(Received for publication, October 8, 1996, and in revised form, November 6, 1996)
From the Inositol Lipid Section, Laboratory of Signal Transduction,
NIEHS, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709 and the
Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy
(M/C 781), College of Pharmacy, Chicago, Illinois 60612-7231
Inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate is a novel intracellular signal that regulates calcium-dependent chloride conductance (Xie, W., Kaetzel, M. A., Bruzik, K. S., Dedman, J. R., Shears, S. B., and Nelson, D. J. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 14092-14097). The molecular mechanisms that regulate the cellular levels of this signal are not characterized. To pursue this problem we have now studied the 1-kinase that deactivates inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate. The enzyme was purified from rat liver 1600-fold with a 1% yield. The native molecular mass was determined to be 46 kDa by gel filtration. The Km values for inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate and ATP were 0.3 and 10.6 µM, respectively. The kinase was unaffected by either protein kinase A or protein kinase C. Increases in Ca2+ concentration from 0.1 to 1-2 µM inhibited activity by 10-20%. Most importantly, inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate was shown to be a potent (Ki = 0.2 µM), specific, and competitive inhibitor of the 1-kinase. Our new kinetic data show that typical receptor-dependent adjustments in cellular levels of inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate provide a mechanism by which the concentration of inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate is dependent on changes in phospholipase C activity. These conclusions also provide a new perspective to our understanding of the physiological importance of the pathway of inositol phosphate turnover initiated by the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate 3-kinase.
The agonist-mediated activation of phospholipase C and the resulting increased rate of hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate releases Ins(1,4,5)P3,1 which mobilizes cellular Ca2+ stores (1). The fact that the pathway by which Ins(1,4,5)P3 is metabolized is complex has led to the speculation that one or more of the many downstream metabolites might serve important cellular functions (2-4). Support for this opinion has come mainly from research into the actions of Ins(1,3,4,5)P4, the product of 3-kinase-directed phosphorylation of Ins(1,4,5)P3. As a result of many studies, there is now considerable evidence that Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 augments Ins(1,4,5)P3-initiated Ca2+ mobilization (5). Yet the search for other signaling functions of additional inositol polyphosphates continues at several laboratories.
Attention has come to focus on a somewhat distant metabolic relative of
Ins(1,4,5)P3, namely
Ins(3,4,5,6)P4. The latter was first identified
in mammalian cells in 1988, at which time it was noted that its levels
increased substantially upon receptor-mediated activation of
phospholipase C (6, 7). We subsequently proposed that
Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 was an "orphan" second
messenger (8, 9). The first indication of what the function of this
messenger might be came from work by Barrett, Traynor-Kaplan, and
colleagues with the T84 colonic epithelial cell line (10, 11). They
drew attention to a correlation during receptor activation between the
bulk InsP4 content of the cell and the
uncoupling of the customary ability of Ca2+ to stimulate
Cl secretion. This prompted a study in which we treated
T84 cells with cell-permeant analogues of inositol phosphates (12). The results indicated that Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 was the
specific InsP4 isomer responsible for inhibiting
Ca2+-dependent Cl
secretion (12).
We subsequently consolidated this idea by demonstrating that the
Ca2+-dependent Cl
conductance was
directly inhibited by Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 when it was
microinjected into the T84 cell (13).
Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 had a similar effect when
injected into CFPAC-1 cells, an adrenal carcinoma cell line deficient
in cAMP-activated Cl
transport (14). Moreover, the cloned
calcium-activated chloride channel from bovine trachea has also been
shown to be directly inhibited by Ins(3,4,5,6)P4
(15). In all three of these electrophysiological studies (13-15) the
effects of Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 were very specific to
that isomer, and they could not be imitated by up to 10-fold higher
concentrations of other inositol polyphosphates.
