From the Department of Pharmacology and the
¶ Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Texas
Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, Texas 75235
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ABSTRACT |
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A hallmark of gamete interactions at fertilization
is relative or absolute species specificity. A pig sperm protein that
binds to the extracellular matrix of the egg in a species-specific
manner was recently identified and named zonadhesin (Hardy, D. M.,
and Garbers, D. L. (1995) J. Biol. Chem. 270, 26025-26028). We have now cloned a cDNA for mouse zonadhesin (16.4 kb), and it demonstrates a large species variation in the numbers and
arrangements of domains. Expression of mouse zonadhesin mRNA is
evident only within the testis, and the protein is found exclusively on
the apical region of the sperm head. There are 20 partial D-domains,
found as tandem repeats, inserted between two of the four full
D-domains and an additional partial D-domain. These domains are
homologous to the D-domains of von Willebrand factor and
-tectorin. A region at the N terminus of the mouse cDNA contains
three tandem repeats homologous to MAM domains. These are domains
comprised of about 160 amino acids that are present in transmembrane
proteins such as the meprins and receptor protein-tyrosine
phosphatases, where they appear to function in cell/cell interactions.
Additionally, mouse zonadhesin contains a mucin-like domain and a
domain homologous to epidermal growth factor (EGF). A putative single
transmembrane segment separates a short carboxyl tail from the
extracellular region. The existence of MAM, mucin, D-, and EGF domains
suggest that mouse zonadhesin functions in multiple cell adhesion
processes, where binding to the extracellular matrix of the egg is but
one of the functions of this sperm-specific membrane protein.
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INTRODUCTION |
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Prior to fertilization, the sperm cell interacts with multiple cells including fellow sperm cells, Sertoli cells, epithelial cells within the male reproductive tract or female reproductive tract, cells associated with the egg, and the egg itself. In some cases, the interactions are attractive in nature and in others repulsive. In an attempt to identify sperm proteins that bind to the egg extracellular matrix, Hardy and Garbers (1) solubilized sperm membranes from the pig and determined which proteins bound to the pig zona pellucida. Subsequently, the cDNA encoding a protein that bound to the zona pellucida in a relatively species-specific manner was cloned and named zonadhesin (2). Pig zonadhesin is a transmembrane protein with a very short intracellular region. The putative extracellular region contains a mucin-like domain and five tandem repeats homologous to the D-domains of prepro-von Willebrand factor (ppvWF)1 (3, 4). The cloning of the pig sperm zonadhesin cDNA raised the questions of whether other species would contain homologs of zonadhesin and, if so, whether these would be variable within the above domain structure. Here, the mouse homolog of zonadhesin is cloned and shown to contain additional repetitive sequences within the D-domain region. Furthermore, three tandem repeats of a MAM domain were identified at the N terminus. The MAM domain is a module composed of about 160 amino acids including four conserved Cys; it is found in a number of functionally diverse transmembrane proteins such as the meprins and receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatases (5). Thus, zonadhesin displays a large species variation between pig and mouse and also contains multiple domains previously suggested as involved in cell adhesion processes.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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RNA Isolation-- Total RNA was isolated from 40 mouse testes or similar amounts of other mouse tissues (including brain, heart, kidney, liver, lung, small intestine, and spleen) in guanidinium thiocyanate and N-lauroyl sarcosine, followed by extraction with acidic phenol/CHCl3 and precipitation with isopropyl alcohol (6). Poly(A)+ RNA was purified from total RNA by oligo(dT)-cellulose chromatography (7).
Northern Blots--
30 µg of total RNA from various mouse
tissues was loaded on each lane of a formaldehyde-agarose gel (8) and
blotted overnight using 10 × SSC as the transfer buffer. The blot
was then fixed by UV light and hybridized with a random primer-labeled
(Amersham Life Science, Inc.), 1.4-kb probe from the 3-end of the
mouse zonadhesin cDNA as described previously (1). After
hybridization, the blot was washed with 0.2 × SSC and 0.2% SDS
at 65 °C.
Screening of cDNA Libraries-- The first mouse cDNA clone (#18) was obtained by a low stringency screening of a mouse testis cDNA library (Stratagene) using a cDNA fragment corresponding to the pig zonadhesin D4 domain as described previously (9). The same cDNA library was further screened with the mouse cDNA clone #18 as a probe under previously described conditions (1). The positive phage clones were converted to pBluescript plasmid by phage rescue and sequenced. The longest clone contained a 2.5-kb cDNA fragment.
