Characterization of a Mammalian Peroxiredoxin That Contains One Conserved Cysteine*

Sang Won KangDagger , Ivan C. Baines§, and Sue Goo RheeDagger par

From the Dagger  Laboratory of Cell Signaling and § Laboratory of Cell Biology, NHLBI, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892

    ABSTRACT
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Abstract
Introduction
Procedures
Results
Discussion
References

A new type of peroxidase enzyme, named thioredoxin peroxidase (TPx), that reduces H2O2 with the use of electrons from thioredoxin and contains two essential cysteines was recently identified. TPx homologs, termed peroxiredoxin (Prx), have also been identified and include several proteins, designated 1-Cys Prx, that contain only one conserved cysteine. Recombinant human 1-Cys Prx expressed in and purified from Escherichia coli has now been shown to reduce H2O2 with electrons provided by dithiothreitol. Furthermore, human 1-Cys Prx transiently expressed in NIH 3T3 cells was able to remove intracellular H2O2 generated in response either to the addition of exogenous H2O2 or to treatment with platelet-derived growth factor. The conserved Cys47-SH group was shown to be the site of oxidation by H2O2. Thus, mutation of Cys47 to serine abolished peroxidase activity. Moreover, the oxidized intermediate appears to be Cys-SOH. In contrast to TPx, in which one of the two conserved cysteines is oxidized to Cys-SOH and then immediately reacts with the second conserved cysteine of the second subunit of the enzyme homodimer to form an intermolecular disulfide, the Cys-SOH of 1-Cys Prx does not form a disulfide. Neither thioredoxin, which reduces the disulfide of TPx, nor glutathione, which reduces the Cys-SeOH of oxidized glutathione peroxidase, was able to reduce the Cys-SOH of 1-Cys Prx and consequently could not support peroxidase activity. Human 1-Cys Prx was previously shown to exhibit a low level of phospholipase A2 activity at an acidic pH; the enzyme was thus proposed to be lysosomal, and Ser32 was proposed to be critical for lipase function. However, the mutation of Ser32 or Cys47 has now been shown to have no effect on the lipase activity of 1-Cys Prx, which was also shown to be a cytosolic protein. Thus, the primary cellular function of 1-Cys Prx appears to be to reduce peroxides with the use of electrons provided by an as yet unidentified source; the enzyme therefore represents a new type of peroxidase.

    INTRODUCTION
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Abstract
Introduction
Procedures
Results
Discussion
References

Members of the family of peroxiredoxin (Prx)1 proteins show amino acid sequence homology to thioredoxin peroxidase (TPx), a 25-kDa peroxidase, initially identified in yeast, that reduces H2O2 with the use of electrons provided by thioredoxin (Trx) (1-4). More than 40 members of the Prx family have been identified in a wide variety of organisms ranging from prokaryotes to mammals (1), although it is not known whether all of these proteins actually catalyze the reduction of peroxides.

Yeast TPx exists as a homodimer and contains two essential Cys residues, Cys47 and Cys170, in each subunit. The Cys47-SH group is the primary site of oxidation by H2O2, and the oxidized Cys47 (probably Cys-SOH) rapidly reacts with Cys170-SH of the other subunit to form an intermolecular disulfide. This disulfide is subsequently reduced by Trx. Mutant TPx proteins that lack either Cys47 or Cys170 therefore do not exhibit Trx-coupled peroxidase activity (2, 5). Another well characterized member of the Prx family is alkyl hydroperoxide reductase from Salmonella typhimurium (6). This enzyme also contains two conserved cysteines that correspond to Cys47 and Cys170 of yeast TPx, and it reduces alkyl hydroperoxides with the use of electrons donated by the 57-kDa flavoprotein alkyl hydroperoxide reductase F (1, 7, 8).

Although most Prx family members contain two conserved cysteines that correspond to Cys47 and Cys170 of yeast TPx, seven Prx proteins from various organisms contain only one conserved cysteine residue, corresponding to Cys47 of yeast TPx (Fig. 1). Thus, members of the Prx family can be divided into two subgroups, 1-Cys and 2-Cys, the latter of which includes TPx and alkyl hydroperoxide reductase C. The full-length cDNA for a human 1-Cys Prx (clone HA0683) was identified as the result of a sequencing project with human myeloid cell cDNA (9). In addition to this 1-Cys Prx, human cells express three distinct 2-Cys Prx proteins, which have been referred to as TPx I to III because they reduce H2O2 in the presence of Trx (10). Whether 1-Cys Prx proteins also catalyze the reduction of peroxides and, if so, the identity of the electron donor have remained unknown.


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Fig. 1.   Sequence alignment of 1-Cys Prx family members. The deduced amino acid sequences of Homo sapiens (human) (GenBankTM accession number D14662), Mus musculus (mouse) (accession number Y12883), Onchocerca volvulus (nematode) (accession number U31052), Hordeum vulgare (barley) (accession number X76605), Oryza sativa (rice) (accession number D63917), Tortula ruralis (moss) (accession number U40818), Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) (accession number Z23261), and Sulfolobus sp. (archaea) (accession number U36479) were aligned with the use of the Genetics Computer Group's PILEUP program. The conserved cysteine ([star]), Cys91 (black-square), and the putative Gly-X-Ser-X-Gly motif (bullet ) of the human protein are indicated. Dots represent gaps introduced to optimize alignment, and residue numbers are indicated on the right.

Recently, the human 1-Cys Prx protein was shown to be a Ca2+-independent phospholipase A2 (PLA2) that exhibits maximal activity at pH 4 (11). This protein contains a five-amino acid motif, Gly-X-Ser-X-Gly (where X is any amino acid), that is present in many neutral lipases (12). We have now shown that recombinant human 1-Cys Prx mediates the reduction of H2O2 with the use of electrons from a nonphysiological donor, dithiothreitol (DTT). Although the physiological electron donor remains unknown, overexpression of the protein in NIH 3T3 cells revealed a peroxidase function in vivo. We also compared the catalytic mechanism of 1-Cys Prx with those of TPx, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and NADH peroxidase, all of which contain a cysteine or selenocysteine as the primary site of reaction with peroxides.

    EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
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Abstract
Introduction
Procedures
Results
Discussion
References

Materials-- Glutamine synthetase (GS) was purified from Escherichia coli as described (13). Recombinant human Trx, rat liver Trx reductase, and rat liver GPx were also purified as described previously (14-16). Yeast glutathione reductase was obtained from Calbiochem. Antiserum to 1-Cys Prx was generated by injecting rabbits with a keyhole limpet hemocyanin-conjugated peptide (PSGKKYLRYTPQ) that corresponds to a sequence in the COOH-terminal region of human 1-Cys Prx. Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM), minimum essential medium (MEM), Opti-MEM, fetal bovine serum, calf serum, trypsin-EDTA, and Lipofectamine were obtained from Life Technologies, Inc., and 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) was from Molecular Probes. A stock solution of FeCl3 was prepared in 0.1 M HCl, and stock solutions of ascorbate and DTT were prepared in distilled water and treated with Chelex 100 (Bio-Rad). Purification of recombinant TPx II will be described elsewhere.2

Bacterial Expression of Human 1-Cys Prx-- A full-length 1-Cys Prx cDNA was amplified from a U937 human lymphoma cell cDNA library (Stratagene) by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with two pairs of primers based on the sequence of clone HA0683 (9). PCR was performed first with forward (5'-ATC CCA GCG GCG GCG CCC CCT CAT CAC C-3') and reverse (5'-ATT GGC AGC TGA CAT CCT CTG GCT C-3') primers corresponding to nucleotides 14-37 and 743-767 of the HA0683 sequence, respectively. The second amplification reaction was performed with more internal forward primer (5'-TAT CAT ATG CCC GGA GGT CTG CTT CTC-3', which contains the initiation codon (boldface type) and an NdeI site (underlined)) and reverse primer (5'-ATT GGA TCC TTA AGG CTG GGG TGT GTA GC-3', which contains the stop codon (boldface type) and a BamHI site (underlined)). The resulting PCR product was cloned into the pCR3.1-Uni vector (Invitrogen) to produce pCRWT. The NdeI-BamHI fragment from pCRWT was then transferred to the E. coli expression vector pET-17b (Novagen) to generate pETWT.

Two mutant Prx proteins, C47S and C91S, in which Cys47 and Cys91 were individually replaced by serine, were generated by standard PCR-mediated site-directed mutagenesis with complementary primers containing a 1-base pair mismatch that converts the codon for cysteine to one for serine. The final mutated PCR products were also ligated into pCR3.1-Uni to produce pCRC47S and pCRC91S, the NdeI-EcoRI fragments of which were then transferred to pET-17b to generate pETC47S and pETC91S, respectively. We also prepared two mutant proteins, S32A and S32G, in which Ser32 was changed to alanine or glycine, respectively.

Purification of Recombinant 1-Cys Prx Proteins-- Escherichia coli strain BL21(DE3) harboring the appropriate plasmid was cultured at 37 °C overnight in 100 ml of LB medium supplemented with ampicillin (100 µg/ml) and then transferred to 10 liters of fresh LB medium in a Microferm Fermentor (New Brunswick Scientific). When the optical density of the culture at 600 nm reached 0.6-0.8, isopropyl-beta -D-thiogalactopyranoside was added to a final concentration of 0.4 mM. After incubation for 3 h, the cells were collected by centrifugation, frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at -70 °C until use. The 1-Cys Prx proteins were present in the soluble fraction of the bacterial cells (data not shown). During purification, recombinant 1-Cys Prx proteins were detected by immunoblot analysis with specific polyclonal antibodies.

Frozen cells (4 g) were suspended in 20 ml of buffer A (20 mM Hepes-NaOH (pH 7.0), 2 mM DTT, and 1 mM EDTA) and disrupted by pressure, and the resulting cell extract was centrifuged at 12,000 × g for 30 min. Streptomycin sulfate was added to the supernatant to a final concentration of 1%, and, after 30 min at 4 °C, the mixture was centrifuged at 12,000 × g for 30 min. Solid ammonium sulfate was slowly added, at 4 °C with stirring, to the resulting supernatant to 80% saturation, after which the mixture was stirred for an additional 1 h. The resulting precipitate was collected by centrifugation at 15,000 × g for 30 min and dissolved in 10 ml of buffer A containing 0.5 M (NH4)2SO4. Insoluble material was removed by centrifugation at 15,000 × g for 30 min, and the resulting supernatant was fractionated by high performance liquid chromatography on a TSK phenyl 5PW column (21.5 by 150 mm) that had been equilibrated with buffer A containing 1 M (NH4)2SO4. Proteins were eluted with a decreasing gradient of ammonium sulfate from 1 to 0 M over 60 min at a flow rate of 5 ml/min. Fractions of 1 ml were collected, and those (fractions 47-51) corresponding to the peak of 1-Cys Prx were pooled, dialyzed against 2 liters of buffer B (20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 2 mM DTT, and 1 mM EDTA), and concentrated in an Amicon concentrator. The concentrated sample was applied to a Mono Q HR10/10 column (Pharmacia Biotech Inc.) that had been equilibrated with buffer B, and the column was washed with the same buffer for 10 min. 1-Cys Prx was detected in the flow-through material, and those fractions containing the protein were pooled, dialyzed against 2 liters of buffer A, and stored at -70 °C until use. The mutant C47S, C91S, S32A, and S32G proteins were prepared by a procedure similar to that for the wild-type enzyme. If necessary, DTT and EDTA were removed from the protein preparation before use by dialysis or by desalting on a PD-10 column.

