From the Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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ABSTRACT |
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We have investigated the role of metabotropic glutamate receptors linked to phosphoinositide hydrolysis in the control of glutamate release in cerebrocortical nerve terminals. The activation of these receptors with the agonist 3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine enhanced intrasynaptosomal diacylglycerol and facilitated both the depolarization-induced increase in the cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration and the release of glutamate. However, 5 min after receptor activation, a second stimulation of the pathway with the agonist failed to produce diacylglycerol and to facilitate glutamate release. Interestingly, during the period in which the diacylglycerol response was desensitized, a strong agonist-induced inhibition of Ca2+ entry and glutamate release was observed. This change in the presynaptic effects of 3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine is reversible since 30 min after the first stimulation, the agonist-induced inhibition of release disappeared, whereas both the production of diacylglycerol and the facilitation of glutamate release were recovered. The tonic elevation of the extracellular glutamate concentration from basal levels (0.8 µM) up to 5 µM also produced the switch from facilitation to inhibition in the receptor response. The existence of this activity-dependent switch in the presynaptic control of glutamate release suggests that release facilitation is limited to conditions under which an appropriate clearance of synaptic glutamate exists, probably to prevent the neurotoxic accumulation of glutamate in the synapse.
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INTRODUCTION |
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The probability of glutamate release at nerve terminals is
regulated by presynaptic metabotropic glutamate receptors
(mGluRs)1 coupled to the
activation of different signal transduction pathways. Molecular cloning
has revealed the existence of at least eight mGluRs (mGluR1-8) (Refs.
1-8; see Ref. 9 for a review). Group I receptors (mGluR1 and mGluR5)
are selectively activated by 3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG) (10),
and their expression in transfected cell lines has indicated the
coupling of these receptors to phosphoinositide hydrolysis (2, 3, 11)
and to the generation of the intracellular messengers diacylglycerol,
active on protein kinase C (PKC), and inositol triphosphate, which
mobilizes intracellular calcium. On the other hand, Group II (mGluR2
and mGluR3) and Group III (mGluR4 and mGluR6-8) receptors are
selectively activated by
(2S,1S,2
S)-2-(carboxycyclopropyl)glycine (L-CCG-I) and L-2-amino-4-phosphonobutyrate
(L-AP4), respectively. The expression of these receptors in
non-neuronal cells has shown them to be negatively coupled to cAMP
formation (4-8, 12). The activation of the adenylyl cyclase-linked
mGluRs in neuronal preparations such as cerebral slices, cultured
neurons, and nerve terminals reduces synaptic transmission (13-17),
glutamate release (18, 19), and Ca2+ currents (17, 20-23).
In cerebrocortical nerve terminals, it has been shown, in addition,
that although the agonist L-AP4 reduces both the
depolarization-induced increase in Ca2+ and
forskolin-stimulated cAMP formation, only the reduction in [Ca2+]c is responsible for the decrease in
release (24).
In contrast to the negative modulation of neurotransmitter release by Group II and III mGluRs, the role of phosphoinositide-linked mGluRs in the control of glutamate release is not clear. In nerve terminals, the activation of these receptors facilitates glutamate release (25), an effect likely to be the result of diacylglycerol production (26) and protein kinase C activation (27). This facilitation of release is also consistent with the presence of a presynaptic PKC-dependent facilitatory pathway as revealed by synaptic transmission studies in slice preparations (28, 29). However, surprisingly, the activation of presynaptic phosphoinositide (PI)-linked mGluRs has shown a reduction of synaptic transmission due to decreased glutamate release (30, 31). Here we have found that PI-coupled mGluRs can mediate not only the facilitation, but also the inhibition of glutamate release depending on the response pathway activated. Under control conditions, the response to a first stimulation with the agonist is the facilitation of glutamate release, an effect likely to be due to diacylglycerol (DAG) production and PKC activation. However, following receptor activation, a reversible desensitization of both DAG production and release facilitation occurs, during which a second stimulation with the agonist inhibits the entry of Ca2+ and the release of glutamate. A complete switch to inhibition can be induced by a small (5 µM) tonic elevation of the extracellular glutamate concentration, suggesting that release facilitation, which may be necessary for synaptic plasticity, is limited to conditions under which an appropriate clearance of synaptic glutamate exists, a property likely important in avoiding the neurotoxic accumulation of glutamate.
