From the Infectious Diseases Division, University
Hospital, 1211 Geneva 14, Switzerland and the § Department
of Biochemistry, University of Geneva, 30 quai E. Ansermet,
1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
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ABSTRACT |
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Aerolysin is a pore-forming toxin that plays a
key role in the pathogenesis of Aeromonas hydrophila
infections. In this study, we have analyzed the effect of aerolysin on
human granulocytes (HL-60 cells). Proaerolysin could bind to these
cells, was processed into active aerolysin, and led to membrane
depolarization, indicating that granulocytes are potential targets for
this toxin. Fura-2 measurements were used to analyze the effect of
aerolysin on cytosolic [Ca2+] homeostasis. As expected
for a pore-forming toxin, aerolysin addition led to Ca2+
influx across the plasma membrane. In addition, the toxin triggered Ca2+ release from agonist and thapsigargin-sensitive
intracellular Ca2+ stores. This Ca2+ release
was independent of the aerolysin-induced Ca2+ influx and
occurred in two kinetically distinct phases: an initial rapid and
transient phase and a second, more sustained, phase. The first, but not
the second phase was sensitive to pertussis toxin. Activation of
pertussis toxin-sensitive G-proteins appeared to be a consequence of
pore formation, rather than receptor activation through
aerolysin-binding, as it: (i) was not observed with a binding
competent, insertion-incompetent aerolysin mutant, (ii) had a marked
lag time, and (iii) was also observed in response to other bacterial
pore-forming toxins (staphylococcal -toxin, streptolysin O) which
are thought to bind to different receptors. G-protein activation
through pore-forming toxins stimulated cellular functions, as evidenced
by pertussis toxin-sensitive chemotaxis. Our results demonstrate that
granulocytes are potential target cells for aerolysin and that in these
cells, Ca2+ signaling in response to a pore-forming toxin
involves G-protein-dependent cell activation and
Ca2+ release from intracellular stores.
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INTRODUCTION |
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Aerolysin is a pore-forming toxin secreted by the human pathogen Aeromonas hydrophila and has been shown to be an important virulence factor produced by this bacterium (1-5). A. hydrophila has been implicated in a variety of diseases ranging from gastroenteritis to deep wound infection and septicemia. The importance of aerolysin in the pathogenicity of the bacterium is best illustrated by the fact that immunization against the toxin leads to protection toward the bacterium.
The toxin is secreted by A. hydrophila as a dimeric inactive precursor (6, 7) which can be activated by proteolytic cleavage of a C-terminal peptide (8, 9). The toxin as well as the protoxin interact with the target cell by binding to specific receptors (10-14). At present all identified receptors were found to be GPI1 anchored. However, different receptors were found on different cells types and a given cell type was found to have more then one receptor. For example, aerolysin was shown to bind to Thy-1 as well as other GPI-anchored proteins on T-lymphocytes, to Thy-1 and contactin in mouse brain (11, 13), to VSG from Trypanosomes (13), to an 47-kDa receptor on rat erythrocytes (12) and to mainly an 80-kDa receptor on baby hamster kidney cells (14). Binding was shown to be determined both by the protein moiety and the olisaccharides of the anchor (13). Binding to the cell surface presumably leads to a local increase in toxin concentration thereby enabling aerolysin to polymerize into a heptameric complex that inserts into the membrane and forms a water-filled channel (6, 15-18). Cells such as erythrocytes, that are unable to cope with such membrane damage, undergo osmotic lysis. In nucleated mammalian cells, the mechanisms leading to cell death appear to be more complex. We have indeed recently found that subnanomolar doses of aerolysin do not induce lysis of baby hamster kidney cells (14). Permeabilization but not disruption of the plasma membrane was observed followed by selective vacuolation of the endoplasmic reticulum (14). Only several hours later could a loss of plasma membrane integrity be observed. It is at present not clear whether the pores formed by the toxin at the plasma membrane are the sole cause of the observed effects. These findings, however, do suggest that aerolysin may trigger a cascade of events from the plasma membrane.