GS Protection Assay-- GS protection by 1-Cys Prx was measured as described previously (17) with a slight modification. The 25-µl reaction mixture, containing 0.5 µg of GS, 10 mM DTT or ascorbate, 5 µM FeCl3, 50 mM Hepes-NaOH (pH 7.0), and various concentrations of 1-Cys Prx, was incubated at 37 °C for 10 min, after which 1 ml of gamma -glutamyltransferase assay mixture was added, and the remaining activity of GS was measured at 37 °C for 3 min.

Cell Culture and Transfection-- Mouse NIH 3T3 fibroblasts and human A431 epidermoid carcinoma cells were cultured in DMEM containing penicillin (100 units/ml), streptomycin (100 units/ml), amphotericin B (0.25 µg/ml), and either 10% calf serum or 10% fetal bovine serum, respectively. Cells were continuously passaged for 3 months after thawing. For transfection, cells were plated at a density of 3 × 105/60-mm dish, allowed to recover for 24 h, and then incubated with 4 µg of appropriate DNA and 20 µl of Lipofectamine in 3 ml of Opti-MEM. After 6 h, 3 ml of DMEM containing 20% calf serum were added to the transfection mixture, and the cells were incubated for an additional 18 h. The medium was then aspirated, and cells were incubated for 18 h in fresh DMEM containing 0.5% calf serum before measurement of H2O2.

Assay of Intracellular Hydrogen Peroxide-- Intracellular H2O2 generation was measured with the fluorescent dye DCFH-DA as described (18), with a slight modification. Briefly, serum-deprived transfected cells were washed with MEM without phenol red and treated for 5 min with H2O2 (10 µM) or for 10 min with PDGF-AB (5 ng/ml) in the same medium. The cells were washed once with Krebs-Ringer solution and then incubated in the same solution, to which DCFH-DA (5 µg/ml) was added immediately before use. Culture dishes were sealed with paraffin film and placed in a CO2 incubator at 37 °C for 5 min, after which DCF fluorescence was measured with a Zeiss Axiovert 135 inverted microscope equipped with a X20 Neoflur objective and Zeiss LSM410 confocal attachment. Photo-oxidation of DCFH was avoided by collecting the fluorescence image by the use of a single rapid scan (1-s scan; four-line average; total scan time of 4.33 s) with identical parameters, such as contrast and brightness, for all samples. The cells were then imaged by differential interference contrast microscopy. Five groups of 10-20 cells were randomly selected from the image of each sample, and the profiles of the selected cells were individually traced in the differential interference image. The mean relative fluorescence intensity of each profile was then measured by overlaying the fluorescence image.

Assay of PLA2 Activity-- NIH 3T3 cells transfected with the appropriate DNA as described above were incubated for 24 h in DMEM supplemented with 10% calf serum. Cells were washed with and scraped into ice-cold phosphate-buffered saline and collected by centrifugation at 500 × g for 5 min. The resulting cell pellet was suspended in 0.5 ml of extraction buffer (20 mM Hepes-NaOH (pH 7.0), 1 mM EDTA, 5 mM DTT, and 10% (v/v) glycerol) and sonicated. The cell lysate was centrifuged at 15,000 × g for 10 min, and the resulting supernatant was subjected to a batch-type purification by mixing with 200 µl of DEAE-Sephacel (Pharmacia) that had been equilibrated with extraction buffer. The unbound fraction was collected after brief centrifugation, and PLA2 activity in this fraction was measured with mixed micelles that were prepared by sonicating a mixture of 1 mM 1-palmitoyl-2-[9,10-3H]palmitoyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphocholine and 4 mM Triton X-100 in saline. The reaction mixture contained 50 mM sodium acetate (pH 4.0), 1 mM EDTA, 0.1 mM [3H]phospholipid (0.5 µCi), and PLA2 source in a final volume of 250 µl. After incubation for 1 h at 37 °C, the lipid products were analyzed by thin layer chromatography for [3H]palmitic acid as described by Kim et al. (11).

    RESULTS
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Abstract
Introduction
Procedures
Results
Discussion
References

Chemical Properties of Cysteine Residues of 1-Cys Prx-- The peroxidase reaction of TPx proteins requires both conserved cysteine residues, because the oxidized enzyme intermediate generated during the catalytic cycle is a dimer in which the subunits are linked by one or two intermolecular disulfide bonds between Cys47 and Cys170 (see Fig. 10B). Human 1-Cys Prx contains one cysteine, at amino acid position 91, in addition to the conserved Cys47. To investigate whether 1-Cys Prx is indeed a peroxidase and, if so, whether both Cys47 and Cys91 are required for activity, we individually replaced each cysteine residue with serine. The corresponding recombinant mutant (C47S and C91S) and wild-type (WT) proteins were expressed in E. coli and purified from the soluble fraction of the bacterial cells. The purified proteins were heated at 95 °C for 5 min in SDS sample buffer, in the absence or presence of DTT, and analyzed by SDS-PAGE. In the absence of DTT, cysteine residues would be expected to be oxidized during heating. However, the WT, C47S, and C91S proteins were all detected at molecular sizes corresponding to the monomeric form regardless of the presence or absence of DTT (Fig. 2A). This result suggests that, unlike TPx enzymes, 1-Cys Prx does not form intermolecular disulfide linkages upon oxidation. However, whereas reduced (DTT-treated) forms of the WT, C47S, and C91S proteins showed identical electrophoretic mobilities, oxidized WT migrated slightly faster than the oxidized mutant proteins. Treatment of the WT enzyme with increasing concentrations of DTT resulted in a gradual shift in the protein band from the position of higher mobility to that of lower mobility (Fig. 2B). These observations suggest that oxidation of WT might result in the formation of an intramolecular linkage between Cys47 and Cys91 and thereby increase the compactness of the protein conformation.