Thus, Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 may now be considered to be an authentic intracellular signal with the potential to modulate many of the physiological processes that require chloride channel activity: salt and fluid secretion, pH balance, neurotransmission, osmoregulation, and volume-dependent metabolic effects (16-19). This has increased the importance of understanding the molecular mechanisms that regulate the synthesis and metabolic inactivation of this inositol polyphosphate. A particularly important aspect of this problem is to establish how the activation of phospholipase C is coupled to changes in cellular levels of Ins(3,4,5,6)P4. We have proposed that this cannot be explained as a simple mass action effect (8, 9). That is, we have argued that a receptor-mediated increase in Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 concentration does not reflect a nonspecific accumulation of downstream metabolites of Ins(1,4,5)P3 (8, 9). Instead we have proposed that agonists intervene in the activities of the Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 1-kinase/Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5 1-phosphatase substrate cycle (8, 9). However, this hypothesis has developed very little in the absence of any significant progress in determining the mechanism for this proposed regulatory process. In no small part, this uncertainty is due to the fact that no laboratory has yet purified the 1-phosphatase, and what we know of the 1-kinase depends almost entirely on a single paper by Stephens et al. (7). In that study, the enzyme in a 100,000 × g supernatant made from rat brain was enriched approximately 35-fold by ammonium sulfate precipitation and anion-exchange chromatography (7). No kinetic information emerged from that work.
We now describe the procedures we have developed that purify the Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 enzyme from a rat liver 100,000 × g supernatant. We have used these preparations to obtain the first kinetic description of this enzyme's activity. We have further investigated possible mechanisms by which this enzyme might be controlled in intact cells. We conclude that Ins(1,3,4)P3 is a physiologically important regulator of 1-kinase activity that accounts for the close relationship between phospholipase C activity and changes in intracellular levels of Ins(3,4,5,6)P4.
[3H]Inositol was purchased from American Radiolabeled Chemicals, Inc. or DuPont NEN. Nonradioactive Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 was synthesized as described previously (13). The other inositol phosphates were purchased from Calbiochem or the University of Rhode Island Foundation (Kingston, RI). Bovine serum albumin, phosphocreatine, phosphocreatine kinase, heparin agarose resin (Type II), protease inhibitors, and the calmodulin kinase fragment 290-309 were all purchased from Sigma. Phenyl-Sepharose CL-4B resin and Mono Q HR10/10 column was from Pharmacia Biotech, Inc. and Matrex A dye resin was from Amicon.
Preparation of [3H]Ins(3,4,5,6)P4[3H]Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 is not available commercially. We prepared it from [3H]inositol-labeled erythrocytes isolated from 5-day-old chicks that had been incubated for 24 h with 10 mCi of [3H]inositol/ml of packed cells at 37 °C (20). Incubations were quenched and neutralized (20), and then the [3H]Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 peak was isolated by HPLC (8) and desalted (12). In order to ascertain the specific radioactivity of the [3H]Ins(3,4,5,6)P4, its mass was determined from the extent to which it inhibited partially purified Ins(1,3,4)P3 5/6 kinase (12). Most of the data described in this paper were obtained using a single batch of [3H]Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 (specific radioactivity, 217 dpm/pmol). For this preparation, the extent of contamination of [3H]Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 with [3H]Ins(1,4,5,6)P4 (less than 5%) was determined using the partially purified Ins(1,4,5,6)P4 3-kinase (12). Many preliminary experiments, including those described in Table I, were performed with a different batch of [3H]Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 (1.5 dpm/pmol) isolated as described above but from [3H]inositol-labeled turkey erythrocytes.
|
During purification, 10-40 µl of samples were incubated at 37 °C for 10-30 min in a final volume of 100 µl containing 4000 dpm of [3H]Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 (adjusted to a concentration of 5 µM with nonradioactive substrate), 20 mM HEPES (pH 7.2), 6 mM MgSO4, 0.4 mg/ml saponin, 100 mM KCl, 0.3 mg/ml bovine serum albumin, 2 µM InsP6, 5 mM ATP, 10 mM phosphocreatine, 2.5 Sigma units of phosphocreatine kinase.
The final preparations of enzyme were also assayed using the above methods except that the quench medium did not contain InsP6. In some cases, the free Ca2+ concentration was adjusted using EGTA/Ca2+ buffers (21).