In this study, we have analyzed the effects of aerolysin on human granulocytes. We show that, in addition to formation of pores in the plasma membrane, aerolysin triggered, through activation of a pertussis toxin-sensitive G-protein, chemotaxis, and release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores.
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES |
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Materials-- Cell culture media were obtained from Life Technologies, Inc. (Paisley, Scotland), U73122 from Calbiochem (La Jolla, CA), and DiSC3(5), PBFI, and fura-2/AM from Molecular Probes (Eugene, OR). All other chemicals were purchased from Sigma or Fluka. The "Ca2+-free medium" contained: 143 mM NaCl, 6 mM KCl, 1 mM MgSO4, 5.6 mM glucose (0.1%), 20 mM HEPES pH 7.4, and 0.1 mM EGTA. The "Ca2+ medium" consisted of Ca2+-free medium supplemented with 1 mM CaCl2.
Culture of HL-60 Cells-- HL-60 cells were cultured in RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated fetal calf serum, penicillin (50 units/ml), streptomycin (50 µg/ml), and L-glutamine (2 mM) at 37 °C in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2, 95% air. Granulocytic differentiation was initiated by addition of dimethyl sulfoxide (Me2SO) (final concentration 1.3% for 3 days, then 0.65% for 1 or 2 days).
Proaerolysin Purification-- Wild type and variant proaerolysins were purified as described previously (19). Concentrations were determined by measuring the optical density (O.D.) at 280 nm, considering that a 1 mg/ml sample has an O.D. of 2.5 (20). Proaerolysin was labeled with I using IODO-GEN reagent (Pierce) according to the manufacturers recommendations. 125I-Proaerolysin was separated from the free iodine by gel filtration on a PD10-G25 column (Pharmacia, Sweden) equilibrated with phosphate-buffered saline. We consistently obtained a specific activity of about 2 × 106 cpm/µg of proaerolysin. 125I-Proaerolysin ran as a single band on an SDS gel. Aerolysin was obtained by treating proaerolysin with trypsin at a protein to enzyme ratio of 1/20 (mol:mol) for 10 min at room temperature. After which a 10-fold excess of trypsin inhibitor was added.
Proaerolysin Binding Experiments-- HL-60 granulocytes at a concentration of 2 × 106 cells/ml in Ca2+ medium were incubated with 125I-proaerolysin for 25 min at 4 °C, spun down in a table top cell centrifuge for 8 min at 1600 rpm, resuspended in the same volume of buffer. The last washing step was performed twice. In competition experiments, 125I-proaerolysin and the unlabeled wild type or mutant toxin were added to the cells simultaneously. For SDS-PAGE analysis, cells were briefly sonicated with a tip sonicator in sample buffer. SDS-PAGE was performed as described by Laemmli (21).
Membrane Potential Measurements-- HL-60 granulocytes were washed once and resuspended in buffer containing 20 mM HEPES pH 7.4, 143 mM NaCl, 5 mM KCl, 1 mM MgSO4, 1 mM CaCl2, 5.6 mM glucose, to a final density of 3 × 106 cells/ml. DiS-C3(5) (100 µM in Me2SO) was added to a final concentration of 200 nM. Membrane incorporation of the dye was monitored spectrofluorimetrically using a Photon Technology International fluorometer equipped with a thermostated cuvette holder (excitation 625 nm; emission 670 nm; 10 nm slits). After reaching a steady state fluorescence, the toxin was added. Maximal depolarization was obtained at the end of each experiment by adding pre-mixed valinomycin and nigericin to final concentrations of 2 and 5 µM, respectively (22). Single fluorescent traces were expressed as the ratio I(t)/Imax, i.e. fluorescence intensity at a given time over maximal fluorescence intensity.