Construction of a Plasmid cDNA Library--
To obtain
additional 5-end sequence, 2 µg of mouse testis mRNA was used to
construct an oligo-(dT) primed plasmid cDNA library using
SUPERSCRIPTTM Plasmid System (Life Technologies, Inc.). The
cDNA was ligated into a pSPORT1 vector and transformed into DH10B
cells by electroporation according to the manufacturer instructions
(Life Technologies, Inc.). The cDNA library was screened using a
combination of inverse and anchor PCR.
Inverse PCR and Anchor PCR--
Inverse PCR was carried out with
two gene-specific primers, a 5-end antisense primer and a 3
-end sense
primer. The ExpandTM Long Template PCR kit (Boehringer
Mannheim) was used with an Ericomp Twinblock System thermal cycler. The
inverse PCR reaction was performed by denaturing at 95 °C for 2 min
followed by 30 cycles of denaturation at 92 °C for 30 s,
annealing at 60 °C for 1 min and extension at 68 °C for 6 min.
The PCR product was diluted 100-fold before use as a template for
anchor PCR. Anchor PCR was performed using a sequence
(5
-ATTACGCGCTCTAATACGACTCACTATAGG-3
) on the vector pSPORT1 as the
sense primer and a gene-specific primer, upstream of the 5
-end
antisense primer used in the inverse PCR, as the antisense primer. The
anchor PCR reaction was performed using an air thermal cycler (Idaho
Technologies) by denaturing at 94 °C for 1 min, followed by 30 cycles of denaturation at 94 °C for 0 s, annealing at 55 °C for 0 s, and extension at 68 °C for 1 min. A mixture of Taq and
Pfu (9:1) was used as polymerases for the anchor PCR (10) in
a standard PCR reaction buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 9.0, 50 mM KCl, 2 mM MgCl2, 0.1% Triton
X-100, 0.2 µM primers, and 0.2 mM dNTPs). PCR
products were then purified on a 1% agarose gel and subcloned into a
TA cloning vector (Invitrogen). The above process of combination of
inverse and anchor PCR was repeatedly performed until no additional
sequence could be obtained from the library. A total of an additional
6-kb composite sequence of cDNA was obtained.
Gene-specific RT and 5RACE-PCR--
To obtain the full-length
sequence of mouse zonadhesin, gene-specific reverse transcriptions (RT)
and 5
-RACE (rapid amplification of cDNA ends) were performed using
the MarathonTM cDNA amplification kit
(CLONTECH). 2 µg of mRNA was used for synthesis of cDNA according to the manufacturer instructions. Gene-specific primers 5
-AGCCCCATCGAACGTCAGGTAGTG-3
and
5
-ATGCCATCTGACTTCAGGTTGTCG-3
were used for the first and second
gene-specific reverse transcriptions, separately. RACE-PCR was carried
out by nested PCR with two sets of primer pairs, each of them
containing one gene specific primer and one adapter primer of the
MarathonTM cDNA amplification kit. The RACE-PCR product
was diluted 100-fold before use as a template for the nested PCR. The
AdvantageTM PCR kit (CLONTECH) was used
for the RACE-PCR reactions. RACE-PCR reactions were performed by
denaturing at 94 °C for 1 min, followed by 30 cycles of denaturation
at 94 °C for 0 s, annealing at 55 °C for 0 s, and extension at
68 °C for 1 min. PCR products were then purified on a 1% agarose
gel and subcloned into a TA cloning vector (Invitrogen). An additional
7-kb composite sequence of cDNA was obtained by these methods.
Preparation and Purification of GST Fusion Proteins--
The
plasmid pGEX-KG (11) was used to express GST-D3c or GST-D3p17 fusion
proteins, in which D3c represented the C terminus of the D3 domain
while D3p17 was the 17th D3 partial domain of zonadhesin (see Fig. 1).