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES |
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Synaptosomal Preparation-- Cerebral cortices from male Wistar rats (2-3 months old) were isolated and homogenized in medium containing 320 mM sucrose, 0.5 mM EDTA, and 5 mM TES, pH 7.4. The homogenate was spun for 5 min at 900 × g at 4 °C, and the supernatants were spun again for 10 min at 17,000 × g. From the pellets thus formed, the white loosely compacted layer containing the majority of synaptosomes was gently resuspended in medium containing 250 mM sucrose and 5 mM TES, pH 7.4 (10 ml/four cortices), and the protein was determined by the biuret method. Pellets containing 1 mg of protein were stored on ice. Synaptosomes remained fully viable when stored as pellets for at least 6 h after preparation, as judged by the extent of KCl- and 4-aminopyridine (4-AP)-induced glutamate release.
Glutamate Release-- Glutamate release was assayed by on-line fluorometry as described previously (32). Synaptosomal pellets were resuspended (0.67 mg/ml) in incubation medium containing 122 mM NaCl, 3.1 mM KCl, 0.4 mM KH2PO4, 5 mM NaHCO3, 1.2 mM MgSO4, 10 mM glucose, and 20 mM TES, pH 7.4, and preincubated at 37 °C for 1 h in the presence of 16 µM bovine serum albumin (BSA) to bind any free fatty acids released from synaptosomes during the preincubation (33). After preincubation, the synaptosomes were pelleted and resuspended in fresh incubation medium both with and without BSA depending on whether release inhibition or facilitation was under investigation. An aliquot (1 ml) was transferred to a stirred cuvette containing 1 mM NADP+, 50 units of glutamate dehydrogenase, and 1.33 mM CaCl2 or 200 nM free Ca2+, and the fluorescence of NADPH was followed in a Perkin-Elmer LS-50 luminescence spectrometer at excitation and emission wavelengths of 340 and 460 nm, respectively. Traces were calibrated by the addition of 2 nmol of glutamate at the end of each assay. Data points were obtained at 2-s intervals and corrected for the Ca2+-independent release. Thus, the Ca2+-dependent release was calculated by subtracting the release obtained during 5 min at 200 nM free Ca2+ from the release at 1.33 mM CaCl2.
Determination of Diacylglycerol--
Diacylglycerol was
estimated as the amount of 32P incorporated from
[-32P]ATP into phosphatidic acid in the presence of
diacylglycerol kinase. Aliquots (0.5 ml) of the synaptosomal suspension
(0.67 mg/ml) were added to 0.5 ml of chloroform/methanol (95:5, v/v) and rapidly frozen at
80 °C until all samples were collected. After thawing, the phases were separated by centrifugation, and the
lower organic phase was collected and evaporated in a water bath at
60 °C. The tubes containing diacylglycerol were incubated in medium
(final volume of 100 µl) containing 70 mM NaCl, 1.4 mM
-mercaptoethanol, 35 mM
MgCl2, 0.7% Nonidet P-40, 0.14 mg/ml phosphatidylserine,
and 35 mM PIPES, pH 6.8. The reaction, at 30 °C for
1 h, was started by the addition of 60 milliunits of diacylglycerol kinase, 25 µM ATP, and 0.45 µCi of
[
-32P]ATP and stopped with 100 µl of a mixture
containing 5% perchloric acid, 10 mM ATP, and 1 mM H3PO4. Phosphatidic acid was
extracted with 0.7 ml of chloroform/methanol (95:5, v/v); the solvent
was evaporated in a water bath at 60 °C; and radioactivity was
estimated after the addition of 1.2 ml of scintillation liquid.