Measurements of Intracellular K+ Concentration-- HL-60 granulocytes were washed once and resuspended in loading medium, containing 20 mM HEPES pH 7.4, 5.6 mM glucose, 143 mM NaCl, 6 mM KCl, 1 mM MgSO4, 1 mM CaCl2, 0.5% bovine serum albumin, and 0.25 mM sulfinpyrazone, to a final density of 20 × 106 cells/ml (22). Cells were incubated with the cell-permeant form of the K+-binding benzofuran isophtalate dye PBFI-AM (stock solution in Me2SO in presence of pluronic acid F-127, final concentrations of 5 µM PBFI and 0.02% F-127) for 30 min at 37 °C, followed by 30 min at room temperature, washed once and resuspended in the same buffer, in the absence of bovine serum albumin, to a final density of 2 × 106 cells/ml. Fluorescence measurements were performed using a Photon Technology International fluorometer. The excitation and emission wavelengths were 343 and 460 nm, respectively (37 °C). Variations of intracellular K+ contents were expressed as a fraction of PBFI maximal intensity.
Measurements of Ethidium Homodimer-1 and Ethidium Bromide Cell Entry-- HL-60 granulocytes were washed once and resuspended in 20 mM HEPES pH 7.4, 5.6 mM glucose, 143 mM NaCl, 6 mM KCl, 1 mM MgSO4, 1 mM CaCl2, to a final density of 20 × 106 cells/ml. Ethidium homodimer-1 (stock solution 2 mM in Me2SO/water, 1:4) or ethidium bromide (stock solution 10 mg/ml in water) were added to a final concentration of 6 nM and 100 µM, respectively. Aerolysin-induced ethidium homodimer-1 or ethidium bromide entry was monitored by measuring the increase of fluorescence intensity at 600 nm, upon excitation at 500 or 340 nm, respectively. Single fluorescent traces were normalized to maximal fluorescence obtained by the addition of 1% Triton X-100.
Measurement of Cytosolic Free Ca2+ Concentrations-- [Ca2+]c was measured with the fluorescent Ca2+ indicator fura-2. Cells (2 × 107/ml) suspended in Ca2+ medium containing 0.1% bovine serum albumin were loaded for 45 min at 37 °C with 2 µM fura-2/AM, then diluted to 107/ml and kept on ice. Just before use, a sample of loaded cells (2 × 106/ml) was centrifuged and resuspended in the desired medium. Fluorescence measurements were performed on a Perkin-Elmer fluorometer (LS3, Perkin-Elmer), thermostated at 37 °C. Excitation and emission wavelengths were 340 and 505 nm, respectively. Calibration was performed for each cuvette by sequential addition of 2 mM Ca2+ (for Ca2+-free medium), 1 µM ionomycin to measure Ca2+ saturated fura-2 (Fmax), followed by 24 mM EGTA, 75 mM Tris, pH 9.3, and 0.1% Triton X-100 to measure Ca2+ free fura-2 (Fmin). A relatively small leakage of fura-2 occurred in cells exposed to aerolysin (see "Results"). Results are shown as relative fura-2 fluorescence, normalized with respect to the maximal fluorescence (=100%) and minimal fluorescence (=0%) values obtained through the calibration procedure.
Measurement of Mn2+ and Ni2+ Entry-- At an excitation wavelength of 360 nm, fura-2 fluorescence is Ca2+ independent, the fluorescence of the probe is, however, quenched by several divalent cations. In this study, we used this feature of the probe to study entry of Mn2+ and Ni2+ in response to aerolysin independently from changes in [Ca2+]c. Cell-associated fluorescence before addition of the respective divalent cation was defined as 100% fluorescence. For the quantitation of the Mn2+ influx at different times after aerolysin addition, we proceeded as described previously (23). Briefly, the percentage of fluorescence quenching that occurred within 1 min after Mn2+ addition was determined. The relatively small fraction of the fluorescence quenching that was due to the presence of extracellular fura (see below) was subtracted. The emission wavelength was 505 nm.