Primer pairs containing an EcoRI site at the 5-end of the
sense primer and a HindIII site at the 3
-end of the
antisense primer were used so that PCR products could be subcloned into
the pGEX-KG vector in the correct reading frame. PCR reactions were
performed using an air thermal cycler (Idaho Technologies) under the
following conditions: 1 cycle of denaturation at 94 °C for 1 min; 1 cycle of denaturation at 94 °C for 0 s, annealing at 55 °C
for 0 s, and extension at 68 °C for 1 min; 25 cycles of
denaturation at 94 °C for 0 s, annealing and extension at
68 °C for 1 min; and 1 cycle at 72 °C for 2 min. PCR products were then separated on a 1% agarose gel, and DNA bands were purified using the QIAEX method (Qiagen). The purified PCR products were digested overnight with a mixture of EcoRI and
HindIII in the core buffer of Promega, prior to ligation
into EcoRI/HindIII-linearized pGEX-KG vector and
subsequent transformation into DH5
bacteria. Recombinants were
selected on ampicillin/LB plates. The sequences of the subcloned D3c
and D3p17 products were confirmed before purification of the fusion
proteins of GST-D3c and GST-D3p17.
Production of Antiserum--
15 ml of preimmune serum was
collected from each rabbit before injection of antigens. 1 ml of 0.2 mg/ml GST-D3c or GST-D3p17 fusion protein was mixed with 1 ml of
complete adjuvant (Difco). Booster injection was once at Day 14 with a
mixture of 500 µl of 0.2 mg/ml fusion protein and 500 µl of
incomplete adjuvant (Sigma). 15 ml of blood was collected from each
rabbit after another 2 weeks and stored at 4 °C overnight. Antisera
were separated from blood cells by centrifugation at 1000 × g for 10 min and were then stored at 80 °C as 1-ml
aliquots.
Preparation of Mouse Sperm Membrane Proteins--
The
preparation of mouse sperm membrane protein was based on Hardy et
al. (2) and Bleil et al. (13) with modifications. 40 male mice (ICR) were used for one preparation. Caudal epididymal and
vas deferens were dissected from the mice, transferred to 2 ml of
pre-warmed (37 °C) Earle's modified medium 199 (Life Technologies, Inc.) containing 4 mg/ml BSA, 30 µg/ml pyruvate, and 4 mM
EGTA (M199-ME), covered with mineral oil, and then minced with a
scissors and placed in a cell culture incubator for 10 min. The
spermatozoa were transferred to 30 ml of M199-ME and capacitated at
37 °C for 1 h. The spermatozoa were then centrifuged down at
1500 × g for 15 min and resuspended in 25 ml of
ice-cold HE/diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP) buffer (50 mM
NaHEPES, 1 mM NaEDTA, 1 mM DFP, pH 7.5) before
being transferred to a Parr Bomb (30 ml) for N2 cavitation
at 0 °C and 650 p.s.i. for 30 min. Disrupted cells were
centrifuged at 1500 × g for 10 min, and the
supernatant fluid was centrifuged again at 51,000 rpm (Beckman Ti-70)
for 45 min. The crude membrane pellet was resuspended in 5-ml of
ice-cold HE/DFP, and washed twice by centrifugation at 100,000 rpm
(TL-100.3 rotor) for 20 min. The membrane pellet was resuspended in 1 ml of ice-cold HE/DFP, sheared with 18-30-gauge needles, and stored at
20 °C in a 100-µl aliquot. The concentration of the isolated sperm membrane was determined as 4 mg/ml by the BCA assay.
Solubilization of Sperm Membranes--
100 µl of 4 mg/ml sperm
membrane protein was mixed with 100 µl of 2% CHAPS in 300 mM NaCl and 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM
leupeptin, 1 mM pepstatin, and 4 mM Pefabloc SC
and rocked at 4 °C for 1 h before centrifugation at 100,000 rpm
(TL-100.2 rotor) for 15 min. The supernatant fluid was transferred to a
new tube and stored at 20 °C.
SDS-PAGE and Western Blots-- A 4-12% polyacrylamide gel (NOVEXTM) was used for protein analysis. Solubilized sperm membrane proteins (5 µl) were mixed with equivalent amounts of modified 2 × sample buffer (250 mM Tris-HCl, pH 6.8, 10% SDS, 10% glycerol, and 0.01% bromphenol blue) and heated at 65 °C for 5 min before being loaded on a gel. Electrophoresis was performed at 60 volts for 5-10 h before blotting to nitrocellulose at 25 volts overnight at 4 °C. The blot was then air dried and washed twice in TBST (20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, 0.1% Tween 20) and once in TBST containing 100 mg/ml BSA before incubation with 1:10000 diluted, purified antibody S117 (against GST-D3c) for 1 h. The blot was then washed three times in 10 ml of TBST for 15 min each and incubated with 1:20000 diluted horseradish peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG (Biosource) for another 1 h followed by washing three times in TBST. The peroxidase activity was detected with enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL, Amersham Life Science, Inc.).