1,2-Dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol was used as a standard.
Measurements of cAMP-- Synaptosomes were resuspended (2 mg/ml) in incubation medium containing 16 µM BSA and preincubated at 37 °C for 5 min. After this period, 1.33 mM CaCl2, adenosine deaminase (1 unit/mg of protein), and 1 mM 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine were added, and the incubation was continued for another 10 min. To test for an increase in cAMP formation, pharmacological agonists were added, and samples were taken 2 min latter. In those experiments in which the ability of agonist to reduce forskolin-stimulated cAMP levels was tested, forskolin at 100 µM was added 10 min prior to the addition of the agonist. Agonists were then added, and 0.5-ml aliquots were taken 1 min later. After acidic extraction and neutralization (34), the cAMP content was determined by radioimmunoassay with a commercially available cAMP kit (Amersham International, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom).
Cytosolic Free Ca2+ Concentration-- [Ca2+]c was measured with fura-2. Synaptosomes were resuspended (2 mg/ml) in incubation medium containing 16 µM BSA in the presence of 1.33 mM CaCl2 and 5 µM fura-2/acetoxymethyl ester and incubated at 37 °C for 20 min. After fura-2 loading, synaptosomes were pelleted and resuspended in fresh incubation medium with or without BSA depending on whether inhibition or facilitation of Ca2+ entry was being studied. An aliquot (1 ml) was transferred to a stirred cuvette containing 1.33 mM CaCl2, and the fluorescence was monitored at 340 and 510 nm. Data points were collected at 0.5-s intervals. [Ca2+]c was calculated using the equations described by Grynkiewicz et al. (35).
Extracellular Glutamate Concentration ([Glu]ext)-- Synaptosomes in incubation medium containing BSA (0.67 mg/ml) were preincubated for 50 min and then treated with increasing concentrations (3-33 mM) of KCl for another 10 min. After this time, the suspension was centrifuged at 12,000 × g for 1 min, and the supernatant was saved for glutamate content, which was analyzed by the addition of 50-µl aliquots to a stirred cuvette containing 1.2 ml of incubation medium, 1 mM NADP+, and 50 units of glutamate dehydrogenase.
Materials--
DHPG,
(RS)--methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine (MCPG),
(S)-4-carboxyphenylglycine, L-CCG-I, and
L-AP4 were from Tocris Cookson (Bristol, United Kingdom).
Glutamate dehydrogenase, NADP+, phosphatidylserine,
1,2-dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol, and arachidonic acid were from
Sigma. Staurosporine, adenosine deaminase, and diacylglycerol kinase
were from Boehringer (Mannheim, Germany). Forskolin was from
Calbiochem. Fura-2/acetoxymethyl ester was from Molecular Probes, Inc.
(Eugene, OR). All other reagents were purchased from Sigma.
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RESULTS |
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Release Facilitation and Diacylglycerol Production-- The depolarization of nerve terminals with the K+ channel blocker 4-AP has been shown to open voltage-gated Ca2+ channels and to induce the release of vesicular glutamate (36). Fig. 1A shows that the prior addition of the PI-linked mGluR selective agonist DHPG (10) to cerebrocortical nerve terminals had no effect on the Ca2+-dependent release of glutamate induced by maximal depolarization with 4-AP at 1 mM. DHPG did, however, enhance the glutamate release induced by a suboptimal 4-AP concentration (50 µM), an effect that was abolished by the mGluR antagonist MCPG (Fig. 1B) (37). Fig. 1B shows that the PKC-preferring inhibitor staurosporine (38) abolished release facilitation, a result consistent with the involvement of protein kinase activity in the facilitatory pathway activated by the mGluR agonist.