Determination of Extracellular Fura-2-- To determine the amount of extracellular fura-2, we exposed fura-2-loaded cells for various times to aerolysin, followed by the addition of 25 µM Mn2+ and, 1 min later, 100 µM of the heavy metal chelator diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid. Under these conditions, the fraction of the Mn2+-induced fluorescence quenching that is immediately reversible after addition diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid is a direct measure of extracellular fura-2 (23).
Chemotaxis Assay-- For the chemotaxis assay, a Transwell® chemotaxis chamber (6.5 mm diameter, 3 µm pore size, Corning Costar Corp., Cambridge, MA) was used. In this system, the cell reservoir (=upper chamber) is separated from the target chamber (=lower chamber) by a microporous membrane. The cell reservoir contained 106 cells in 100 µl of Ca2+ buffer with 0.1% bovine serum albumin. The target chamber contained the indicated concentration of chemoattractant or the appropriate solvent control in 500 µl of Ca2+ buffer with 0.1% bovine serum albumin. Chemotaxis was allowed to occur over a period of 90 min in an CO2 (5%) and temperature (37 °C)-controlled incubator. Cells in the target chamber were counted. Results are expressed as cells recovered in the target chamber (% of cells that were initially added in the cell reservoir).
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RESULTS |
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Binding to HL-60 Cells-- As a first step in the characterization of the interaction of proaerolysin with myeloid cells, we have investigated whether proaerolysin was able to bind to HL-60 promyelocytes and HL-60 granulocytes. Cells were incubated with 1 nM proaerolysin at 4 °C for 10 min, washed, sedimented, and analyzed by SDS-PAGE followed by Western blot analysis for the presence of the toxin. Both wild type proaerolysin as well as a double cysteine mutant, G202C/I445C (see below), were able to bind to both types of HL-60 cells (not shown).
To investigate whether binding of proaerolysin was specific, we have analyzed whether radiolabeled and unlabeled proaerolysin could compete for binding to HL-60 cells. Binding of radiolabeled proaerolysin (4 nM) to both promyelocytic and granulocytic HL-60 could be inhibited by more than 80% by the presence of a 100-fold excess of unlabeled toxin (0.4 µM), indicating the presence of a limited number of binding sites. Binding of radiolabeled wild type toxin could also be inhibited, to the same extend, by unlabeled G202C/I445C mutant toxin, indicating that both forms of the toxin bind to the same sites. These observations suggest that aerolysin binds to a limited number of sites on HL-60 cells. Using a previously described proaerolysin overlay assay (14), we could identify 4 proaerolysin-binding proteins (not shown). Binding to these proteins could be inhibited by 70% by treating the cells with the phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C indicating that these putative receptors were GPI anchored (not shown). These four proteins remain to be identified. We could, however, exclude that binding occurred via Thy-1, which was shown to be a receptor for aerolysin on T-lymphocytes (11), since HL-60 do not express this protein to any significant extent (24). The presence of multiple receptors on HL-60 granulocytes is reminiscent of what was observed in rat brain, were at least two receptors were found, Thy-1 and contactin (13), and on baby hamster kidney cells were three putative GPI-anchored receptors were seen of, respectively, 140, 80, and 30 kDa, the 80-kDa protein being the major proaerolysin-binding protein (14).Aerolysin Induces Plasma Membrane Depolarization in HL-60 Granulocytes-- To investigate whether HL-60 granulocytes are sensitive to aerolysin, we have analyzed the effect of the toxin on membrane potential using the fluorescent probe DiSC3(5) which has been widely used for this purpose (25). As shown in Fig. 1A, proaerolysin led to depolarization of the granulocytes with kinetics that were dose-dependent. As suspected, a marked increase in the rate of depolarization was observed when activating the protoxin prior to the addition to the cells (Fig. 1B). As shown in Fig. 1C, depolarization was in part due to the efflux of K+. As a control, we tested the hemolytically inactive mutant of aerolysin, G202C/I445C. This mutant contains two engineered cystein residues that form a disulfide bridge between the propeptide and the mature toxin (20). Even after trypsin activation, this mutant is unable to lyse erythrocytes presumably because it cannot oligomerize. Also G202C/I445C did not induce K+ efflux from HL-60 granulocytes. Surprisingly, depolarization of HL-60 granulocytes as well as K+ efflux followed two-step kinetics for reasons that remain to be established. In contrast, kinetics of membrane depolarization induced by the thiol-activated toxin streptolysin O were monophasic (not shown).