Cytoimmunofluorescence-- Spermatozoa were collected in 200 µl of M199-ME medium (M199 with Earle's salts, 30 µg/ml pyruvic acid, 4 mg/ml BSA, and 1 mM EDTA) (13) from the caudal epididymis and washed twice with 15 ml of PBS by centrifugation at 1000 × g for 10 min. Sperm cells were then fixed either in a 4% paraformaldehyde/PBS solution or in 100% methanol. The fixation in 4% paraformaldehyde was performed on ice for 30 min followed by washing twice with 40 ml of PBS. After incubating in a 0.1 M glycine/PBS solution overnight at 4 °C, samples were washed in PBS twice before being smeared on slides. When fixed in methanol, sperm cells were directly smeared on slides and air dried. The slides were then placed in ice-cold methanol for 30 min followed by washing in 100% ethanol for 10 min before the immunofluorescence assay. 300 µl of blocking reagent (10% goat serum and 1 mM EDTA in PBS) was incubated with spermatozoa on a slide at room temperature for 30 min. Antisera P448 against GST-D3p17 fusion protein or S117 against GST-D3c were diluted in 300 µl of blocking reagent at a ratio of 1:50 to 1:200 and then placed on the samples and incubated in a moisture chamber overnight. The slides were washed in 500 ml of PBS for 10 min before incubation with 300 µl of 1:200 to 1:500 diluted Texas Red-conjugated goat anti-rabbit antibody for 60 min at room temperature. The slides were washed in 500 ml of PBS for 10 min before being mounted with Fluoromont G. Pictures were taken with double exposures of fluorescence and Nomarski.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS |
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The finding of a pig sperm protein that bound to the egg
extracellular matrix in an apparently species-specific manner raised the important questions of whether homologs of this protein would exist
in other species and, if so, if they would display significant species
variation in structure. A mouse testis cDNA library was initially
screened at low stringency with a 3 fragment of the pig
zonadhesin cDNA. Three clones were obtained, the largest being 1.2 kb. By use of the 1.2-kb fragment from mouse, a larger clone of
2.5 kb was then obtained from the same testis cDNA library (Fig. 1, Phage cDNA
library).
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To obtain the 5-sequence, an oligo(dT)-primed plasmid cDNA library
was synthesized as described above, and a combination of inverse and
anchor PCRs was used to screen the plasmid cDNA library. A
combination of inverse/anchor PCRs instead of nest/anchor PCRs was used
since the two gene-specific primers in the inverse PCR significantly
increased PCR reaction specificity. In many cases, multiple bands were
detected on agarose gels after anchor PCR, and each band was cloned
separately into a TA cloning vector. Sequence comparisons of these
subclones showed that they shared the same 3
-sequence with different
5
-sequences. By these methods, the majority of the cDNA sequence
was obtained (Fig. 1). Gene-specific reverse transcriptions and 5
-RACE
were then performed to obtain the last 7 kb of mouse zonadhesin
cDNA. We did two reverse transcription reactions with the
gene-specific primers described above, followed by nested 5
-RACE-PCR.
The nested 5
-RACE-PCR was repeated until new sequence was undetectable
from the products of reverse transcriptions. By the use of nested
5
-RACE-PCR, we obtained a 4-kb composite sequence of cDNA from the
first reverse transcription product and a 3.5-kb from the second.
Again, we cloned each band on agarose gels from PCR reactions to
confirm sequences.
The criteria we used that we had obtained the full-length cDNA were as follows. First, the predicted initiation Met coincided with a Kozak consensus sequence (14). Second, an apparent signal peptide followed the proposed Met (15). Third, all three reading frames upstream of the proposed initiation codon contained at least one stop codon. Fourth, as shown below, the size of the mRNA from Northern blots closely matched the size of the cDNA clone.