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Fig. 2.   Analysis of WT and mutant 1-Cys Prx proteins by nonreducing SDS-PAGE. A, purified WT and C47S and C91S mutant 1-Cys Prx proteins (4 µg in 20 µl) were each mixed with 20 µl of reducing sample buffer (0.125 M Tris-HCl (pH 6.8), 4% (w/v) SDS, 20% (v/v) glycerol, and 10 mM DTT) (left panel) or nonreducing sample buffer (reducing sample buffer minus DTT) (right panel), heated at 95 °C for 5 min, subjected to SDS-PAGE on a 12% gel, and stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue. The middle lane shows prestained molecular size markers: bovine serum albumin (68 kDa), ovalbumin (43 kDa), carbonic anhydrase (29 kDa), and beta -lactoglobulin (18.4 kDa), respectively, from top to bottom. B, purified WT 1-Cys Prx (4 µg) in sample buffer containing the indicated concentrations of DTT was incubated at 95 °C for 5 min and subjected to SDS-PAGE as described in A.

In the absence of DTT, cysteine residues of 1-Cys Prx are likely to be oxidized to cysteine sulfenic acid (Cys-SOH). Sulfenic acid readily undergoes condensation with a thiol to form a disulfide (19). However, a sulfenic acid group of 1-Cys Prx might be able to react with the other cysteine only in the denatured conformation of the protein; spatial separation of the reactive groups in the native conformation may prevent their condensation. To investigate this possibility, we induced oxidation of 1-Cys Prx by exposure to H2O2 and then incubated the protein in the absence or presence of Ellman's reagent (5,5'-dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB)) before oxidation by heat followed by nonreducing SDS-PAGE analysis. Most of the protein that had not been labeled with DTNB migrated in the higher mobility position, whereas most of that labeled by DTNB migrated in the lower mobility position (Fig. 3A). In a related experiment, the oxidized, labeled 1-Cys Prx as well as the oxidized, unlabeled 1-Cys Prx were denatured and digested with trypsin. The resulting peptides were separated on a high pressure liquid chromatography C18 column (Fig. 3B). Comparison of the elution profiles on the top and bottom of Fig. 3B indicate that peptide I, which is present mainly in the tryptic digests of the unlabeled 1-Cys Prx, is a candidate for a peptide containing a disulfide. Indeed, after reduction by DTT, peptide I yielded two new peptides, I-1 and I-2, which contained Cys47 and Cys91, respectively (Fig. 3B, middle). These peptide analyses, together with the result from Fig. 3A, suggest that oxidized denatured 1-Cys Prx contains a disulfide, whereas oxidized nondenatured 1-Cys Prx does not contain a disulfide but contains a cysteine residue that can react with DTNB and that labeling of one cysteine with DTNB prevents the Cys-SOH group from forming an intramolecular disulfide after denaturation.


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Fig. 3.   Effect of DTNB treatment on electrophoretic mobility and on disulfide formation of oxidized 1-Cys Prx. 1-Cys Prx (200 µg) was oxidized by incubating with a stoichiometric amount of H2O2 and then incubated for 5 min at 25 °C in the absence or presence of 0.2 mM DTNB. A, portions (4 µg) of the oxidized proteins were heated at 95 °C for 5 min with nonreducing sample buffer and then subjected to SDS-PAGE as in (Fig. 2). B, the remaining portions were denatured with 6 M guanidine hydrochloride and precipitated with trichloroacetic acid (final concentration, 10% (w/v)). The pellets were washed with acetone, suspended in 50 mM Tris-HCl, and digested with trypsin. The resulting peptides were separated on a C18 column with a linear gradient of 0-60% acetonitrile in 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid, and elution was monitored at 215 nm (for peptides derived from the oxidized protein that had not been labeled with DTNB (top) and for peptides derived from the oxidized DTNB-labeled protein (bottom)). Peptide I from the top was reduced with 1 mM DTT and separated as described above (middle).

In another experiment, we oxidized 10 µM 1-Cys Prx with various concentrations of H2O2 under anaerobic conditions and measured the number of cysteine residues that could be modified by DTNB before and after denaturation with guanidine hydrochloride (Fig. 4A). Approximately one 5-thio-2-nitrobenzoic acid (TNB) residue was detected per native protein molecule at concentrations of H2O2 from 0 to 100 µM, suggesting that the H2O2-oxidized cysteine is distinct from the DTNB-reactive residue. Moreover, the H2O2-sensitive cysteine appears physically inaccessible to DTNB in the native conformation, given that it remained unmodified even in the absence of H2O2. With denatured protein that had not been exposed to H2O2, 1.8 molecules of TNB were generated per 1-Cys Prx molecule, suggesting that both Cys47 and Cys91 are available for modification. Treatment of 10 µM 1-Cys Prx with 5 or 7.5 µM H2O2 reduced the number of TNB molecules per denatured 1-Cys Prx molecule to 0.75 and 0.25, respectively, indicating that sulfenic acid resulting from the oxidation of one Cys-SH reacted with the other Cys-SH to form a disulfide in the denatured protein. At higher H2O2 concentrations, the number of released TNB residues gradually increased, probably because the sulfenic acid was further oxidized to sulfinic acid (Cys-SO2H) by excess H2O2 and consequently could not form a disulfide with the DTNB-reactive cysteine. This latter explanation was supported by nonreducing SDS-PAGE analysis of the H2O2-treated protein (Fig. 4B); the intensity of the higher mobility (intramolecular disulfide-containing) band peaked at 7.5 µM H2O2, gradually decreasing as the concentration of H2O2 increased further.


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Fig. 4.   Effect of H2O2 treatment on the number of 1-Cys Prx cysteine residues available for modification by DTNB. A, 1-Cys Prx (10 µM) that had been dialyzed against 20 mM Hepes-NaOH (pH 7.0) under anaerobic conditions was incubated at 25 °C for 5 min with the indicated concentrations of H2O2 in a total volume of 500 µl containing 20 mM Hepes-NaOH (pH 7.0). Hydrogen peroxide was then removed from the reaction mixture by repeated filtration with a Centricon-10 microconcentrator (Amicon), after which the final volume was adjusted to 500 µl. Portions (200 µl) of the washed protein were mixed at 25 °C with 200 µl of 50 mM potassium phosphate (pH 7.2) containing 2 mM DTNB in the absence (native state) (square ) or presence (denatured state) (black-square) of 6.4 M guanidine hydrochloride. The concentration of TNB released was determined spectrophotometrically with extinction coefficients at 412 nm of 14,150 and 13,700 M-1 cm-1 for the absence and presence of guanidine hydrochloride, respectively (32), and the number of TNB molecules released per 1-Cys Prx molecule was calculated. B, portions (10 µl) of the washed 1-Cys Prx reaction mixture from A were subjected to nonreducing SDS-PAGE as described in the legend to Fig. 2. Data are representative of three similar experiments.

