(Received for publication, August 26, 1996, and in revised form, November 1, 1996)
From the School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
Carboxyl-terminal amidation, a required
post-translational modification for the bioactivation of many
neuropeptides, entails sequential enzymatic action by peptidylglycine
monooxygenase (PAM, EC 1.14.17.3) and peptidylamidoglycolate lyase
(PGL, EC 4.3.2.5). The monooxygenase, PAM, first catalyzes conversion
of a glycine-extended pro-peptide to the corresponding
-hydroxyglycine derivative, and the lyase, PGL, then catalyzes
breakdown of this
-hydroxyglycine derivative to the amidated peptide
plus glyoxylate. We now introduce the first potent inhibitors for
peptidylamidoglycolate lyase. These inhibitors, which can be viewed as
pyruvate-extended N-acetyl amino acids, constitute a novel
class of compounds. They were designed to resemble likely transient
species along the reaction pathway of PGL catalysis. A general
synthetic procedure for preparation of pyruvate-extended
N-acetyl amino acids or peptides is described. Since these
compounds possess the 2,4-dioxo-carboxylate moiety, their solution
tautomerization was investigated using both NMR and high performance
liquid chromatography analyses. The results establish that freshly
prepared solutions of N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate consist
predominantly of the enol tautomer, which then slowly tautomerizes to
the diketo form when left standing for several days in an aqueous
medium; upon acidification, formation of the hydrate tautomer occurs.
Kinetic experiments established that these novel compounds are highly
potent, pure competitive inhibitors of PGL. Kinetic experiments with
the ascorbate-dependent copper monooxygenases, PAM and
dopamine-
-monooxygenase, established that these compounds also bind
competitively with respect to ascorbate; however, pyruvate-extended
N-acyl-amino acid derivatives possessing hydrophobic side
chains are much more potent inhibitors of PGL than of PAM. Selective
targeting of N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate so as to inhibit the lyase,
but not the monooxygenase, domain was demonstrated with the
bifunctional amidating enzyme of Xenopus laevis. The availability of potent inhibitors of PGL should facilitate studies regarding the possible biological role of
-hydroxyglycine-extended peptides.
Neuropeptides, which are critical mediators of intercellular
communication, are generated biosynthetically from larger precursors via a variety of post-translational modifications. One such processing event is carboxyl-terminal amidation, a very prevalent
post-translational modification essential to the bioactivity of many
neuropeptides (1, 2). We and others (3-8) have demonstrated that
formation of peptide amides from their glycine-extended precursors is a two-step process, entailing sequential enzymatic action by
peptidylglycine monooxygenase (PAM,1 EC
1.14.17.3) and peptidylamidoglycolate lyase (PGL, EC 4.3.2.5). The
monooxygenase, PAM, first catalyzes formation of the -hydroxyglycine derivative of the glycine-extended precursor, in a process dependent upon ascorbate, copper, and molecular oxygen (3, 4, 9). The lyase, PGL,
then catalyzes the breakdown of this
-hydroxyglycine derivative to
produce the amidated peptide plus glyoxylate (3, 8).
We have established that PAM and PGL exhibit tandem stereospecificities
in carrying out the two requisite steps of carboxyl-terminal amidation
(10), with PAM producing exclusively -hydroxyglycine moieties of
absolute configuration (S), and PGL being reactive only
toward (S)-
-hydroxyglycines (Scheme I). We
further demonstrated that despite their tandem reaction
stereospecificities, PAM and PGL exhibit sharply contrasting subsite
stereospecificities toward the residue at the penultimate position (the
P2 residue)2 of their
respective substrates and inhibitors (11). PAM exhibits high
S2 subsite stereospecificity, and both substrate reactivity and inhibitor binding are severely diminished by the presence of a
D-amino acid residue (or of the stereotopically equivalent (R)-mandelyl residue) at the P2 position. In
contrast, the configuration of the chiral moiety at the P2
position of substrates or inhibitors of PGL has virtually no effect on
binding or catalysis; the lyase thus exhibits concomitant high reaction
stereospecificity and low S2 subsite stereospecificity.
Scheme I.
Amidation represents a potentially attractive target point for
modulating the bioactivity of peptide hormones; consequently, a number
of inhibitors for amidating enzymes have recently been reported. These
include substrate-analog competitive inhibitors, i.e.
