From the Departments of
Pharmacology
and Cell Biophysics,
Chemistry, and
Molecular and Cellular Physiology,
University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45267-0575, ¶ Department of Physiology, Loyola University, Maywood,
Illinois 60153, and ** Department of Medical Biochemistry, Ohio State
University, Columbus, Ohio 43210
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ABSTRACT |
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Ruthenium red is a well known inhibitor of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in vitro. However, its utility as an inhibitor of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in vivo or in situ in intact cells is limited because of its inhibitory effects on sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release channel and other cellular processes. We have synthesized a ruthenium derivative and found it to be an oxygen-bridged dinuclear ruthenium amine complex. It has the same chemical structure as Ru360 reported previously (Emerson, J., Clarke, M. J., Ying, W-L., and Sanadi, D. R. (1993) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 115, 11799-11805). Ru360 has been shown to be a potent inhibitor of Ca2+-stimulated respiration of liver mitochondria in vitro. However, the specificity of Ru360 on Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in vitro or in intact cells has not been determined. The present study reports in detail the potency, the effectiveness, and the mechanism of inhibition of mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake by Ru360 and its specificity in vitro in isolated mitochondria and in situ in isolated cardiac myocytes. Ru360 was more potent (IC50 = 0.184 nM) than ruthenium red (IC50 = 6.85 nM) in inhibiting Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria. 103Ru360 was found to bind to isolated mitochondria with high affinity (Kd = 0.34 nM, Bmax = 80 fmol/mg of mitochondrial protein). The IC50 of 103Ru360 for the inhibition of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria was also 0.2 nM, indicating that saturation of a specific binding site is responsible for the inhibition of Ca2+ uptake. Ru360, as high as 10 µM, produced no effect on sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ uptake or release, sarcolemmal Na+/Ca2+ exchange, actomyosin ATPase activity, L-type Ca2+ channel current, cytosolic Ca2+ transients, or cell shortening. 103Ru360 was taken up by isolated myocytes in a time-dependent biphasic manner. Ru360 (10 µM) applied outside intact voltage-clamped ventricular myocytes prevented Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in situ where the cells were progressively loaded with Ca2+ via sarcolemmal Na+/Ca2+ exchange by depolarization to +110 mV. We conclude that Ru360 specifically blocks Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria and can be used in intact cells.
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INTRODUCTION |
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Since the discovery of Ca2+ transport into energized mitochondria about 30 years ago, numerous studies have been conducted on its kinetics and regulation in mitochondria isolated from various tissues (for review, see Gunter and Pfeiffer (1)). It is now generally accepted that mitochondria act as a sink during cytosolic Ca2+ overload in diseased or damaged cells. However, the physiological role of Ca2+ transport into mitochondria in intact cells remains unresolved. In recent years, evidence has been accumulating that Ca2+ transport into mitochondria occurs in stimulated cells. For instance, it has been shown that mitochondria accumulate Ca2+ from an intracellular microdomain of high Ca2+ upon stimulation of cloned HeLa cells that express the Ca2+-sensitive photoprotein aequorin in mitochondria (2). Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in situ has also been observed in stimulated pancreatic cells (3, 4), liver cells (5), neuronal cells (6-9), and adrenal chromaffin cells (10, 11). These studies indicate that mitochondria accumulate Ca2+ when the cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]c) increases in stimulated cells. In cardiac muscle cells, mitochondria appear to accumulate only about 1% of the [Ca2+]c during relaxation of a single twitch (12). This fraction is not enough to significantly affect [Ca2+]c and cell contractility. However, increase in mitochondrial matrix free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]m) has been observed when myocytes were stimulated to increase [Ca2+]c (13-18). An increase in mitochondrial total Ca content with increased workload has also been observed in isolated cardiac myocytes by x-ray electron probe microanalysis (19). Increase in [Ca2+]m in vivo in isolated heart preparations with increased workload has also been observed (20). The significance of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria and increase in [Ca2+]m in cardiac and other cell types, however, has not been elucidated. It has been suggested that the increase in [Ca2+]m may stimulate Ca2+-sensitive matrix dehydrogenases, and thus augment the rate of ATP synthesis to meet the heightened energy demand (21-26). Verification of this hypothesis requires demonstration of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria and the consequent increase in matrix NAD(P)H and ATP synthesis in stimulated cardiac myocytes. The conclusions of the studies referred to above are based on presumed localization of Ca2+-sensitive dyes in mitochondria and their localization, or use of nonspecific inhibitors to block Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria. Moreover, the electron probe microanalysis approach in isolated hearts failed to detect any significant increase in mitochondrial total calcium content with isoproterenol stimulation, and yet an increase in pyruvate dehydrogenase activity was observed (27). A specific inhibitor of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria will be helpful to elucidate the role of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in cardiac muscle and to clarify certain controversies.