The reaction mixture was quenched with 1 ml of ice-cold medium containing 1 mg/ml InsP6, 0.2 M ammonium formate, 0.1 M formic acid. The quenched reactions were diluted to 10 ml with water and chromatographed on Bio-Rad gravity-fed columns using AG 1-X8 ion-exchange resin. In some experiments, incubations were quenched with 40 µl of 2 M perchloric acid plus 1 mg/ml InsP6, neutralized with Freon/octylamine, and chromatographed on HPLC using a Partisphere SAX column (12).
Purification of Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 1-Kinase: Preparation of 100,000 × g SupernatantLivers obtained from 200-250-g
male Sprague-Dawley rats were perfused with ice-cold saline and frozen
at 60 °C until use (freezing did not impair enzyme stability). All
subsequent procedures (which took 5 days) were conducted at 0-4 °C,
and all the column chromatography procedures (except for the final
Matrex Blue A stage) utilized a Pharmacia FPLC system. For each
preparation, about 70 g of liver was homogenized (500-1000 rpm,
five up-and-down strokes) in 140 ml of medium consisting of 20 mM Bis-Tris (pH 7.0), 1 mM EGTA, 1 µg/ml
leupeptin, 1 µg/ml pepstatin A, and 1 mM
phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride. The homogenate was centrifuged for
1.5 h at 100,000 × g, and the resultant
supernatant was filtered (0.2 µm).
The filtrated supernatant was loaded at about 1 ml/min to a heparin-agarose column (3.2 × 20 cm) that was equilibrated with 300 ml of Buffer A (20 mM Bis-Tris (pH 7.0), 1 mM EGTA, 1 µg/ml leupeptin, 1 µg/ml pepstatin A) at a flow rate of 2 ml/min. After washing with 80 ml of Buffer A at 1.5 ml/min, the column was eluted at 1.5 ml/min with a linear gradient of 2.5-5 mM pyrophosphate in Buffer A for 300 min followed by 50 mM pyrophosphate in Buffer A for 200 min at 2 ml/min.
Phenyl-Agarose ChromatographyPeak fractions of enzyme activity eluted from the heparin column were pooled, the concentration of NaCl was adjusted to 1 M, and the sample was loaded onto a phenyl-Sepharose column (2.2 × 10 cm) previously equilibrated with 250 ml of Buffer B (1 M NaCl, 10 mM Bis-Tris (pH 7.0), 1 mM EGTA, 1 µg/ml leupeptin, 1 µg/ml pepstatin A, and 10 mM pyrophosphate). After washing with 200 ml of Buffer B, the remaining protein was eluted with Buffer C (Buffer B without NaCl). The flow rate was 1 ml/min throughout.
Mono Q Anion-exchange ChromatographyPeak fractions of enzyme activity eluted from the phenyl-Sepharose column were pooled and loaded onto a Mono Q HR10/10 column previously equilibrated with 30 ml of Buffer D (50 mM Bis-Tris (pH 7.0), 1 mM EGTA, 1 µg/ml leupeptin, 1 µg/ml pepstatin A). The column was then washed with 10 ml of Buffer D and eluted with a linear gradient of 100-350 mM NaCl in Buffer D for 50 min and 1 M NaCl in Buffer D for another 50 min. The flow rate was 0.5 ml/min throughout.
Matrex Blue A ChromatographyPeak fractions of enzyme
activity eluted from the Mono Q fractions were pooled and 1 mM MgSO4 was added. Samples were then loaded
onto a 0.5-ml Matrex Blue A column previously equilibrated with Buffer
D containing 1 mM MgSO4. The flow-through was
collected under gravity. Finally, 1 mg/ml bovine serum albumin and 20%
glycerol were added, and the preparations were stored at 70 °C
until use. There was no significant loss of activity over a 6-month
period.