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Release Inhibition and Loss of Diacylglycerol Production-- The transient production of DAG observed (Fig. 2A, control) may be explained in part by the metabolism of DAG and also by the PKC-mediated negative feedback control of agonist-induced phosphoinositide hydrolysis that has been observed in many neuronal preparations (40, 41). Thus, the contribution of receptor desensitization to the decay in DAG formation was estimated in the presence of the protein kinase inhibitor staurosporine, which largely prevented the drop in DAG formation that follows receptor activation (Fig. 2A, + staurosporine). These results indicate that the activation of PKC is involved in the desensitization of the pathway leading to DAG production.
To study the desensitization of the DHPG-sensitive mGluR with respect to further generation of DAG after stimulation, nerve terminals were pre-exposed to 100 µM DHPG for 1 min (first stimulation) and, after washing to remove the agonist, were rechallenged with DHPG (second stimulation), and DAG production was measured at the peak, i.e. 5 s after the addition of the agonist. As shown in Fig. 3A, 5 min after the first stimulation, DHPG failed to activate the receptor in terms of DAG production. However, a full recovery of the receptor response was observed 30 min after the first stimulation (Fig. 3A), indicating that agonist-induced desensitization of DAG formation is a reversible process.
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Changes in [Ca2+]c Account for Release Facilitation and Release Inhibition-- To better understand the mechanism by which DHPG-sensitive mGluRs modulate glutamate release, we determined the [Ca2+]c with the Ca2+ indicator fura-2. It is important to note that the Ca2+ indicator does not detect the high local [Ca2+]c that triggers glutamate release (42) and therefore that the changes in [Ca2+]c could be greater that the average bulk increase obtained with the indicator. In control synaptosomes (first stimulation), the depolarization of the nerve terminals with 50 µM 4-AP induced a rapid increase in the fura-2 signal (Fig. 5A). This depolarization-induced increase in [Ca2+]c was potentiated by the prior addition of DHPG and was prevented by staurosporine (Fig. 5A), indicating the involvement of PKC in the facilitation of Ca2+ entry in nerve terminals. Fig. 5A also shows that DHPG failed to alter the increase in [Ca2+]c caused by maximal stimulation with 1 mM 4-AP. Bar graphs indicating the changes in [Ca2+]c, from basal levels prior to depolarization to the stable plateau after depolarization, are shown in Fig. 5B, except for the experiment with staurosporine. In Fig. 5B, it is also shown that in nerve terminals pre-exposed to DHPG, followed by washing and a 5-min lag, DHPG failed to significantly potentiate the fura-2 response induced by submaximal stimulation, but strongly reduced the maximal fura-2 response. The facilitatory and inhibitory actions of DHPG-sensitive mGluRs on release can therefore be explained by an enhancement and a reduction of the increase in [Ca2+]c induced by depolarization, respectively.
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Increase in [Glu]ext Induces the Switch from
Facilitation to Inhibition in Release Modulation--
To investigate
whether phospholipase C-coupled mGluR activation by a tonic elevation
of the [Glu]ext promotes the switch from facilitation to
inhibition in glutamate release control, we exposed nerve terminals to
increasing concentrations of KCl (3-30 mM) to disrupt the
electrical component of the Na+ electrochemical gradient
used by glutamate transporters to maintain a low basal
[Glu]ext (43). After this treatment, the
[Glu]ext at each KCl concentration was determined, as
well as release modulation by DHPG. In the absence of added KCl, the
basal [Glu]ext was 0.82 ± 0.21 µM, at
which the facilitation by DHPG was maximal and inhibition was absent
(Fig. 7). The increase in
[Glu]ext induced, however, a decrease in release
facilitation with the concomitant appearance of release inhibition, so
that at 5 µM extracellular glutamate, facilitation was
virtually abolished, whereas inhibition was maximal (Fig. 7). The mGluR
antagonist MCPG at 2 mM prevented the KCl-induced switch
from facilitation to inhibition, indicating the involvement of mGluR
activation by increased [Glu]ext in these changes. Fig. 7
also shows that the ionotropic glutamate receptor antagonists D()-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid and
6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (both at 100 µM)
were without effect on the KCl-induced switch in the mGluR
function.