Ruthenium red (RR)1 has been shown to inhibit Ca2+ uptake into isolated mitochondria (28, 29). However, it was also shown to inhibit Ca2+ release from SR (30). It was found to produce both positive or negative inotropic effects in isolated rat hearts depending on its concentration in the perfusion solution (31). These effects of RR were attributed to its ability to inhibit SR Ca2+ release or sarcolemmal Na+/Ca2+ exchange. The inhibition of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria however was shown to be due to a contaminant in the commercial preparations of RR (32). Recently, an oxygen-bridged dimeric ruthenium amine complex, which absorbs light at 360 nm (named Ru360), has been reported to inhibit Ca2+-stimulated respiration in isolated liver mitochondria (33, 34). This compound would be an extremely useful tool for elucidating the role or the contribution of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in vivo in isolated hearts or in situ in isolated cardiomyocytes if it penetrates the cell membrane but does not affect other cellular Ca2+ transport processes or cardiac cell contractility. To date, the specificity of Ru360 in inhibiting Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in vitro or in intact cells has not been determined.
The objectives of this study are to determine the: 1) potency, effectiveness, binding, and mechanism of action of Ru360 on Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in vitro; 2) effects of Ru360 on processes involved in cardiac contraction, such as SR Ca2+ uptake and release, SL Na+/Ca2+ exchange, L-type Ca2+ current, and myofibrilar actomyosin ATPase; 3) effects of Ru360 on [Ca2+]c transient and cell shortening; and 4) uptake of Ru360 into intact cardiac myocytes and inhibition of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in situ. The results demonstrate that Ru360 binds to mitochondria with high affinity and specifically blocks Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in vitro and in situ in intact myocytes without affecting other cellular processes involved in cardiac contraction.
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES |
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Preparation of Ru360 and 103Ru360--
A procedure
similar to that described by Ying et al. (33) was used to
synthesize Ru360 starting with RuCl3 (Sigma). The purified
and crystallized preparation was reddish-brown and exhibited max at 360 nm in distilled water and virtually no trace
of light absorbance at 533 nm, unlike RR (K & K Co./ICN product) which exhibited
max at 533 nm and a trace of light absorbance
at 360 nm. 103Ru360 was synthesized from
103RuCl3 by a procedure similar to that
described by Ying et al. (33).
Determination of the Chemical Structure of Ru360--
The
molecular structure and crystal packing were determined by x-ray
crystallography. A platelike crystal (approximately 0.4 × 0.2 × 0.1 mm) was mounted onto the tip of a glass fiber with epoxy resin. Intensity data at low (233 K) and room temperature (293 K)
were collected in a Siemens molecular analytical research tool (SMART,
v4.05) CCD diffractometer on Mo K radiation (analytical x-ray
instruments, Siemens, Madison, WI). The data frames were processed, and
appropriate corrections for decay and Lorentz polarization effects were
applied using Siemens area detector INTegration routine (SAINT, v4.05).
Semiempirical absorption and beam corrections were applied using
Siemens area detector ABSorption correction routine (SADABS, by G. M. Sheldrick, University of Goettengen, Germany). The structure was
solved by a combination of direct method of crystal analysis (SHELXTL,
v5.03, by G. M. Sheldrick) and the difference Fourier technique,
and refined by full-matrix least squares on F2.
Non-hydrogen atoms were refined with anisotropic displacement parameters with the exception of C #l, which was refined isotropically. The formate atoms (O #2, C #l, O #3) were held at the atomic positions where first located during the subsequent refinement. C #l showed large
thermal motion, which when left to refine, led eventually to an
unstable refinement. The positions of H-atom were calculated and
treated with a standard riding model. The largest residual electron
density was located near the disordered formate ligand.
Isolation of Mitochondria from Rat Heart-- Mitochondria were isolated from rat cardiac ventricles by the method of Matlib et al. (35). Male Wistar rats weighing about 300 g were anesthetized with 30 mg of nembutal/kg. The chest cavity was surgically opened, the heart excised, and immediately placed in ice-cold saline solution. After rinsing, the atria and aorta were cut off, and the ventricles immersed in an ice-cold medium containing 180 mM KCl, 10 mM EGTA, and 0.5% bovine serum albumin, pH 7.2. All subsequent steps were carried out at 0-4 °C. The tissue was weighed, minced with scissors, and homogenized with a glass-Teflon tissue homogenizer (Thomas Scientific, size C) according to procedure B (35). Mitochondria were isolated by differential centrifugation (35). The first crude mitochondrial pellet was resuspended in a medium containing 180 mM KCl and 10 mM EGTA, pH 7.4. The last wash was carried out in a medium containing 180 mM KCl and 0.05 mM EGTA, pH 7.2. The final pellet was suspended in this medium at 40-50 mg protein/ml. Protein concentration was determined by the Lowry et al. (36) method using bovine serum albumin to construct a linear standard curve.