The 16,380 base composite sequence of cDNA contains a single major open reading frame of 16,131 bases with a deduced protein sequence of 5376 amino acids. A 17-amino acid putative signal peptide (15) is present at the N terminus of the deduced sequence (Fig. 2). The sequence also predicts a 5293-amino acid extracellular region, a single transmembrane segment, and a 39-amino acid intracellular C terminus with 30% basic residues. Cleavage of the putative signal peptide at Gly17 would produce a 5359-amino acid mature polypeptide chain with a calculated molecular mass of ~578,000 Da (Fig. 2). Mouse zonadhesin has 40 potential N-linked glycosylation sites (NXT/S) and a large number of potential O-linked glycosylation sites.
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Like pig zonadhesin, mRNA of mouse zonadhesin is only detectable in testis, but the 16-17-kb mRNA is about twice as large (Fig. 3A).
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The localization of zonadhesin is of particular importance since 1) the predicted structure to be discussed below suggests zonadhesin is a transmembrane protein, and 2) zonadhesin contains multiple extracellular domains, suggesting it potentially functions in multiple cell/cell interactions. By the use of antibodies (S117 or P448) generated to zonadhesin fusion proteins, expression was demonstrated as exclusively on the apical region of the sperm head (Fig. 3B), regardless of whether methanol- or paraformaldehyde-fixed sperm cells were used. The localization is consistent with zonadhesin interacting with the extracellular matrix of the egg or with other cells and also supports the model of it as a transmembrane protein.
Zonadhesin was processed on mature and capacitated sperm cells as evidenced through detection with antiserum S117 on a Western blot (Fig. 3C). One band at 100 kDa and two major bands between 200 and ~250 kDa are seen on non-reducing SDS-PAGE. The reason that S117 recognized three bands on the gel is very likely due to the high sequence similarities between the D3 partial domains. Processing of the pig zonadhesin also occurred, yielding 45 and 105 kDa mass proteins on reducing SDS-PAGE (2). The processing of zonadhesin and its relationship to function is not yet known, but presumably the unprocessed forms function prior to encountering the egg.
Analysis of the sequence of mouse zonadhesin revealed that it contained the domains present in the pig zonadhesin, including MAM domains (see below), a mucin-like domain, D-domains, an EGF-like domain, a transmembrane segment, and a short intracellular region. The similarity of the primary amino acid sequence within each domain (see below) together with Northern blot and cytoimmunofluorescence data strongly indicate that the composite cDNA sequence we obtained from mouse testis is a homolog of pig zonadhesin.
Mouse zonadhesin contains three tandem repeats of a domain known as the
MAM domain, a new finding that strongly suggests a role for this region
of zonadhesin in cell-cell interactions. Subsequently, we found that
pig zonadhesin also contains one full and one partial MAM domain
(Fig. 4). A MAM domain contains about 160 amino acids and four conserved cysteine residues, as well as conserved
hydrophobic and aromatic amino acids
(Fig. 5). The MAM domain is suggested to
function in cell adhesion and is found in a diverse number of membrane
proteins including meprins (16), A5 protein (17), and receptor
protein-tyrosine phosphatases (18-20). The MAM-bearing meprins are
zinc-metalloproteases that contain - and
-subunits (16, 21). The
MAM domain has been suggested to mediate the dimerization or
oligomerization of meprin subunits (5). A5 protein is a developmentally
regulated cell surface molecule involved in neurite outgrowth or axonal
guidance, and its MAM domain is critical for cell-cell interactions
(5). Some of the receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase family members, such as RPTPµ, RPTP
, RPTP
, and PCP-2, contain MAM domains,
where they have been suggested as essential for homophilic cell-cell interaction and the specificity of those interactions (5, 18). Another
MAM-containing protein (gene B product) from Xenopus has been reported by Brown et al. (22). The function of this
MAM-containing protein is unknown, but the protein is induced by
thyroid hormone during Xenopus laevis metamorphosis (22).
Interestingly, there is much higher sequence similarity within the MAM
domains of a given protein group, suggesting slightly different
functions within the different protein groups. The function of the MAM
domains of zonadhesin is not known, but since this region can be
eliminated by proteolysis with retention of zona pellucida binding
properties (1, 2), it may function during sperm development, for
example in interactions with Sertoli cells.