To identify the DTNB-reactive residue, we compared measurements of TNB release for WT, C47S, and C91S proteins that had not been exposed to H2O2. The numbers of TNB residues released per molecule of native or denatured 1-Cys Prx were 1.1 and 1.8 for WT, 0.8 and 0.8 for C47S, and 0.1 and 1.1 for C91S, respectively. These results suggest that Cys91-SH is the site of DTNB modification in the native enzyme and that Cys47-SH becomes available only after denaturation.

In Vitro Peroxidase Activity of 1-Cys Prx-- In the presence of an electron donor such as DTT or ascorbate, Fe3+ catalyzes the reduction of O2 to H2O2, which is further converted to hydroxyl radicals (HO·) by the Fenton reaction (20). Both the DTT oxidation system (DTT, Fe3+, and O2) and ascorbate oxidation system (ascorbate, Fe3+, and O2) therefore inflict damage on various enzymes, including GS, and this damage can be prevented by an enzyme that eliminates H2O2. Yeast and mammalian TPx enzymes protect GS from damage by the DTT oxidation system but not by the ascorbate system; the intermolecular disulfide of oxidized TPx can be reduced by DTT but not by ascorbate (2). We therefore investigated whether 1-Cys Prx can protect GS from damage induced by these metal-catalyzed oxidation systems (Fig. 5A). Similar to TPx, 1-Cys Prx protected GS from the DTT system but not from the ascorbate system. For a reason that is not presently clear, C91S was slightly more effective than WT in protecting GS from the DTT system; C47S did not provide any such protection. These results suggest that 1-Cys Prx is indeed a peroxidase, that the peroxidase reaction involves the oxidation of Cys47 but not Cys91, and that Cys47-SOH can be converted back to Cys-SH by DTT but not by ascorbate.


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Fig. 5.   Peroxidase activity of wild-type and mutant 1-Cys Prx proteins. A, protection of GS from damage induced by the DTT oxidation system was measured in the presence of various concentrations of WT (black-square), C47S (square ), or C91S (bullet ) 1-Cys Prx proteins as described under "Experimental Procedures." The protection activity of WT was also measured with the ascorbate system (open circle ). The extent of protection is expressed as a percentage relative to the inactivation apparent in the absence of 1-Cys Prx. B and C, time-dependent removal of H2O2 by WT (black-square), C47S (square ), or C91S (bullet ) 1-Cys Prx proteins as well as by TPx II (diamond ) in the presence of 25 µM (B) or 100 µM H2O2 (C). The peroxidase reaction mixture (500 µl for B and 100 µl for C) contained 50 mM Hepes-NaOH (pH 7.0), 2 mM DTT, H2O2, and 1-Cys Prx (1.9 µM in B and 16 µM in C) or TPx II (4.5 µM in B and 16 µM in C). At the indicated times, the remaining concentration of H2O2 was measured with the use of ferrithiocyanate as described (33). The reduction of H2O2 in the absence of peroxidase was also measured (open circle ). Data are means of duplicate experiments.

We compared the peroxidase activities toward H2O2 of 1-Cys Prx proteins (WT, C47S, and C91S) and TPx by directly monitoring the decrease in H2O2 concentration in the presence of DTT (Fig. 5B). At a concentration of 25 µM, the rate of H2O2 removal by 2 mM DTT alone was negligible. The addition of WT, C91S, or TPx markedly increased the rate of H2O2 removal, whereas C47S had no effect. The initial rate of the reaction in the presence of 1.9 µM WT (or C91S) was faster than that in the presence of 4.5 µM TPx. However, the rate of H2O2 reduction by WT (or C91S) decreased gradually with time, whereas the rate of the TPx-mediated reaction remained virtually constant. When the concentration of H2O2 was increased to 100 µM, the reaction rates for WT and C91S decreased rapidly, reaching after 2 min a value similar to that for DTT alone (Fig. 5C). This observation is consistent with the notion that the sulfenic acid intermediate of 1-Cys Prx is readily oxidized by H2O2 to sulfinic acid, which cannot be reduced by DTT.

The physiological electron donor for the catalytic function of TPx has been shown to be Trx. Both the GS protection activity and peroxidase activity (toward H2O2) of TPx enzymes are markedly higher in the presence of the Trx system (Trx, Trx reductase, and NADPH) than in the presence of the nonphysiological electron donor DTT (2). GSH does not support the catalytic activity of TPx (17). We therefore examined 1-Cys Prx for GS protection activity in the presence of the Trx system or GSH. Taking advantage of the fact that the ascorbate oxidation system can inactivate GS but cannot provide electrons required for 1-Cys Prx function, we measured GS activity after incubation with a mixture of the ascorbate oxidation system with either the Trx system or the GSH system (GSH, glutathione reductase, and NADPH) (Fig. 6A). The activity of 1-Cys Prx was compared in these experiments with those of TPx and GPx. As expected, neither 1-Cys Prx, TPx, nor GPx protected GS from damage induced by the ascorbate system (data not shown). However, all three peroxidases protected against damage by the DTT system. It was previously shown that DTT can replace GSH for the reduction of oxidized GPx (21). When the Trx system was added to the ascorbate system, TPx provided protection, but 1-Cys Prx did not. With the addition of the GSH system, protection was provided by GPx but not by 1-Cys Prx. These results suggest that neither Trx nor GSH can efficiently reduce oxidized 1-Cys Prx. We also measured peroxidase activity toward H2O2 in the presence of the Trx system by monitoring the decrease in A340 attributable to the oxidation of NADPH (Fig. 6B). Whereas TPx markedly increased the rate of NADPH oxidation, the effect of 1-Cys Prx was negligible.