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Aerolysin Induces [Ca2+]c Elevations Which Display Complex Kinetics-- To investigate whether the interaction of aerolysin with myeloid cells led to changes in cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]c), we exposed fura-2 loaded HL-60 promyelocytes and HL-60 granulocytes to either proaerolysin or trypsin-activated aerolysin (Fig. 3). Both, the protoxin and the mature toxin induced elevation of [Ca2+]c in a dose-dependent manner and this in both cell types. The kinetics of the [Ca2+]c increase were, however, markedly faster when the mature toxin was added rather than its precursor as previously observed for membrane depolarization (Fig. 3, A and C versus B and D). Also, the effects of both the pro and the mature toxin were more pronounced on the differentiated granulocytic HL-60 cells then on the immature promyelocytic cells. No changes in [Ca2+]c could be observed upon addition of the hemolytically inactive G202C/I445C mutant when added either in the pro or the mature form (Fig. 3D).
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Aerolysin Induces Ca2+ Release from Intracellular Stores-- To investigate the source of the aerolysin-induced [Ca2+]c elevations, we exposed HL-60 granulocytes to aerolysin in a Ca2+-free medium. Under these conditions only Ca2+ release from intracellular stores can be detected, but not Ca2+ influx across the plasma membrane. As shown in Fig. 4A, aerolysin (100 ng/ml) was able to induce [Ca2+]c elevations in a Ca2+-free medium, demonstrating that the toxin triggered Ca2+ release from intracellular stores. The observed [Ca2+]c elevations had complex kinetics. An initial phase peaked and decayed after approximately 40-60 s. A prolonged phase which increased toward a plateau could be observed 1-3 min after toxin addition. The binding competent, insertion-incompetent mutant G202C/I445C did not induce Ca2+-release (Fig. 4A). However, when added in excess, the mutant was able to preclude Ca2+ release in response to wild type aerolysin (Fig. 4B) confirming that the two variants of the toxin have the same acceptor sites on the cell and that they are limited in number.
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Aerolysin Activates Pertussis Toxin-sensitive G-proteins-- For many granulocyte agonists, Ca2+ release from intracellular stores is due to a G-protein-mediated activation of phospholipase C. In contrast to what is observed on many other cellular systems, agonist-PLC coupling in leukocytes is generally mediated by pertussis toxin-sensitive G-proteins (26). We therefore investigated the effect of pertussis toxin pretreatment on aerolysin-induced Ca2+ release in the HL-60 granulocytes. As shown in Fig. 5, pertussis toxin pretreatment inhibited the initial, rapid phase of aerolysin-induced Ca2+ release (Fig. 5D), but not the second, slower, phase (Fig. 5E), nor the calcium entry across the plasma membrane. These results demonstrate an activation of pertussis toxin-sensitive G-proteins through aerolysin. The results obtained with pertussis toxin (Fig. 5) and the PLC inhibitor (Fig. 4), however, also demonstrate that there is a second phase of Ca2+ release which does not involve the G-protein/PLC/Ins(1,4,5)P3 pathway.
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Aerolysin Released Ca2+ from Thapsigargin and Agonist-sensitive Ca2+ Stores-- A variety of intracellular organelles are able to serve as intracellular Ca2+ stores, the functionally most important of which is thought to be the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The ER can be subdivided into agonist-sensitive and agonist-insensitive Ca2+ stores. The ER Ca2+ stores are, in most cases, loaded through Ca2+ pumps which belong to the group of the so-called SERCAs (sarcoendoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPases). All sarcoendoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPases known to date can be inhibited by thapsigargin and are also the only known target of this drug. In addition, this compound efficiently empties ER-type Ca2+ stores in many cell types. We therefore investigated the effect of depletion of ER-type Ca2+ stores through thapsigargin on the aerolysin-induced Ca2+ signal. As shown in Fig. 6A, thapsigargin led, as expected, to a transient increase in [Ca2+]c (Fig. 6A, see also Ref. 27). When aerolysin was added to cells after thapsigargin treatment, both phases of the aerolysin-induced Ca2+ release were almost completely abolished. Thus, the source of Ca2+ released by aerolysin was the endoplasmic reticulum. Thapsigargin did, however, not inhibit channel formation by aerolysin since Ca2+ entry and rapid release of intracellular K+ were still observed.