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DISCUSSION |
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The results of this study provide evidence for a dual role in the control of glutamate release by phosphoinositide-linked mGluRs as the agonist DHPG is able to induce either release facilitation or release inhibition depending on the response pathway activated. Release facilitation is the result of agonist-induced production of diacylglycerol and a protein kinase-dependent increase in the entry of Ca2+ into the nerve terminal. In contrast, release inhibition seems to be the result of an activity-dependent receptor switch since it is observed only after a second stimulation with the agonist. In this case, the inhibition of glutamate release parallels a reduction of the entry of Ca2+ into the nerve terminal in which staurosporine-sensitive protein phosphorylation is not involved.
In addition to activating the facilitatory pathway, PKC seems to cause a homologous desensitization of DAG production on the basis of two observations: the transient production of DAG in the continuous presence of agonist and the prevention of the decay in DAG levels by the PKC-preferring inhibitor staurosporine. A homologous desensitization of DAG production has been suggested by experiments in nerve terminals in which the prior activation of PKC with phorbol esters abolished subsequent agonist-induced formation of diacylglycerol (26). In addition, the inhibitory action of PKC on agonist-induced hydrolysis of PI has also been shown to occur in other neural preparations (40, 41), and these effects are generally thought to reflect a negative feedback action of the kinase in the signal transduction pathway. Although the locus for the suppression of DAG responses is not known, one likely possibility is the receptor since PI-linked mGluRs contain consensus phosphorylation sites (2, 3), and it has been demonstrated that PKC phosphorylates PI-linked mGluRs (44, 45).
The loss of agonist ability to produce DAG and to facilitate glutamate release observed after the prior activation of the receptor does not seem to involve a loss of receptor ability to respond to extracellularly added agonist, but a switch in receptor function. Thus, the receptor is capable of responding to the agonist DHPG in an MCPG-sensitive manner, but in this case, activates a transduction pathway that leads to the inhibition of Ca2+ entry and glutamate release. The selective inhibition by PKC of some signal transduction pathways activated by PI-coupled mGluRs has been found in Chinese hamster ovary cells transfected with mGluR1 (11). In this study, the activation of PKC with phorbol esters reduced the glutamate response on PI hydrolysis, but did not alter cAMP accumulation or the release of arachidonic acid induced by the agonist.
An inhibitory action by presynaptic PI-linked mGluRs has also been observed in studies of synaptic transmission in hippocampal slices (30, 31). Moreover, the finding in this paper that the DHPG-induced inhibition of glutamate release was not prevented by the protein kinase inhibitor staurosporine makes the involvement of protein phosphorylation in the inhibitory pathway rather unlikely, while suggesting a mechanism for the inhibition of release-coupled Ca2+ channels in which diffusible second messengers are not involved (20, 21).
An alternative explanation to the PKC-mediated switch from facilitation to inhibition in receptor function is the parallel activation of both pathways by the agonist. Thus, release facilitation would be the result of a dominant role of the facilitatory pathway over the inhibitory pathway (46), whereas release inhibition would be revealed only after the desensitization of the facilitatory pathway. If this is the case, the inhibition of PKC activity prior to receptor activation would prevent facilitation, but not PKC-independent release inhibition. However, no release inhibition by DHPG was observed in nerve terminals in which PKC activation was prevented by staurosporine prior to the induction of the switch (Fig. 6C). These results therefore rule out a parallel activation of the facilitatory and inhibitory pathways and support the involvement of PKC activity in the switch from facilitation to inhibition in receptor function (Fig. 8).