Measurements of Ca2+ Uptake and Na+-induced Ca2+ Release from Mitochondria Isolated from Rat Heart-- The rate of Ca2+ uptake into isolated mitochondria and the rate of Na+-induced Ca2+ release at 37 °C were determined spectrophotometrically using arsenazo III (37). The assay medium (3 ml) contained 120 mM KCl, 10 mM MOPS-KOH buffer (pH 7.2), 5 mM pyruvate, 5 mM malate, 2 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.2), 50 µM arsenazo III, and 1 mg of protein. Ru360 or RR, at the desired final concentration, was added 1 min before Ca2+ uptake was initiated with the addition of 50 nmol of CaCl2. To measure the rate of Na+-induced Ca2+ release, the mitochondria were allowed to accumulate added Ca2+ (50 nmol of CaCl2) as described above. When the uptake of Ca2+ was completed, Ru360 or RR was added. One minute after the addition of Ru360 or RR, Na+-induced Ca2+ release was initiated by adding 10 mM NaCl.
Binding of 103Ru360 to Isolated Mitochondria-- Isolated heart mitochondria (7 mg of protein) were incubated at 22 °C in 35 ml of medium containing 120 mM KCl, 10 mM MOPS-KOH buffer (pH 7.2), and 0.1-1 nM 103Ru360. After 30 min of incubation, the samples were centrifuged at 20,000 × g for 10 min, and the supernatant was discarded. The surface of the pellet was gently rinsed twice with the above medium. The pellet was resuspended in a small volume, transferred into a test tube, and counted in a gamma counter. Nonspecific binding was determined by incubating the samples containing 0.1-1 nM 103Ru360 in the presence of 10 µM unlabeled Ru360. Specific binding was determined by subtracting the nonspecific binding from the total binding.
Measurement of Ca2+ Release from SR in Situ in Lysed Cardiomyocytes-- The rate of Ca2+ uptake into SR in situ in digitonin-permeabilized rat cardiomyocytes in the presence and absence of Ru360 or RR (K & K/ICN Product) was determined at 37 °C in a medium containing 100 mM NaCl, 11 mM glucose, 20 mM BES, 0.2 mM EGTA, 19 µM rotenone, 10 µM oligomycin, 1 mM dithiothreitol, 10 mM phosphocreatine, 0.2 units/ml creatine phosphokinase, 10 mM Mg-ATP, and 45CaCl2 to maintain a free Ca2+ concentration of 1 µM at pH 7.2 (38). The increase in the rate of Ca2+ uptake in the presence of RR was used as an indication of inhibition of Ca2+ release from SR as established previously (38).
Measurement of Ca2+ Uptake into Isolated SR
Vesicles--
SR vesicles from rat hearts were isolated according to a
previously described procedure (39). The excised hearts were rinsed with ice-cold saline, immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored
at 70 °C. The frozen hearts were powdered with stainless steel
mortar and pestle in liquid nitrogen, and the powder was suspended in a
solution containing 300 mM sucrose and 20 mM
Tris-maleate, pH 7.0. The suspension was homogenized (20 strokes at
about 100 rpm) in a glass Potter Elvehjelm fitted with a Teflon piston. The homogenate was centrifuged at 1000 × g for 15 min
and the supernatant was saved. The pellet was resuspended in the same solution, homogenized, and centrifuged at 1000 × g for
15 min, and the subsequent supernatant was combined with the saved
supernatant. The combined supernatant was centrifuged at 10,000 × g for 20 min and was filtered through four layers of
cheesecloth. KCl was added to a final concentration of 0.6 M. The solution was centrifuged at 100,000 × g for 1 h, and the pellet was resuspended in same volume of 300 mM sucrose and 20 mM Tris-maleate
buffer (pH 7.0). The suspension was centrifuged at 100,000 × g for 1 h, and the pellet was resuspended in a small
volume of 20 mM Tris-maleate, 300 mM sucrose,
and 100 mM KCl, pH 7.0.
Measurement of Na+-Ca2+ Exchange Activity of Isolated SL Vesicles-- SL vesicles from rat heart were isolated according to a procedure described previously (41), with the exception that the supernatant solution, after the first 8000 × g centrifugation and sedimentation of mitochondria, was used for the isolation of sarcolemmal vesicles. Ca2+ uptake into 150 mM Na+-loaded SL vesicles at 10 µM free Ca2+ was determined using 45CaCl2 as a tracer and Millipore filtration technique according to a previously described procedure (41).