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Fig. 6.   Evaluation of Trx and GSH as electron donors to 1-Cys Prx. A, GS protection activity of 1-Cys Prx, TPx II, and GPx in the presence of DTT, Trx, or GSH. The 25-µl reaction mixtures contained 50 mM Hepes-NaOH (pH 7.0), 0.5 µg of GS, 10 mM ascorbate (ascorbate was omitted when DTT was added as electron donor), 5 µM FeCl3, one of three peroxidases (1-Cys Prx, TPx II, or GPx), and one of three electron donor systems (10 mM DTT; the Trx system, consisting of 3 µM Trx, 0.5 µM Trx reductase, and 0.4 mM NADPH; or the GSH system, consisting of 1 mM GSH, 1.2 units of glutathione reductase, and 0.4 mM NADPH). The concentration of peroxidase in the assay mixture was 3.8 µM for 1-Cys Prx, 3.6 µM for TPx II, and 0.1 µM for GPx in the presence of DTT; 16 µM for 1-Cys Prx and 0.55 µM for TPx II in the presence of the Trx system; and 16 µM for 1-Cys Prx and 0.1 µM for GPx in the presence of the GSH system. After incubation at 37 °C for 10 min, the remaining GS activity was measured as described (17). The extent of protection is expressed as a percentage relative to the inactivation apparent in the absence of peroxidase. B, NADPH oxidation coupled by 1-Cys Prx (dotted line) or TPx II (solid line) to the reduction of H2O2 in the presence of Trx and Trx reductase. NADPH oxidation was monitored as the decrease in A340 at 37 °C in a 150-µl reaction mixture containing 50 mM Hepes-NaOH (pH 7.0), 250 µM NADPH, 46 nM Trx reductase, 6.7 µM Trx, 0.5 mM H2O2, and either 13 µM 1-Cys Prx or 1.07 µM TPx II. Data are representative of three similar experiments.

In Vivo Peroxidase Activity of 1-Cys Prx-- We next investigated whether 1-Cys Prx is able to remove H2O2 in cells by transiently expressing the human enzyme in NIH 3T3 cells. Overexpression of the human WT and C47S proteins was confirmed by immunoblot analysis (Fig. 7A). The intracellular concentration of H2O2 was monitored with the oxidation-sensitive fluorescent probe DCFH-DA and confocal microscopy. The addition of exogenous H2O2 resulted in an increase in DCF fluorescence in NIH 3T3 cells transfected with vector alone (Fig. 7B). However, overexpression of WT, but not of C47S, prevented the H2O2-induced increase in DCF fluorescence. As shown previously (22), PDGF increased the amount of intracellular H2O2 in NIH 3T3 cells (Fig. 7C). This effect of PDGF was inhibited in cells overexpressing WT but not in those overexpressing C47S, consistent with a peroxidase function of 1-Cys Prx in vivo.


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Fig. 7.   Peroxidase activity of WT and C47S 1-Cys Prx proteins in transfected cells. A, NIH 3T3 cells were transiently transfected with the indicated expression plasmids (pCR represents the empty pCR3.1-Uni vector), and the extent of 1-Cys Prx expression was measured by immunoblot analysis. B and C, relative DCF fluorescence intensity/cell was measured by confocal microscopy after incubation of the transfected cells for 5 min with 10 µM H2O2 (B) or for 10 min with PDGF-AB (5 ng/ml) (C). Data in B and C are means ± S.E. of the values obtained from five groups of 10-20 cells. Data are means ± S.E. of three similar experiments.

Subcellular Localization of 1-Cys Prx-- The subcellular localization of 1-Cys Prx was investigated by immunoblot analysis of nuclear, organelle, cytosolic, and membrane fractions of A431 cells (Fig. 8). The lysosomal enzyme catalase and the nuclear protein histone were chosen as markers for the corresponding subcellular fractions. 1-Cys Prx was detected only in the cytosolic fraction.


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Fig. 8.   Subcellular localization of 1-Cys Prx. Subcellular fractions were prepared from A431 cells as described (10) and subjected to immunoblot analysis with antibodies to catalase, to histone, or to 1-Cys Prx. Lane 1, total homogenate; lane 2, nuclear fraction; lane 3, organelle fraction; lane 4, cytosolic fraction; lane 5, membrane fraction.

PLA2 Activity of 1-Cys Prx-- To investigate the potential role of cysteine residues of 1-Cys Prx in PLA2 activity, we attempted to measure this enzyme activity with the recombinant WT, C47S, and C91S proteins purified from E. coli. However, we failed to detect any substantial PLA2 activity associated with the recombinant proteins. We then transiently expressed the three proteins in NIH 3T3 cells. Because Ser32 was previously proposed to constitute the PLA2 active site (11), we also separately expressed two 1-Cys Prx mutants in which Ser32 was replaced by alanine (S32A) or glycine (S32G). Because human 1-Cys Prx does not bind to DEAE-Sephacel,2 the WT and mutant proteins could be partially purified by collecting unbound proteins after mixing the cytosolic fraction of transfected NIH 3T3 cells with this resin. Expression of the various 1-Cys Prx proteins was confirmed with the unbound proteins by immunoblot analysis (Fig. 9A). The unbound proteins were also assayed for PLA2 activity at pH 4.0 in the absence of Ca2+. Expression of WT, C47S, C91S, S32A, or S32G was associated with a marked increase in Ca2+-independent PLA2 activity (Fig. 9B), suggesting that neither the two cysteines nor Ser32 directly participates in PLA2 catalysis.