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To the carboxyl side of the MAM domains is a mucin-like domain, The domain is very rich in Thr, Ser, Pro, Glu, and Val, containing 26, 8, 15, 17, and 14%, respectively. The mucin domain is composed of 7-amino acid imperfect repeats with a consensus sequence of PTE(E/V)(P/T)TV (Fig. 2). The similar heptapeptide repeats were also found in pig zonadhesin (2). It has been suggested that absolute length is not crucial to mucin function but rather that the core protein exists in an extended form as a scaffold for O-linked carbohydrate (23). The relatively short mucin-like domains present in some receptors have been suggested to lift the ligand-binding site above the glycocalyx (24). Additionally, membrane-associated mucins have been found in various instances to serve as ligands for cell surface receptor selectins (25). Therefore, the mucin-like domain in zonadhesin could serve to lift the MAM domain above the glycocalyx and thereby facilitate cell-cell interactions in the male reproductive tract and/or act as a repulsive barrier to prevent nonspecific interactions between spermatozoa and other cells in the male or female reproductive tract (e.g. adhesion of spermatozoa within the oviductal isthmus).
Following the mucin-like domain, there is a partial D-domain (D0), 3 full D-domains (D1-D3), 20 tandem repeats of partial D3 domains
(D3p1-20), and finally a D4 domain (Fig. 4). The D1, D2, D3, and D4
domains show relatively high similarity to the counterpart domains of
pig zonadhesin (61, 68, 47, and 63, respectively). However, unlike pig
zonadhesin which has only one partial D-domain (D0), mouse zonadhesin
has at least 21 partial D-domains, a D0 domain, and 20 tandem repeats
of a D3 partial domain. The newly identified 20 tandem repeats of
D3p1-20 make up more than 40% of the protein mass of mouse
zonadhesin. Like the D0 domain, D3p1-20 are very rich in cysteine,
with 18 cysteines within each 120-amino acid repeat (15%). Each
cysteine is conserved, suggesting that these residues are critical for
the integrity of the protein structure (Fig. 2). We designated these
120-amino acid repeats as D3 partial domains instead of D0 domains
since they have higher similarities to the C terminus of the D3
domain (56-67%) than to the D0 domain (26-37%) (Fig. 2). These
partial D-domains are homologous to the D domain of vWF, in which D
appears to support a specific binding site for procoagulant Factor VIII
(3).
In addition to their presence in ppvWF, D-domains have recently been
found in several functionally diverse extracellular proteins including
some of the secreted mucins such as human, mouse, and rat
intestinal mucin MUC2, mMuc2, and rMuc2 (23, 26, 27), Xenopus
laevis integumentary mucin FIM-B.1 (28), insect humoral lectin hemocytin (29), mouse inner ear matrix protein -tectorin (30)
and SCO-spondin, a glycoprotein secreted from the subcommissural organ
(31). In Fig. 4, the domain structures of some of the above proteins
are illustrated. The arrangement of D-domains can be divided into two
groups with zonadhesin and
-tectorin in one group and vWF, MUC2,
hemocytin, and SCO-spondin (not shown) in another. Of particular
interest are two proteins, hemocytin and
-tectorin. Hemocytin is a
humoral lectin cloned from Bombyx mori that plays an
important role in a nonspecific self-defense mechanism; it possesses
hemagglutinating activity. The carbohydrate-recognition domain in
hemocytin overlaps with the D3 domain, and thus D3 domains could serve
as lectins (29). Mouse
-tectorin has been recently cloned from a
mouse cochlea cDNA library (30), where it is one of the two
major non-collagenous proteins of the mouse tectorial membrane of the
inner ear. It interacts with another non-collagenous protein
-tectorin in the tectorial membrane. The
-tectorin contains the
D-domain repeats in the same order as that of pig zonadhesin.
-Tectorin contains a zona pellucida (ZP) domain (32) which also
exists in
-tectorin and thus contains components of the egg
extracellular matrix as well as zonadhesin within the same molecule.
The ZP domain may serve as a recognition site for filament formation.
In the tectorial membrane, there are two distinct filament types, a
light and dark staining filament, suggesting that the
- and
-tectorins may form homomeric filaments via their ZP domain while
the two filament types interact with one another to form a striated
sheet matrix via D-domain interactions. Thus, in the inner ear, the ZP
domain and the D-domains can exist and potentially interact within the
same extracellular matrix, whereas during fertilization, this
interaction occurs between the different germ cells.