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If phosphorylation by PKC is responsible for the switch from facilitation to inhibition, it is likely that the dephosphorylation of the putative target would be responsible for the recovery of facilitation observed after a 30-min lag. In this regard, we have shown that the protein phosphatase 1 and 2A inhibitor okadaic acid prevented the slow recovery of agonist-induced production of DAG (26). Moreover, the inhibition of protein phosphatases 1 and 2A, but not 2B, prolongs the period during which release inhibition by DHPG is observed.2
Isolated nerve terminals under resting conditions maintain an extracellular glutamate concentration of 0.8 ± 0.2 µM, similar to that reported in the mammalian central nervous system (47, 48), whereas the glutamate concentration in the cleft peaks in the range 1-5 mM for a very brief period after stimulation (49). The data given in this paper that the EC50 value for the loss of facilitation is ~3 µM extracellular glutamate indicate that the switch in the presynaptic control of release has been set up at the very low end of the range changes in extracellular glutamate. Thus, it is expected that release facilitation is going to be very sensitive to changes in the clearance of transmitter and presumably restricted to conditions under which a strict control of [Glu]ext is maintained. Under these latter conditions, release facilitation might contribute to the reinforcement of glutamatergic synapsis during synaptic plasticity (50). An increase in the [Glu]ext has also been related to glutamate neurotoxity (51). However, a contribution of the release facilitation mechanism to the neurotoxic accumulation of glutamate is rather unlikely due to the [Glu]ext-dependent switch to inhibition. The desensitization of excitatory responses by extracellular glutamate has also been observed in the case of ionotropic glutamate N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (52, 53) and N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptors (54, 55) to occur at low µM glutamate concentrations.
The fact that very low extracellular concentrations of glutamate promote the switch from facilitation to inhibition in release control may also explain the difficulties in observing presynaptic facilitatory receptors in slices preparations if sufficient glutamate is present to cause desensitization despite the convincing evidence for synaptic transmission potentiation by a presynaptic PKC-dependent pathway (28, 29) in these preparations. In addition, these results may also provide an explanation for the inhibition of synaptic transmission by presynaptic PI-linked mGluRs observed in hippocampal slices (14, 30, 31).
The identity of the facilitatory-inhibitory DHPG-sensitive mGluR is not known, as the presynaptic location of the PI-coupled mGluRs cloned has not yet been detected (56), although positive results have also been reported for mGluR5 (57). However, we have recently found that both the facilitatory and inhibitory effects of DHPG remain in mGluR1-deficient mice,3 indicating that mGluR5 or an unknown DHPG-sensitive receptor is involved in these effects.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank J.-P. Pin and E. Castro for helpful discussions and suggestions.
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FOOTNOTES |
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*
This work was supported by Grant PB94/0323 from the
Dirección General de Investigacio Científica y
Tecnológica (Spain) and Grant BMH4-CT96-0228 from the European
Union.The costs of publication of this
article were defrayed in part by the
payment of page charges. The article
must therefore be hereby marked
"advertisement" in
accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section
1734 solely to indicate this fact.
To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel.: 34-1-394-38-91;
Fax: 34-1-394-39-09; E-mail:jsprieto{at}eucmax.sim.ucm.es.
1
The abbreviations used are: mGluRs, metabotropic
glutamate receptors; DHPG, 3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine; PKC, protein
kinase C; L-CCG-I,
(2S,1S,2
S)-2-(carboxycyclopropyl)glycine;
L-AP4, L-2-amino-4-phosphonobutyrate; 4-AP,
4-aminopyridine; [Ca2+]c, cytosolic free
Ca2+ concentration; PI, phosphoinositide, DAG,
diacylglycerol; TES, 2-{[2-hydroxy-1,1-bis(hydroxymethyl)ethyl]amino}ethanesulfonic acid; BSA, bovine serum albumin; PIPES,
piperazine-N,N
-bis(2-ethanesulfonic acid);
[Glu]ext, extracellular glutamate concentration; MCPG, (RS)-
-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine.
2 A. Sistiaga and J. Sánchez-Prieto, unpublished results.
3 I. Herrero, A. Sistiaga, F. Conquet, and J. Sánchez-Prieto, unpublished results.
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REFERENCES |
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