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Fig. 9.   PLA2 activity of WT and mutant 1-Cys Prx proteins expressed in NIH 3T3 cells. A, NIH 3T3 cells were transiently transfected with the appropriate expression plasmids, and the extent of 1-Cys Prx protein expression was measured by immunoblot analysis of 15 µg of soluble proteins that did not bind to DEAE-Sephacel. B, PLA2 activity was measured at pH 4.0 with 25 µg of the DEAE-nonbinding protein fraction. Data are representative of four independent experiments. Control represents cells transfected with the empty pCR3.1-Uni vector.

    DISCUSSION
Top
Abstract
Introduction
Procedures
Results
Discussion
References

Most peroxidases, including cytochrome c peroxidase, contain heme rings at their active sites. However, other peroxidases contain a redox-sensitive moiety such as selenocysteine (GPx (16)), vanadium (algal bromoperoxidase (23)), or flavin (bacterial NADH peroxidase (24)). TPx was the first peroxidase shown to contain no redox-sensitive moiety other than cysteine. The amino acid sequence identity among the four (one yeast and three mammalian) known TPx enzymes is >65%, with the homology being especially marked in the regions surrounding the two conserved cysteine residues that correspond to Cys47 and Cys170 of yeast TPx. The sequence identity among the seven 1-Cys Prx family members is >60% (Fig. 1), whereas that between human 1-Cys Prx and human TPx enzymes is <30%. The consensus sequence surrounding the conserved cysteine of 1-Cys Prx proteins, which corresponds to Cys47 of human 1-Cys Prx, is PVCTTE and differs from the corresponding consensus sequence, FVCPTE, of TPx enzymes. In addition to the cysteine corresponding to Cys47 of human 1-Cys Prx, some 1-Cys Prx members contain other cysteine residues, such as Cys91 of the human enzyme. However, neither Cys91 itself nor the sequence surrounding this residue is conserved among the 1-Cys Prx members (Fig. 1).

Our data now demonstrate that 1-Cys Prx is capable of removing H2O2 both in vitro and in vivo. In Fig. 10, the catalytic mechanism of 1-Cys Prx is compared with those of other peroxidases (TPx, GPx, and NADH peroxidase) that contain a cysteine or selenocysteine as the primary site of reaction with peroxides. Our experiments with cysteine mutants suggest that Cys47-SH is the site of oxidation in 1-Cys Prx (Fig. 10A). The oxidized products of cysteine include sulfenic acid, disulfide, sulfinic acid, and sulfonic acid (-SO3H). The disulfide intermediate can be excluded on the basis of our observations that C91S, in which no other cysteine is available to form a disulfide with Cys47-SH, is as active as WT, and that Cys91 -SH reacts with the oxidized product of Cys47-SH only after denaturation. The fact that the oxidized product can be reduced back to cysteine by DTT excludes sulfinic and sulfonic acids as the intermediate (19). Alkyl sulfenic acids such as cysteine sulfenic acid are highly unstable and readily undergo condensation with thiols to produce disulfides (19). However, it appears that Cys91-SH is not sufficiently close to allow the formation of a disulfide with Cys47-SOH in the native form of oxidized human 1-Cys Prx. Recently, the existence of Cys-SOH has been conclusively demonstrated in the x-ray crystal structure of the oxidized native 1-Cys Prx.3 In contrast, in yeast TPx, Cys47-SOH reacts immediately with Cys170-SH of the other subunit of the homodimer to form an intermolecular disulfide that is subsequently reduced by electrons donated by Trx (Fig. 10B). An identical mechanism involving an intermolecular disulfide and reduction by Trx underlies the function of mammalian TPx enzymes (10). Kinetic studies on H2O2 reduction catalyzed by mammalian TPx I, II, and III have revealed the Km for Trx to be ~3-6 µM, suggesting that TPx and Trx interact with a high affinity. The cysteine sulfenic acid of 1-Cys Prx and disulfide of TPx can be reduced to the thiol by DTT in a process involving two electrons. However, Trx was not able to reduce oxidized 1-Cys Prx.


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Fig. 10.   Comparison of the peroxidase mechanisms of 1-Cys Prx (A), TPx (B), GPx (C), and NADH peroxidase (D). XH2 denotes the as yet unidentified electron donor for 1-Cys Prx. Closed circles indicate the NH2 terminus of each protein.

Another well characterized reaction of sulfenic acid is its rapid oxidation by H2O2 to sulfinic and sulfonic acids (25). Thus, during the DTT-supported catalytic cycle of 1-Cys Prx, two reactions, reduction by DTT and further oxidation by H2O2, compete for the available Cys-SOH. Because of the irreversible nature of such oxidation, 1-Cys Prx eventually becomes inactivated in the presence of H2O2. The rate of inactivation depends on the concentration of H2O2. In cells, the extent of such inactivation is probably negligible, given that the cellular concentration of H2O2 is low and that reduction by the as yet unidentified physiological electron donor is likely to be much faster than that mediated by DTT. No substantial inactivation of TPx was detected at a low concentration of H2O2, probably because the sulfenic acid of TPx immediately forms an intermolecular disulfide and thereby escapes further oxidation by H2O2. However, in the presence of a higher concentration of H2O2, irreversible inactivation of TPx was apparent.

The reaction mechanism of 1-Cys Prx resembles that of the selenium-dependent GPx, which catalyzes peroxide reduction via the selenenic acid (Cys-SeOH) form of the selenocysteine (Cys-SeH) (26) (Fig. 10C). Unlike Cys-SeH, which is fully ionized to selenolate (Cys-Se-) at neutral pH and consequently readily reacts with H2O2, most proteinaceous cysteines remain un-ionized at neutral pH because of their higher pKa values (>8.5). However, in several enzymes, including cysteine proteases and protein-tyrosine phosphatases, in which cysteine is the primary site of catalysis, the pKa of the thiol is reduced to <7 as a result of electrostatic interaction between cysteine thiolate (Cys-S+) and basic residues (27, 28). The pKa of Cys47-SH of 1-Cys Prx is also expected to be decreased given its rapid reaction with H2O2 at pH 7. The sulfenate (Cys47-SO+) of the oxidized enzyme is also probably stabilized by the same basic residues that interact with the thiolate.