There are a total of 28 full-length D-domains in the proteins discussed above. The sequence alignment among those 28 D-domains indicates that a majority of Cys and two 4-amino acid motifs TFDG and GLCG are highly conserved to preserve a proper domain structure, even though the average amino acid similarities between D-domains of zonadhesin and those of other different functional proteins are only around 30-40%. Like the D-domains in the pig, D1-D3 domains of mouse zonadhesin also contain a CXXC motif. The CXXC motif is responsible for self-oligomerization of the ppvWF (3) and MUC2 (27). Therefore, it is likely that the zonadhesin is also present as a multimer (1). The peptide of WREPSFCALS in bovine ppvWF D2 domain is able to inhibit binding of ppvWF to collagen (33). A similar sequence is also found in the mouse (WREPQFCPLV) and the pig (WRGPQFCPLA) zonadhesin D1 domains. Therefore, zonadhesin may also bind to collagen or collagen-like proteins.
During the cloning, we have also found variant fragments that could result from alternative splicing or gene rearrangement events. There was one PCR product missing the D3 partial domains from the 9th to 12th and another missing the 12th to 15th. One extra D3 partial domain was found on one occasion between the D3 domain and the second D3 partial domain. These products could be the result of alternative splicing. Additionally, rare PCR products were obtained that contained the C terminus of the D2 domain fused to the N terminus of the mucin-like domain and the C terminus of the D4 domain fused to the N terminus of the 16th D3 partial domain. These products suggest possible occasional gene rearrangement events. However, we cannot rule out possible cloning artifacts among these rare PCR products.
Zonadhesin has an EGF-like domain at the N terminus of the transmembrane segment (Fig. 4). The EGF-like repeat is one of the most shuffled domains in various animal extracellular proteins and has been identified in more than 70 different vertebrate and invertebrate proteins (34). It has been suggested that the EGF repeat may have a particular affinity for proteases because of the recurring role of proteolysis in the excision of growth factor from its precursor and the activation of many of the secreted soluble proteins such as factors VII, IX, and X, proteins C and S, and t-PA and u-PA (31). Therefore, the EGF domain in zonadhesin may also play a role in facilitating protease binding to zonadhesin since ZP affinity-purified pig zonadhesin contains two disulfide-bonded fragments, p45 and p105, where p45 is composed of a D0 and D1 domain while p105 contains the D2-D4 domains (1). Mouse zonadhesin was also processed based on Western blots (Fig. 3C). There are several dibasic residues in mouse zonadhesin that could serve as cleavage sites for endoproteinases (35). Extracellular proteinases have been suggested to play an important role in mammalian fertilization (36).
Based on the protein domain structure, zonadhesin is a multifunctional mosaic protein, typical of an adhesion molecule. The domains present in zonadhesin appear to be present within the extracellular regions of various proteins. Furthermore, the MAM, mucin, D-, and EGF-like domains are known to be involved in cell-cell, cell-matrix, and/or protein-protein interactions in the other proteins possessing these domains. Thus, zonadhesin likely serves in multiple cell-cell interactions as a sperm-specific membrane protein.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank Dr. Daniel Hardy for scientific discussions and Debbie Miller and Lynda Doolittle for technical assistance.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* This work was supported in part by National Institutes of Health Grant HD10254 (to D. L. G.).The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
The nucleotide sequence(s) reported in this paper has been submitted to the GenBankTM/EMBL Data Bank with accession number(s) U97068.
§ Present address: Zymogenetics, 1201 Eastlake Ave. East, Seattle, WA 98102.
To whom correspondence should be addressed: Howard Hughes
Medical Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at
Dallas, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, Texas 75235. Tel.: 214-648-5090; Fax: 214-648-5087; E-mail: garbers{at}utsw.swmed.edu.
1 The abbreviations used are: ppvWF, prepro-von Willebrand factor; kb, kilobase(s); PCR, polymerase chain reaction; RACE, rapid amplification of cDNA ends; GST, glutathione S-transferase; PAGE, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; DFP, diisopropyl fluorophosphate; CHAPS, 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonic acid; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; EGF, epidermal growth factor; ZP, zona pellucida; t-PA, tissue plasminogen activator; u-PA, urokinase-type plasminogen activator.
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