The molecular weight of the partially
purified Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 1-kinase was determined
by gel filtration. Purified enzyme was concentrated about 10-fold using
an Amicon Centricon-10 concentrator and mixed with molecular weight
standards from Bio-Rad: bovine -globulin, chicken ovalbumin, equine
myoglobin, and vitamin B12. A 50-200-µl mixture was
chromatographed on a Pharmacia Superdex 75 HR10/30 gel filtration
column using Bis-Tris buffer (pH 7.2) containing 1 mM EGTA,
100 µM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 0.4 µM leupeptin, 0.4 µM E-64, 0.1 mM ATP, and 100 mM NaCl at a flow rate of 0.5 ml/min. 0.25-ml fractions were collected and assayed for enzyme
activity.
A 0.4-µg aliquot of the Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 1-kinase preparation was incubated with 0.05 units of protein kinase C (Pierce, catalog no. 29536) or 50 units of protein kinase A (Pierce, catalog no. 29538) in a volume of 10 µl using the manufacturer's assay kit. After 10 min of incubation at 37 °C, the mixtures were assayed for 1-kinase activity.
The activities of protein kinases A and C were also determined as positive controls using colorimetric assays (Pierce, catalog no. 29517 for kinase C and catalog no. 29529 for kinase A).
Kinase activity during purification was assayed in the presence of 2 µM InsP6. This had no effect on the 1-kinase (data not shown) but was used to inhibit the Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5 3-phosphatase (22) that contaminated the kinase during the initial stages of purification. However, the InsP6 was not included in experiments with the purified enzyme since this did not contain any Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5 phosphatase activity (data not shown).
We chose to isolate the 1-kinase from liver, a tissue in which the
enzyme has relatively high specific activity (7); kinetic data we
accumulated from the purified enzyme could than be compared with the
inositol phosphate profiles in isolated hepatocytes (23). The rat
hepatic 1-kinase is predominantly a soluble enzyme (Ref. 7 and data not
shown). These crude preparations of enzyme were relatively stable when
maintained at 0-4°C, but our initial attempts at further
purification were thwarted by such procedures bringing about a nearly
complete loss of activity. For example, if the enzyme was concentrated
by ammonium sulfate precipitation, 98% of activity was lost within
48 h (Table I). Fortunately, we discovered that
certain phosphate-containing compounds and some phosphatase inhibitors
were able to preserve enzyme activity to varying extents (Table I).
Among them, inorganic pyrophosphate was the most effective. The
disadvantage of including pyrophosphate was that it prevented the
enzyme from binding to many of the column resins that otherwise might
have facilitated the purification of the enzyme. Eventually, we found
that an adequate compromise was to load the crude supernatant onto a
heparin-agarose column in the absence of pyrophosphate and then use
this compound to elute the enzyme from the column as a single peak
(Fig. 1A, Table II). These
procedures brought about an approximately 20-fold purification with an
apparent yield of 67%.
|
Pyrophosphate was also present during the next stage of purification of
the enzyme by phenyl-Sepharose chromatography (Fig. 1B,
Table II). However, during further purification steps (Fig. 1C, Table II) the enzyme again became unstable at 0-4°C,
apparently for a different reason since pyrophosphate now offered no
protective effect (a fact that also prevented us from using the
purified enzyme to explore the mechanism of action of pyrophosphate).
We did discover that enzyme activity could be preserved by the addition of excess protein (e.g. 1 mg/ml bovine serum albumin). It is
possible that the enzyme was now being adversely affected by its
inevitable dilution during purification. Neither glycerol (up to 50%
(v/v)) nor polyvinylpyrrolidone (up to 0.5% (w/v)) were effective
substitutes for the albumin. We attempted to compensate for this
particular difficulty by scaling up our preparations to increase the
concentration of the purified 1-kinase. We were then able to further
purify the enzyme by anion-exchange chromatography (Fig. 1C,
Table II) and Matrex Blue A dye-ligand chromatography (Table II). The
final preparations, which were approximately 1600-fold pure with a 1% yield, were stored at 70°C with the addition of 1 mg/ml bovine serum albumin plus 20% (v/v) glycerol; there was no significant loss
of activity for at least 6 months.