The selenenic acid of GPx readily reacts with GSH (as well as with the nonphysiological donor DTT) to form selenadisulfide (Cys-Se-SG), from which Cys-SeH is regenerated by means of a second GSH molecule (Fig. 10C). In contrast, the sulfenic acid of 1-Cys Prx is reduced by DTT but not by GSH. Because all thiols should reduce the sulfenic acid of 1-Cys Prx if it is accessible, the active site pocket of the enzyme may be large enough for H2O2 or DTT but not for two molecules of GSH. This notion is consistent with the observation that DTNB reacts with Cys91-SH but not with Cys47-SH in the native enzyme. Alternatively, a wrongly oriented GSH moiety shielding the active site from further approach by the second GSH in the crowded pocket would have a similar effect on GSH sensitivity.

Human 1-Cys Prx also resembles streptococcal NADH peroxidase in that a reversible conversion of the cysteine sulfenic acid is important in catalysis (24) (Fig. 10D). The sulfenic acid intermediate of NADH peroxidase is ensured by the fact that the active site cysteine is the only thiol of the enzyme. NADH peroxidase contains a stoichiometric amount of FAD that stabilizes thiolate and sulfenate anions in the reduced and oxidized forms of the enzyme, respectively, by forming a charge complex with them (24, 29). Furthermore, the streptococcal peroxidase binds NADH with high affinity, and the nucleotide provides electrons needed to reduce sulfenic acid via FAD. These characteristics distinguish the streptococcal peroxidase from 1-Cys Prx, which neither contains flavin nor utilizes nicotinamide nucleotides as an electron donor.

Amino acid sequencing of tryptic peptides derived from purified rat lung Ca2+-independent PLA2 revealed complete identity to the deduced amino acid sequence of human 1-Cys Prx. Furthermore, translation of mRNA derived from the human 1-Cys Prx (HA0683) clone in a wheat germ system resulted in expression of Ca2+-independent PLA2 activity (11). Although we failed to detect PLA2 activity with E. coli-expressed recombinant 1-Cys Prx, expression of the human 1-Cys Prx in NIH 3T3 cells was associated with an increase in PLA2 activity with properties similar to those of the activity shown by the rat lung enzyme. Because the deduced sequence of human 1-Cys Prx contains a motif, Gly-X-Ser32-X-Gly, associated with the catalytic site of a serine hydrolase, Ser32 was proposed to be the primary site of catalysis (11). Moreover, because the Ca2+-independent PLA2 activity was optimal at pH 4 and negligible above pH 6, the enzyme was presumed to be a lysosomal protein (11). The specific PLA2 activity measured at the optimal pH was only 40 nmol/min/mg of protein (estimated from Table I and Fig. 2 of Ref. 11). We have now shown that Ser32 is not required for Ca2+-independent PLA2 activity of 1-Cys Prx expressed in NIH 3T3 cells. This observation is consistent with the fact that the Gly-X-Ser-X-Gly motif is not conserved among 1-Cys Prx members (Fig. 1). Our data also suggest that 1-Cys Prx is not a lysosomal protein but is localized to the cytosol, the pH of which would be expected to prevent substantial manifestation of Ca2+-independent PLA2 activity.

It is not yet possible to estimate the specific peroxidase activity of 1-Cys Prx, because its physiological electron donor is not known. Nevertheless, the peroxidase activity of 1-Cys Prx measured in the presence of DTT is 2-3 times that of TPx II. The specific activity of TPx II was 3 µmol/min/mg of protein when measured in the presence of the Trx system (10). Thus, the peroxidase activity of human 1-Cys Prx is likely 2 orders of magnitude greater than the PLA2 activity at pH 4.

More importantly, we demonstrated a peroxidase function for human 1-Cys Prx expressed in NIH 3T3 cells. Although H2O2 is generally considered a toxic by-product of respiration, recent evidence suggests that the production of H2O2 might be an integral component of membrane receptor signaling. In mammalian cells, various extracellular stimuli, including cytokines and growth factors, induce a transient increase in the intracellular concentration of H2O2 (18, 22, 30). H2O2 thus generated is known to serve as a messenger that initiates various cellular responses including protein phosphorylation, NF-kappa B activation, and apoptosis (22, 30, 31). To date, catalase and GPx have been viewed as the major enzymes responsible for the removal of cytotoxic H2O2. Recently, TPx enzymes were shown to be able to remove intracellular H2O2 generated in response to various extracellular stimuli, blocking the H2O2-mediated NF-kappa B activation and apoptosis (10). Our data now suggest that 1-Cys Prx might also play a role in H2O2 removal.

    FOOTNOTES

* The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

Present address: Dept. of Extramural Affairs, NHLBI, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892.

par To whom correspondence should be addressed: Bldg. 3, Room 122, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892. Tel.: 301-496-9646; Fax: 301-480-0357.

1 The abbreviations used are: Prx, peroxiredoxin (the Prx family was previously referred to as the alkyl hydroperoxide reductase C/thiol-specific antioxidant family); TPx, thioredoxin peroxidase (previously referred to as thiol-specific antioxidant or TSA); Trx, thioredoxin; PLA2, phospholipase A2; DTT, dithiothreitol; GPx, glutathione peroxidase; GS, glutamine synthetase; DMEM, Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium; MEM, minimum essential medium; DCFH-DA, 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein diacetate; DCF, 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein; PDGF, platelet-derived growth factor; PDGF-AB, PDGF AB heterodimer; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; PAGE, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; DTNB, 5,5'-dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid); TNB, 5-thio-2-nitrobenzoic acid; WT, wild type.

2 S. W. Kang, H. Z. Chae, and S. G. Rhee, unpublished results.

3 H.-J. Choi, S. W. Kang, C.-H. Yang, S. G. Rhee, and S. E. Ryu, unpublished results,

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Abstract
Introduction
Procedures
Results
Discussion
References

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