Measurement of Actomyosin Ca2+-ATPase Activity of Isolated Myofibrils-- Myofibrils from rat heart were isolated by homogenization and centrifugation according to a previously described procedure (42). Ca2+-stimulated actomyosin ATPase activity in the presence and absence of Ru360 was determined according to a previously described procedure (43), in a solution containing 60 mM KCl, 30 mM imidazole, 7.5 mM MgCl2, 5 mM sodium ATP, 2.4 µM thapsigargin to inhibit SR Ca2+-ATPase, 5 mM NaN3 to inhibit mitochondrial ATPase, 1 mM EGTA and CaCl2 to yield 10 µM free Ca2+ at pH 7.0.
Measurement of Voltage-dependent Ca2+
Channel Current in Heart Cells--
Cardiac myocytes from adult rat
heart were isolated as described previously (44). The isolated cells
were placed into a small chamber (1.4 ml which contained the external
test solution) on the stage of an inverted microscope. The cells were
constantly perfused with the external test solution at rate of 1.8 ml/min. The external test solution contained in mM: 150 tetraethylammonium chloride, 1.8 CaCl2, 0.5 MgCl2, 3,4-aminopyridine, 3 Hepes, 5.5 glucose, pH 7.4 adjusted with HCl. Voltage-clamp recordings were performed in
whole-cell configuration of the patch-clamp method by using patch-clamp
amplifier (Axopatch-1D, Axon Instruments, Foster City, CA) and
fire-polished borosilicate glass pipettes (World Precision Instruments,
Sarasota, FL) with resistance of 2-6 M when filled with pipette
solution containing in mM: 110 CsOH, 20 CsCl, 110 L-glutamic acid, 3 MgCl2, 5 disodium ATP, 5 disodium creatine phosphate, 10 EGTA, 5 Hepes, pH 7.2 adjusted with
CsOH. The ICa(L) were elicited from a holding
potential of
40 mV to test potential of +10 mV for 300 ms every
15 s in cells untreated or pretreated with 10 µM
Ru360 at 22-25 °C.
Measurement of 103Ru360 Uptake into Myocytes Isolated from Rat Heart-- Myocytes were isolated from rat hearts as described previously (38). The myocyte preparations used in this study were about 85% rod-shaped and Ca2+ tolerant. To determine the uptake of 103Ru360, 2 × 105 cells were suspended in 1 ml of Joklick's medium (Life Technologies, Inc.) containing 1 µM 103Ru360 and incubated at 37 °C. At 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30 min after the addition of 103Ru360, the cells in Microfuge tubes were sedimented by centrifugation at 12,000 × g for 15 s and washed twice with 1 ml of Joklick's medium without Ru360. The pellet was counted in a gamma counter. The amount (picomoles) of Ru360 taken up at each time point was calculated from the specific activity of the 103Ru360.
Measurement of Cytosolic Ca2+ Transients and Shortening of Isolated Single Cardiac Myocytes-- Myocytes from rat heart were isolated according to Wimsatt et al. (38) and suspended in Krebs-Henseleit medium containing 1 mM CaCl2 and 25 mM Hepes buffer (pH 7.4). The cells were loaded with indo-1 by incubating cells in 3 µM indo-1/AM for 20 min at 37 °C. The cells were washed and further incubated at room temperature for 30 min to complete the conversion of indo-1 ester to its free acid. The cells were allowed to attach on the surface of a glass coverslip in a plastic chamber (0.3-ml volume). The cells were continuously perfused at a rate of 0.5 ml/min with buffered Krebs-Henseleit solution containing 1 mM CaCl2 at 22 °C in the absence or presence of 10 µM Ru360. They were field-stimulated at 0.2 Hz (pulses of 4-ms duration) with platinum wires attached to a Grass S9 stimulator. Cell shortening was recorded with a video-edge detection system (Crescent Electronics, Salt Lake City, UT). Cytosolic indo-1 fluorescence emission ratio of 405 and 485 nm with 365 nm excitation was recorded with a P. T. I. Deltascan Photometer (Photon Technology International, Monmouth, NJ) attached to a Nikon Diaphot-200 inverted microscope.
