pheide a but not b
as substrate (8).
These differences between angiosperms and algae not withstanding, our findings support the notion of a common basic cleavage path for Chl in the plant kingdom. It seems likely that the type of monooxygenase responsible for the oxygenation of Pheide a in a higher plant such as B. napus is similar to that of the phylogenetically much older green alga. We speculate that this mode of Chl breakdown evolved at an early stage in the evolution of autotrophic organisms and is perhaps (nearly) as old as photosynthesis itself. One major difference between the algae and vascular plants is the way they eliminate chlorophyll catabolites. In the alga, the catabolites are excreted, whereas vascular plants have developed a more complex mechanism of intracellular detoxification. The coupling of Pheide a monooxygenase to RCC reductase represents the initial step in this surprisingly complicated process, whereby Chl is ultimately sequestered in the form of colorless catabolites, which are deposited in the vacuole.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT |
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We thank Howard Thomas for helpful discussions and critical review of the manuscript.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
§ Supported by a grant from the Swiss National Science Foundation.
** Supported by the Ministerium für Wissenschaft und Verkehr, Vienna, Austria.
¶ To whom correspondence should be addressed: Bernhard Kräutler, Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 52a, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria. Tel.: 43-512-507-5200; Fax: 43-512-507-2892; E-mail: Bernhard.Kraeutler{at}uibk.ac.at or to Stefan Hörtensteiner, Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research, Plas Goggerdan, Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, SY23 3EB, Wales, UK. Tel.: 44-1970-828-255; Fax: 44-1970-828-357; E-mail: horten{at}bbsrc.ac.uk.
1 The abbreviations used are: Chl, chlorophyll; FAB-MS, fast atom bombardment-mass spectroscopy; Fd, ferredoxin; pFCC, primary fluorescent Chl catabolite; NCC, nonfluorescent Chl catabolite; Pheide, pheophorbide; PaO, Pheide a oxygenase; RCC, red Chl catabolite; Mes, 4-morpholineethanesulfonic acid (systematic); HPLC, high performance liquid chromatography; relevant groups, rings, methine bridges, and carbon atoms of tetrapyrroles are given the same label as in Pheide a, depicted in Fig. 1.
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REFERENCES |
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