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Aerolysin Induced Ca2+ Influx-- As already visible from Figs. 3 and 4, the effect of aerolysin on [Ca2+]c also included a major Ca2+ influx component. When Ca2+ was added to the cells (in a Ca2+-free medium) after different times of incubation with aerolysin, a time-dependent increase in the Ca2+ permeability was observed, as witnessed by more rapid increase in fura-2 fluorescence (Fig. 7, A and B). These observations suggest that as more aerolysin pores were formed, the kinetics of Ca2+ entry were faster. We then analyzed the kinetics of entry of Mn2+, a Ca2+ surrogate commonly used to study Ca2+ influx pathways. This divalent cation permeates in small quantities through various Ca2+ channels; once inside the cell, Mn2+ binds with high affinity (~100-fold higher than Ca2+) to fura-2, thereby quenching the fura-2 fluorescence. As shown in Fig. 7B, the kinetics of Mn2+ and Ca2+ influxes were very similar. In order to rule out that the increase in divalent cation influx kinetics were due to massive fura-2 release, we measured the amount of extracellular fura-2 as described under "Experimental Procedures." Less then 20% fura-2 was released into the medium after treatment of HL-60 granulocytes with aerolysin (100 ng/ml) during 8 min in agreement with the dye entry kinetics shown in Fig. 1D.
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Aerolysin-induced Ca2+ Release Occurs After a Lag Time-- Fig. 8 shows, with high resolution, the kinetics of aerolysin-induced Ca2+ release. Strikingly, there was a substantial lag time between the addition of aerolysin and the onset of Ca2+ release in contrast to what is observed upon stimulation with the receptor agonist fMLP. Moreover, the lag time was concentration dependent (Fig. 8C). Thus, the marked lag time observed in response to aerolysin clearly differentiated Ca2+ release in response to the toxin from Ca2+ release in response to typical receptor agonists.
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Effect of Digitonin, Staphylococcal -Toxin, and Streptolysin O
on Intracellular Ca2+--
To further understand the
mechanism of G-protein activation by aerolysin, we studied
Ca2+ signaling by other widely used cell permeabilizing
agents such as digitonin, staphylococcal
-toxin, and streptolysin O. Digitonin is a plant lipid which, at low concentrations preferentially
binds to cholesterol and thereby leads to plasma membrane
permeabilization. As shown in Fig.
9A, addition of digitonin to
fura-2-loaded cells suspended in a Ca2+-free medium led to
a drop in fluorescence intensity. Upon subsequent addition of
Ca2+ to the extracellular medium, a rapid and large
increase in fluorescence was observed. These results indicate that
permeabilization was efficient but also that digitonin does not trigger
release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores. This observation
is not so surprising since digitonin has been widely used as a
permeabilizing agent in studies on the function of intracellular
Ca2+ stores in large variety of cell types, including
granulocytes (30). Thus, G-protein activation and Ca2+
release from intracellular stores are not simply due to cell permeabilization.
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Pertussis Toxin-sensitive Chemotaxis in Response to Aerolysin,
-Toxin, and Streptolysin O--
To investigate whether
toxin-dependent G-protein activation activates cell
functions, we investigated the effect of aerolysin,
-toxin, and
streptolysin O on chemotaxis of freshly prepared human blood
granulocytes (Fig. 10). Under control
conditions, less then 0.5% of the cells that had been added in the
cell reservoir of the chemotaxis chamber were recovered in the target
chamber. In contrast, when aerolysin,
-toxin, or streptolysin O were
added to the target chamber, significant chemotactic activity was
observed. The chemotactic activity observed in response to the toxins
was of a similar magnitude as observed with classical chemoattractants, such as fMLP or platelet-activating factor (see also legend of Fig.