Measurement of Ca2+ Uptake into Mitochondria in Situ
in Isolated Intact Cardiac Myocytes--
Ventricular myocytes were
isolated from adult ferret hearts (45). The effect of Ru360 was
determined under voltage-clamped conditions in which the cytosol was
progressively loaded with Ca2+ via the SL
Na+/Ca2+ exchanger as described previously
(46). Standard whole-cell recording techniques and Axopatch-1B
amplifier (Axon Instruments) were used for electrophysiological
recordings. The holding potential was 40 mV. To evoke
Ca2+ influx into the cell, depolarization pulses to +110 mV
were applied, which allows Ca2+ entry via the
Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (46). Signals for whole-cell
current, cell contraction, and indo-1 fluorescence signals at two
wavelengths (400 and 500 nm) were simultaneously recorded using pClamp
6 (Axon Instruments) and an IBM-PC compatible computer at a sampling
rate of 125-500 Hz. Intracellular Ca2+ signals were
detected as described previously (46). The cells were loaded with
indo-1 by incubation in Tyrode solution containing 5 µM
indo-1/AM for 40-45 min at 37 °C. This condition allows loading of
the cells with 0.5-1.0 mM indo-1, approximately 75% of
which was found to be in mitochondria (46). The indo-1 fluorescence was
converted into intracellular free Ca2+ concentration
([Ca2+]i), representing both
[Ca2+]c and [Ca2+]m, by two
different methods. In the first method, [Ca2+]i
was calculated from the indo-1 fluorescence ratio according to
Grynkiewicz et al. (47)
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(Eq. 1) |
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(Eq. 2) |
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RESULTS |
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Chemical Structure-- The chemical structure of the compound is presented in Fig. 1. The compound we synthesized has two ruthenium amine-formate nuclei bridged with an oxygen atom. It has three positive charges. Each ruthenium atom is positively charged with the remaining charge delocalized between the Ru-O-Ru bridge. The deduced chemical formula is C2H26N8O5Ru2Cl3 and the calculated molecular weight is 550.5. A solution of 18 µM Ru360 in distilled water exhibited maximum light absorbance at 360 nm, with no detectable absorbance at 533 nm indicating that the preparation is free from ruthenium red contamination (not shown). The x-ray crystallographic data were identical to Ru360 reported previously (34). Thus, the light absorbance, the chemical structure derived from crystallograpy, and the molecular weight data led to the conclusion that the compound is Ru360 reported by Ying et al. (33) and Emerson et al. (34).
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Effect of Ru360 and RR on Ca2+ Uptake and Na+-induced Ca2+ Release from Mitochondria in Vitro-- Ru360 has been shown to inhibit Ca2+-stimulated respiration of isolated rat liver mitochondria (33). However, its effect on Ca2+ uptake into isolated heart mitochondria has not been studied. Therefore, we conducted experiments to determine whether Ru360 was effective in inhibiting Ca2+ uptake into heart mitochondria, and whether it was more potent than RR. Increasing concentration of Ru360 progressively inhibited the rate of Ca2+ uptake into isolated rat heart mitochondria (Fig. 2A). The concentration of Ru360 which inhibited 50% (IC50) of the control rate was 0.184 nM or 0.55 pmol/mg mitochondrial protein. RR also inhibited the rate of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria with increasing concentration (Fig. 2B). However, the IC50 was 6.85 nM or 20 pmol/mg of protein. Ru360 produced no effect on Na+-induced Ca2+ release from mitochondria (Fig. 2C). RR also produced no effect on the rate of Na+-induced Ca2+ release from mitochondria (not shown). These data indicate that Ru360 is about 40 times more potent than RR in inhibiting Ca2+ uptake into heart mitochondria in vitro. The lack of effect on Na+-induced Ca2+ release process indicates that Ru360 is a selective inhibitor of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in vitro.
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Binding of 103Ru360 to Isolated Mitochondria-- To determine whether binding of Ru360 to membrane causes inhibition of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria, binding of 103Ru-labeled Ru360 and its potency to inhibit Ca2+ uptake were studied. 103Ru360 binds to isolated mitochondria in a saturable manner (Fig. 3). The total binding at all concentrations of 103Ru360 was 4-5% of that in the medium, indicating that the ligand concentration was not a limiting factor. The nonspecific binding was about 30% of the total binding and increased linearly with increasing 103Ru360 concentration (not shown). The maximum binding (Bmax) was found to be 80 fmol/mg of protein with a dissociation constant (Kd) of 0.34 nM. The Kd is comparable to the functional IC50 measured in Fig. 2A. These data indicate that Ru360 binds to a specific site in mitochondrial membrane, and that binding to this site is most likely responsible for inhibition of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria.
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Effect of Ru360 and RR on Ca2+ Release from SR in Situ-- The rate of Ca2+ uptake into SR is increased due to the inhibition of ryanodine-sensitive Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release channel by RR (38). As expected, RR increased Ca2+ uptake into SR in digitonin-lysed myocytes by about 10-fold (Fig. 4A). On the other hand, Ru360 produced very little effect even at concentration as high as 30 µM (Fig. 4A). These data indicate that, unlike RR, Ru360 does not inhibit ryanodine-sensitive Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release channel in the SR.