We found that the enzyme had high
affinity for both Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 and ATP; the
Km value of the 1-kinase for
Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 was estimated to be 0.36 ± 0.01 µM (mean ± S.E. from three determinations, Fig. 2A). The kinetic properties of the
1-kinase activity in any tissue have not previously been described. Our
determinations were made possible by the development of procedures for
the chemical synthesis of enantiomerically pure
Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 (13) plus our isolation of
relatively high specific activity
[3H]Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 from
[3H]inositol-labeled chick erythrocytes (see
"Experimental Procedures"). The Km for ATP was
estimated to be 10.6 ± 0.08 µM (mean ± S.E.
from three determinations, Fig. 2B). The native molecular mass of the enzyme was estimated by gel filtration to be 46 ± 1 kDa2 (mean ± S.E. from three
determinations, Fig. 3).
Regulation of 1-Kinase Activity
The most important goal of
this study was to gain insight into how the 1-kinase might be regulated
in vivo, particularly when phospholipase C is activated. We
found that the 1-kinase activity was unaffected by its co-incubation
with either protein kinase A or protein kinase C (data not shown; for
details, see "Experimental Procedures"). We also investigated the
effect on the 1-kinase of the changes in [Ca2+] that
would be expected to occur in cells upon activation of phospholipase C. The enzyme activity was slightly reduced (~10-20%) at 1-2
µM Ca2+ relative to the activity at 0.1 µM (data not shown). This small effect, which would only
be expected to occur during the brief period at which a cellular
Ca2+ transient attained its peak value, was not influenced
(data not shown) by the further addition of either 5 µM
calmodulin or 10 µM calmodulin antagonist (kinase
fragment 290-309 (24)). From the point of view of our efforts to
understand how the Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 1-kinase is
regulated, a particularly important result (see "Discussion") was
the potency with which this enzyme was inhibited by
Ins(1,3,4)P3 (Fig. 4); the
inhibition was determined by a Dixon plot to be competitive (Fig. 4),
and the estimated Ki value was 0.2 ± 0.01 µM (mean ± S.E., n = 3; Fig. 4,
Table III). The inhibition of 1-kinase by
Ins(1,3,4)P3 was relatively specific;
Ins(1,4,5)P3, Ins(1,3,4,5)P4,
Ins(1,3,4,6)P4, and
Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5 were also competitive
inhibitors, but they all acted with considerably lower potency (Table
III).
|
In order to fully discern the actions of second messengers we need to determine how both their accumulation and metabolic inactivation are regulated. This generally requires the purification and characterization of the enzymes responsible for these metabolic control processes. This is the approach we have taken to increase our understanding of the receptor-regulated mechanisms that control metabolic turnover of Ins(3,4,5,6)P4, a novel cellular signal (see the Introduction). Thus, we have purified the Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 1-kinase activity 1600-fold from a hepatic supernatant with a 1% yield. (The only previously described purification of this enzyme yielded a 35-fold enriched sample from a rat brain supernatant (7).)
The novel kinetic data that we have obtained with this purified enzyme have been particularly revealing concerning the mechanisms by which receptor-mediated activation of phospholipase C causes cellular Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 levels to increase. For example, we have discovered that the 1-kinase has relatively high affinity for Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 (Km = 0.36 µM). In addition, we have determined that Ins(1,3,4)P3 is a potent inhibitor of the 1-kinase, with a Ki of 0.2 µM. Since intracellular levels of Ins(1,3,4)P3 are about 1 µM under basal conditions (25), inhibition of the 1-kinase by this polyphosphate is physiologically relevant. Inhibition by Ins(1,3,4)P3 was also relatively specific; other inositol polyphosphates were inhibitors but at unphysiologically high concentrations (Table III), with perhaps one exception. In intact cells some slight inhibition of 1-kinase activity by Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5 is also possible since its steady-state levels (22, 23) are close to its Ki value of 15 µM. However, levels of this particular isomer do not change substantially during activation of phospholipase C (4, 9), so this polyphosphate will not contribute to receptor-mediated regulation of the 1-kinase.
It is of further significance that Ins(1,3,4)P3 is a downstream metabolite of Ins(1,4,5)P3 (4). Thus, the intracellular levels of Ins(1,3,4)P3 accumulate severalfold whenever phospholipase C is activated. This raises the possibility that it is these receptor-mediated changes in Ins(1,3,4)P3 levels that, by inhibiting 1-kinase, link phospholipase C activity to elevations in Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 levels. To further explore this idea, we fitted our kinetic data to Equation 1 (see Ref. 22).