10). Importantly, chemotaxis in response to the toxins could be
completely blocked by preincubation of cells with pertussis toxin,
demonstrating that the activation of G-proteins by the toxins was
essential for the induction of chemotaxis.
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DISCUSSION |
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A. hydrophila may cause pyogenic infections, including fecal leukocyte-positive diarrhea and purulent soft tissue infection. An important pathogenicity factor of this bacterium is the pore-forming toxin aerolysin. Thus, the question whether granulocytes are target cells for aerolysin is relevant. In this study, we demonstrate that granulocytes are sensitive to aerolysin. We found that granulocytes are more sensitive than promyelocytes suggesting that an up-regulation of receptors may occur upon differentiation. We also show that granulocytes are able to proteolyticaly activate the protoxin thereby allowing heptamerization of the toxin and channel formation as witnessed by a loss of intracellular K+ and plasma membrane depolarization. Finally we show that aerolysin induces [Ca2+]c elevations. In agreement with a previous study (34), we also demonstrate that aerolysin is chemotactic for human granulocytes. However, our results not only define an aerolysin target cell of potential pathophysiological importance. They also reveal novel and unexpected aspects of the mechanisms of cell activation by the toxin, namely aerolysin-induced Ca2+ release from intracellular stores and aerolysin-induced G-protein activation.
Aerolysin-induced Ca2+ Release from Intracellular Stores-- A pore-forming toxin is expected to allow ion fluxes across the plasma membrane. In accordance with this prediction, our results demonstrate that aerolysin increases the plasma membrane permeability for monovalent and divalent cations in granulocytes. However, aerolysin-induced [Ca2+]c elevations were more complex than anticipated. Experiments performed in the absence of extracellular Ca2+ revealed that an early event triggered by aerolysin was the release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores. The Ca2+ release occurred in two phases. The first phase of aerolysin-induced Ca2+ release was rapid and transient. It could be inhibited by pertussis toxin as well as the phospholipase C inhibitor U73122, indicating that it involves the activation of a G-protein and PLC. This phase was also abolished when agonist-sensitive Ca2+ stores were predepleted by exposure of cells to the Ins(1,4,5)P3-generating receptor agonist fMLP. Thus, the source of the early phase of aerolysin-induced Ca2+ release were most likely Ins(1,4,5)P3-sensitive endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ stores. The second phase of aerolysin-induced Ca2+ release was more sustained, but of a relatively low amplitude. It did not occur through a G-protein phospholipase C pathway. This phase was completely abolished by pretreatment of cells with thapsigargin, but only partially by pretreatment with fMLP. Thus, the source of the second phase of Ca2+ release most likely comprised not only Ins(1,4,5)P3-sensitive, but also Ins(1,4,5)P3-insensitive endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ stores. The mechanisms underlying the second release phase have as yet to be determined. Generation of a yet unknown signal at the plasma membrane might occur. Alternatively, a direct action of aerolysin on the endoplasmic reticulum might be considered.