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Effect of Ru360 on Ca2+ Uptake into Isolated SR Vesicles-- It could be argued that the lack of effect of Ru360 on Ca2+ release from SR measured in lysed cardiomyocytes was due to its inhibitory effect on the Ca2+ uptake process. Therefore, the effect of Ru360 on the rate of Ca2+ uptake of isolated SR vesicles was determined. The [Ca2+] for half of the maximum rate of Ca2+ uptake (EC50) was 0.20 ± 0.02 µM Ca2+, and the maximum rate (Vmax) was 63.5 ± 4.4 nmol/min/mg in untreated control vesicles (Fig. 4B). Ru360 (10 µM) exerted no effect on either the EC50 (0.20 ± 0.01 µM) or the maximum rate (58.9 ± 8.0 nmol/min/mg) of Ca2+ uptake into isolated SR vesicles (n = 4). The data indicate that Ru360 does not inhibit Ca2+ uptake into SR. Therefore, the lack of effect of Ru360 on ryanodine-sensitive Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release from SR of lysed myocytes in Fig. 4A was not due to inhibition of the Ca2+ uptake process.
Effect of Ru360 on Sarcolemmal Na+/Ca2+ Exchanger-- It has been suggested that RR interferes with sarcolemmal Na+/Ca2+ exchange activity in isolated heart preparations (31). Therefore, the effect of Ru360 on Ca2+ uptake into Na+-loaded sarcolemmal vesicles was determined. Ru360 (10 µM) produced no effect on Ca2+ uptake into Na+-loaded sarcolemmal vesicles (Fig. 5A). However, dichlorobenzamil, which is known to inhibit sarcolemmal Na+/Ca2+ exchanger, inhibited Ca2+ uptake into Na+-loaded sarcolemmal vesicles (not shown).
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Effect of Ru360 on Myofibrilar Actomyosin-ATPase-- Ca2+-stimulated actomyosin ATPase plays a crucial part in cardiac muscle contraction. Therefore, we examined the effect of Ru360 on Ca2+-stimulated actomyosin ATPase activity in myofibrils isolated from rat hearts. Ru360 at 10 µM produced no effect on Ca2+-stimulated actomyosin ATPase activity in isolated myofibrils (Fig. 5B).
Effect of Ru360 on Voltage-dependent L-type Ca2+ Channel Current-- It has been suggested that RR inhibits voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel current in leukemia cells (48). To determine whether Ru360 produces a similar effect in cardiac myocytes, we examined its effects on voltage-dependent L-type Ca2+ channel current (ICa(L)) in whole-cell voltage-clamped single cardiac myocytes. Ru360 at 10 µM produced no significant effect on the voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel current amplitude or kinetics (Fig. 6).
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103Ru360 Uptake into Isolated Cardiomyocytes--
To
be effective in inhibiting Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria
in situ in isolated cardiomyocytes, Ru360 must enter the
cells. Therefore, we determined whether Ru360 enters and accumulates into myocytes in a time-dependent manner. In this study,
predominantly (80-90%) rod-shaped isolated cardiomyocytes were
incubated at 37 °C in Joklick's medium containing 1 µM 103Ru360, and its accumulation was
determined after sedimentation of cells by centrifugation and removal
of the free 103Ru360 remaining in the supernatant solution.
103Ru360 was taken up by myocytes with time of incubation
in a biphasic manner (Fig. 7). The
initial very rapid phase (f = 3.6 s)
probably reflects Ru360 binding to the outer surface of the cell. The
amount bound at the surface (7.5 pmol of
103Ru360/106 cells) would correspond to ~250
nmol/liter cell volume (assuming a 30-pl cell volume) (49) or 1500 molecules/µm2 of cell surface (assuming 1 µF/cm2 membrane and 7 pF/pl) (49). The slow phase is
almost 500 times slower (
s = 28 min) and
probably reflects Ru360 gradually entering the cell. After 30 min the
slow phase would be ~3 pmol/106 cells or ~100
nmol/liter of cell volume.
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Effect on Contraction and Cytosolic Free Ca2+ Transients of Isolated Single Cardiac Myocytes-- Indo-1 loaded single myocytes perfused with Krebs-Henseleit-(20 mM) Hepes buffer (pH 7.4) and stimulated at 0.2 Hz exhibits normal contraction and [Ca2+]c transients before treatment with Ru360. Perfusion of the cells with 10 µM Ru360 up to 30 min did not produce any significant effect on contraction or [Ca2+]c transients (Fig. 8). We have also studied the effects of 30 and 50 µM Ru360. Only 50 µM Ru360 significantly decreased the amplitude of [Ca2+]c and cell shortening (not shown). The results indicate that Ru360 does not affect normal [Ca2+]c transients and shortening of isolated cardiac myocytes at concentrations that inhibit Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria.
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Inhibition of Ca2+ Uptake into Mitochondria in Situ in
Isolated Single Cardiomyocytes--
To determine whether Ru360 can
block mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake in intact cells, we applied
combined whole-cell patch-clamp and indo-1 fluorescence measurements in
single ferret ventricular myocytes. The cells were preloaded with
indo-1 under conditions in which about 75% of the indo-1 was trapped
inside mitochondria and about 25% was in the cytosol (46). Cells were
progressively loaded with Ca2+ via the sarcolemmal
Na+/Ca2+ exchanger with repeated strong
depolarizations of +110 mV. A pure cytosolic Ca2+ signal
can be derived from the contraction L, while the indo-1 signal (F400/F500 ratio)
is a mixture of cytosolic and mitochondrial free Ca2+
concentrations (46). Comparison of the normalized
L and
the F400/F500 ratio show
that a difference between
L and
F400/F500 ratio developed
as the [Ca2+]i gradually increased (Fig.