![]() |
(Eq. 1) |
We next evaluated what would be the effect of a typical, receptor-mediated 5-10-fold rise in the concentration of Ins(1,3,4)P3 (12, 23, 25). Using Equation 1 we estimated that if levels of this trisphosphate accumulated to either 5 or 10 µM, this would decrease the velocity of the kinase to 9 and 5%, respectively, of its maximal capacity. Thus, these two physiologically relevant agonist-dependent changes in the concentration of Ins(1,3,4)P3 would be predicted to inhibit the 1-kinase by 68 and 82%, respectively. This would perturb the poise of the Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 1-kinase/Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5 1-phosphatase substrate cycle (8, 9) so that levels of Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 would accumulate due to the ongoing activity of the Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5 1-phosphatase. Our kinetic data also predict that during the poststimulatory phase competition between Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 and Ins(1,3,4)P3 would be a major factor in determining the rate at which Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 returns to basal levels.
Therefore, we conclude that a major function of
Ins(1,3,4)P3 is to provide a mechanism by which
activation of phospholipase C can induce changes in cellular levels of
Ins(3,4,5,6)P4. In this way phospholipase C may
be considered to have both positive and negative input into
Cl ion channel activity: initial stimulation by
Ca2+ followed by inhibition by
Ins(3,4,5,6)P4. The idea that
Ins(1,3,4)P3 serves an important physiological
function amends a long-standing belief that it is merely an inactive
degradation product of
Ins(1,4,5)P3/Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 turnover. Moreover, this role for Ins(1,3,4)P3
is ultimately served by the activity of the
Ins(1,4,5)P3 3-kinase. Thus, both the function of the 3-kinase and the selective pressures that caused it to evolve
(see Ref. 5) should no longer be interpreted purely in terms of
regulating the levels of Ins(1,4,5)P3 and
Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 to control Ca2+
mobilization.
It is entirely possible that this action of Ins(1,3,4)P3 by itself is all that is necessary to elevate levels of Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 in vivo. In any case, the identification of this process adds a remarkable new feature to our understanding of the control of signaling functions of inositol polyphosphates. These results also consolidate our original hypothesis (8, 9) that receptor-dependent changes in Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 levels are not just a consequence of mass action effects dependent on alterations in levels of its metabolic precursor, i.e. Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5. Moreover, our data exclude a substantial contribution of some other potential regulatory processes to the control of 1-kinase. For example, the enzyme activity was not affected by either protein kinase A or protein kinase C. We also investigated whether the changes in cellular [Ca2+] that occur upon receptor activation would affect 1-kinase activity. When free [Ca2+] in our assays was raised from 0.1 to 1-2 µM, there was a slight inhibition of enzyme activity (10-20%), but this seems insufficient to substantially contribute to the control of 1-kinase activity in vivo. Indeed, we have previously shown that Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 levels in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes did not change in response to thapsigargin (which elevates cytosol [Ca2+]). The high affinity of the kinase for ATP (Km = 10.6 µM) indicates that the activity of the hepatic enzyme in vivo is unlikely to be affected by physiologically relevant changes in ATP levels, which are maintained in the millimolar range (26).
Drugs that modify the actions and metabolism of
Ins(3,4,5,6)P4 might improve treatment for
certain medical conditions that result from perturbations to
transmembrane Cl transport, such as cystic fibrosis, and
heart arrhythmia. The new information we have provided concerning the
properties of the 1-kinase may improve the scope for pharmacological
intervention, since they identify the enzymes of
Ins(1,3,4)P3 metabolism as additional, potential
therapeutic targets. Finally, our goal of sequencing and cloning the
1-kinase will help us understand the properties of this enzyme at a
molecular level.
We are grateful to Drs. S. T. Safrany and C. M. Pedrosa Ribeiro for helpful comments on the manuscript and to Dr. Safrany for assistance with the protein kinase C and protein kinase A assays.