Aerolysin-induced G-protein Activation-- Our results clearly suggest that aerolysin activates pertussis toxin-sensitive G-proteins in granulocytes. This possibility has also been suggested by previous reports on the block of aerolysin-induced granulocyte chemotaxis by pertussis toxin (34). A most straightforward explanation for the activation of G-proteins by aerolysin would be the following: the aerolysin receptor on granulocytes is a G-protein-coupled receptor and binding of aerolysin to this protein therefore induces G-protein activation. However, for several reasons, we think that this explanation is unlikely. First, the insertion-incompetent G202C/I445C aerolysin mutant efficiently binds to the same cell surface receptors as the wild type toxin, as evidenced by the almost complete block of aerolysin-induced Ca2+ release by the preincubation with the mutant. However, the mutant did not induce Ca2+ release. Second, the kinetics of increase in [Ca2+]c were slower than those triggered by the active form of the toxin, suggesting again that pore formation and not binding is crucial for G-protein activation. Third, all proaerolysin receptors identified so far are GPI-anchored proteins and not transmembrane proteins. Finally, the existence of a lag time between the addition of the toxin and the onset of Ca2+ release argues against a direct binding to a G-coupled receptor. Indeed no lag is observed upon addition of receptor agonists such as fMLP. Additional evidence that aerolysin-induced G-protein activation is a consequence of pore formation, rather than of receptor binding comes from the observation that G-protein activation is a common theme observed in response to pore formation by a variety of proteins and peptides.
Is G-protein Activation Commonly Associated with Pore
Formation?--
The ability of activating the Ins(1,4,5)P3
pathway is not unique to aerolysin, since both staphylococcal -toxin
and streptolysin O were found to trigger Ca2+ release (Fig.
9), and to induce chemotaxis (Fig. 10) in a
G-protein-dependent manner. Production of
Ins(1,4,5)P3 has also been shown to be triggered by two
other pore-forming proteins. Grimminger et al. (33, 35) have
shown that Escherichia coli hemolysin (HlyA) leads to
phosphoinositide hydrolysis and production of diacylglycerol but the
mechanism by which HlyA triggered a G-protein-dependent
pathway was not further analyzed (33, 35). The C5b-9 membrane attack
complex was also shown to trigger mobilization of calcium from
intracellular stores secondary to activation of phospholipase C and
production of Ins(1,4,5)P3 (36, 37). Therefore a number of
pore-forming proteins seem to be able to induce G-protein activation.
However, membrane permeabilization per se does not appear to
be sufficient since digitonin was unable to trigger Ca2+
release. The observation that a variety of pore-forming proteins lead
to G-protein activation also argues against the possibility that the
common mechanism resides at the receptor binding level. Indeed although
the receptors have not been identified for all these toxins, it is
clear that they do not share the same acceptor sites on cells.
Aerolysin has been shown to bind to GPI-anchored proteins cells
(11-14), and streptolysin O to cholesterol (for review, see Ref. 38).
Thus, rather than being on the level of toxin-receptor interaction, the
G-protein activation through bacterial toxins might be in relationship
to their insertion into the plasma membrane. Receptor-independent
G-protein activation through plasma membrane insertion of exogenously
added cationic amphiphilic neuropeptides and venom peptides has indeed
been described previously (39). Our observation that the onset of
Ca2+ release in response to the toxin was delayed with
respect to the onset of Ca2+ release in response to a
receptor agonist would be compatible with the present hypothesis.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We are thankful to J. T. Buckley for
providing us with the proaerolysin producing strain and the purified
proaerolysin mutant G202C/I445C, Beatrix Vecsey-Semjen for giving us
-toxin, and M. Kehoe for giving us purified streptolysin O. We are
very grateful to Nathalie Madore for going through all the trouble of
providing us with an anti-Thy-1 antibody and are thankful to Roger
Morris for giving us the antibody. We thank Eduardo Martinez for human T lymphocytes and Hai-Tao He for mouse T lymphocytes.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported by Swiss National Science Foundation Grants 3100-04 5891.95/1 (to K-H. K.) and 3100-049195.96/1 (to G. v. d. G).The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
¶ To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel./Fax: 41-022-702-6414; E-mail: Gisou.vandergoot{at}biochem.unige.ch.
1 The abbreviations used are: GPI, glycosylphosphatidylinositol; PAGE, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; PLC, phospholipase C; Ins(1,4,5)P3, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate; Me2SO, dimethyl sulfoxide; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; fMLP, fMet-Leu-Phe; PBFI, K+-binding benzofuran isophthalate.
2
. Abrami, M. Fivaz, and F. G. van der
Goot, unpublished data.
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