9A). We have shown previously (46) that this difference between
L and
F400/F500 ratio can be
blocked by Ru360 dialyzed into the cell through the patch-pipette. In
the present study, incubation of the cell with externally applied 10 µM Ru360 in normal Tyrode solution for 30 min resulted in
complete blockade of both the sustained increase in
[Ca2+]i ratio and the development of the kinetic
difference between
L and
F400/F500 ratio (Fig.
9B). Without Ru360, the [Ca2+]i signal
(mixed mitochondria and cytosolic signal) increases far above the
purely cytosolic [Ca2+]CL signal, but this is
reversed with 30 min of exposure to 10 µM Ru360 (Fig.
9B, lower panels). This is also consistent with
blockade of mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake by Ru360. That is,
when [Ca2+]m is high the mixed indo-1 signal
overestimates [Ca2+]c and when
[Ca2+]m is very low (with Ru360) the mixed
[Ca2+] signal underestimates
[Ca2+]c. These results indicate that Ru360 enters
the cell and blocks Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in intact
cardiac myocytes.
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DISCUSSION |
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The results presented here demonstrate that Ru360 is more potent and specific than RR in inhibiting Ca2+ uptake into heart mitochondria. The lack of effect of Ru360 on Na+-induced Ca2+ release process of mitochondria indicates that it selectively inhibits the Ca2+ uptake process. The concentrations at which Ru360 binds to mitochondria also inhibited Ca2+ uptake. The results suggest that binding of Ru360 to a high affinity site in the mitochondrial membrane causes inhibition of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria. The number of binding sites in the mitochondrial membranes appear small (80 fmol/mg of protein). Assuming 40 mg of mitochondrial protein/ml cell volume, this corresponds to 3-4 nM Ru360 binding sites in the cell. Furthermore, the 120 nmol of Ca2+/mg/min uptake rate blocked by Ru360 would correspond to ~25,000 calcium ions/s/Ru360 binding site. This rate of Ca2+ influx would be consistent with an ion channel rather than other transport mechanisms. However, whether the Ru360 binding site is located in the Ca2+ uptake uniporter protein or in a regulatory protein molecule associated with the uniporter cannot be determined until the uniporter protein or the Ru360 binding site is identified.
Ruthenium red has been shown not only to inhibit Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria but also SR ryanodine-sensitive Ca2+ release channel (30), sarcolemmal voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel (48), and the sarcolemmal Na+-Ca2+ exchanger (31). These effects of RR preclude its usefulness as a specific inhibitor of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in intact cells or organs. Despite these effects, RR has been used and continues to be used in isolated cells and isolated hearts. Although the results obtained from these studies were often consistent with inhibition of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria, the contributions of inhibition of Ca2+ release from SR, voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel, or sarcolemmal Na+/Ca2+ exchanger could not be completely excluded. Results presented here demonstrate that Ru360 does not produce any of these effects. These characteristics of Ru360 distinguish it from RR and establish it as a more potent and specific inhibitor of mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake.
Since Ru360 specifically inhibits Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria, it could be a very useful tool for estimating the contribution of mitochondrial Ca2+ transport in the regulation of [Ca2+]m and [Ca2+]c. Moreover, it will also be useful to 1) demonstrate cause-effect relationship of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria, 2) estimate contribution of mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake into cell function in normal or diseased states, 3) eliminate mitochondrial Ca2+ transport when experimental condition dictates, 4) identify hitherto unknown role of mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake, 5) elucidate the mechanism of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria, and 6) identify molecular nature of the mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake uniporter.
An ideal inhibitor should specifically bind to mitochondria with high affinity in the same concentration range as the inhibition of Ca2+ uptake, permeate the cell membrane, and specifically inhibit Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in situ in intact cells. Results presented here demonstrate that 103Ru360 is indeed taken up by myocardial cells and is accumulated in the cytosol in a biphasic manner. The very rapid phase of 103Ru360 uptake may be due to binding to the cell surface while the slow phase could be due to intracellular accumulation. The relatively slow uptake could be due to the positive charge and/or low lipid solubility of the compound. After 30 min, the slow uptake may amount to ~100 nM (see "Results"). This is still 500 times the IC50 shown in Fig. 2A and 25 times the number of mitochondrial Ru360 binding sites in the cell. Thus the quantity of cellular uptake of 1 µM Ru360 in 30 min is certainly more than sufficient to explain the functional blockade of mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake observed with 10 µM Ru360 in patch-clamped myocytes (Fig. 9). The results also indicate that micromolar extracellular concentrations of Ru360 and prolonged incubation are required for accumulation in cytosol at concentrations sufficient for the inhibition of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in intact cardiac myocytes. Nevertheless, the results presented here also show that micromolar concentrations of Ru360 produce no effect on contractility of single cardiac myocytes. Therefore, Ru360 can be used at low micromolar concentrations to inhibit Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria without affecting cellular processes involved in cardiac contractility.
Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in a functioning single cardiac myocyte has been controversial. Some investigators have demonstrated Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in stimulated cells (13-20), while others failed to observe any increase even though Ca2+-sensitive matrix pyruvate dehydrogenase activity was increased (27). The disparity in the results could be due to differences in the state of the cells, the workload imposed, and on the experimental approach. Ru360 will be useful in the resolution of this controversy by verifying that Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria is indeed the consequence of the specific interventions. To demonstrate the utility of Ru360 in the inhibition of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in situ in single cardiomyocytes, we have employed a procedure of simultaneous measurements of cell shortening by edge-detection, [Ca2+]c from changes in cell length during systole, and [Ca2+]m from indo-1 fluorescence in whole cell patch-clamped single cardiac myocytes (46). In this procedure, strong stimulation of the cell caused a sustained increase in intracellular indo-1 fluorescence the kinetics of which was dissociated from cell contraction and relaxation reflecting normal [Ca2+]c transients. We attributed the increase in indo-1 fluorescence and slowed kinetics to Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria and resultant increase in [Ca2+]m. This also matches our previous report of the same effect of Ru360 delivered intracellularly through the patch pipette (46). The present experiments demonstrate that Ru360 enters intact functioning myocytes and inhibits Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in situ without affecting cell contractility. However, it required up to 30 min incubation of the cells with 10 µM Ru360 to observe complete block of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria. The outcome of this experiment further confirms our observation that incubation of intact cardiac myocytes for a period of time with Ru360 is required for sufficient intracellular accumulation for the inhibition of Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in situ. Furthermore, this observation is in quantitative agreement with the slow phase of 103Ru360 uptake by isolated myocytes.
In summary, we demonstrate in this study that Ru360 inhibits Ca2+ uptake without affecting Na+-induced Ca2+ release from mitochondria. We observed no effect of Ru360 on Ca2+ uptake or release from SR, Na+/Ca2+ exchange activity of SL, voltage-dependent L-type Ca2+ channel activity of cell membrane, or Ca2+-stimulated actomyosin-ATPase activity of myofibrils. Also, we observed no effect of Ru360 on [Ca2+]c and shortening transients in field-stimulated single cardiomyocytes. We conclude that Ru360 is a novel specific inhibitor of mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake. Furthermore, it is a valuable tool in studying Ca2+ regulation of mitochondria, both in isolation and in intact cells.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT |
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We thank Dr. Richard Elder of Department of Chemistry (University of Cincinnati) for advice on x-ray crystallography and Clare Flarsheim and Gilberto Bultron (University of Cincinnati) and Steven Scaglione (Loyola) for technical assistance. Synthesis of Ru360, experiments on isolated mitochondria, uptake into isolated myocytes, Ca2+ uptake into isolated SR and SL vesicles, actomyosin ATPase, and measurements of contraction and [Ca2+]c transients in single cardiomyocytes were carried out in Dr. Matlib's laboratory. The chemical structure of Ru360 was determined by Dr. Krause-Bauer. L-type calcium channel activity was determined by Drs. Katsube and Sperelakis, and SR Ca2+ release channel activity in lysed cardiomyocytes was determined by Drs. Phillips and Altschuld. Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria in situ in patch-clamped single cardiomyocytes was determined by Drs. Zhou, Matlib, and Bers.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported in part by grants from American Heart Association National Center (to M. A. M.), American Diabetes Association (to M. A. M.), University of Cincinnati Faculty Development Council (to M. A. M.), Ohio Board of Regents Research Challenge Program (to M. A. M.), and National Institutes of Health Grants HL 56782 (to M. A. M.), HL 30077 (to D. M. B.), and HL 36240 (to R. A.). Crystallographic data were collected through the Ohio Crystallographic Consortium funded by the Ohio Board of Regents 1995 Investment Fund (CAP-075).The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
§ To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of Pharmacology and Cell Biophysics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, 231 Bethesda Ave., P. O. Box 670575, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0575. Tel.: 513-558-2345; Fax: 513-558-1169; E-mail: matlibma{at}uc.edu.
1 The abbreviations used are: RR, ruthenium red; SR, sarcoplasmic reticulum; SL, sarcolemmal; MOPS, 3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid; BES, 2-[bis(2-hydroxyethyl)amino]ethanesulfonic acid.
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