O-glycolate esters (11, 13) and homocysteine-terminating peptides
(14), as well as olefinic mechanism-based inactivators (13, 15, 16).
All of these compounds are inhibitors of the PAM-catalyzed
monooxygenation step in the amidation process. To date, the only report
of PGL inhibition is our recent finding that the -hydroxyglycine
derivatives of phenylacetic acid (and its benzylically alkylated
analogs) undergo such slow catalytic turnover that they behave
kinetically as competitive inhibitors in PGL assays (11). Yet, the
availability of potent inhibitors for the lyase step is essential for
exploring the very intriguing question of whether the
-hydroxyglycinated peptides generated in the amidation process may
exhibit distinct biological activities (3, 8).
We introduce here the first potent inhibitors for peptidylamidoglycolate lyase. These inhibitors, which are 2,4-diketo-5-acetamido-alkanoic acid derivatives but can be more conveniently viewed as amino acid derivatives which have been pyruvate-extended at the carboxyl terminus, constitute a novel class of compounds. They were designed to resemble likely transient species along the reaction pathway of PGL catalysis. We report a general synthetic procedure for preparation of pyruvate-extended N-acetyl amino acids or peptides; we describe their solution tautomerization on the basis of NMR and HPLC analyses; and we characterize kinetically their interaction with both PGL and PAM. In addition, we demonstrate targeting of these inhibitors so as to selectively inhibit the lyase, but not the monooxygenase, domain of a bifunctional amidating enzyme.
Materials
Frozen bovine pituitaries were purchased from Pel Freeze Biologicals (Rogers, AR). Diethyloxalate was obtained from Aldrich Chemical Co. Ac-Tyr-Val-Gly (Ac-YVG) was from Peninsula Laboratories, Inc. Bovine liver catalase was from Boehringer Mannheim. Ascorbic acid, all buffers, and amino acids were from Sigma; D-Tyr-Val-Gly (YVG) was from Bachem (Torrance, CA).
Methods
Enzyme Purification and AssaysPAM and PGL were isolated
from bovine pituitaries as described previously (3). PAM and PGL assays
were performed in 100 mM MES-Na buffer, pH 6.5, at
37 °C. PAM assays contained 4 mM ascorbic acid, 4 µM CuSO4, and 1 mg/ml catalase, as described previously (3). The bifunctional amidating enzyme from Xenopus laevis skin (17) was expressed using the Spodoptera
frugiperda/baculovirus expression system followed by sequential
column chromatography (SP Sepharose, Superose 12) using a Pharmacia
FPLC (fast protein liquid chromatography) system. PAM and PGL
inhibition were established using TNP-D-Tyr-Val-Gly and
TNP-D-Tyr-Val--hydroxy-Gly as the PAM and PGL substrate,
respectively. Product formation was analyzed quantitatively by HPLC
using a standard curve based on peak height. All PGL rates measured
were corrected for a background rate observed in the absence of enzyme.
HPLC analyses were performed on a Spherisorb C8 reversed-phase column
(Alltech), using an LDC Constametric III system outfitted with an LDC
Spectromonitor 3100 variable wavelength detector set at 344 nm. The
elution buffer was 44% (v/v) acetonitrile, 55.9% water, and 0.1%
trifluoroacetic acid. PAM inhibition was also established using the
continuous assay developed in our laboratory (18), with Ac-Tyr-Val-Gly
as the PAM substrate. Kinetic experiments with
dopamine-
-monooxygenase were carried out using the polarographic
oxygen monitor assay we have described previously (19). All
spectrophotometric measurements were executed on a Hewlett-Packard 841A
diode-array spectrophotometer equipped with a temperature-regulated
cell compartment. Inhibition parameters and theoretical plots were
calculated using an iterative fit computer program.
Assays were
performed in 100 mM MES-Na buffer, pH 6.5, containing 100 µM TNP-D-Tyr-Val-Gly, 4 µM
CuSO4, 1 mg/ml catalase, 4 mM
L-ascorbic acid, and bifunctional amidating enzyme in a
total volume of 3 ml at 37 °C. N-Ac-Phe pyruvate
concentration was 1.1 µM. A 100-µl aliquot was
withdrawn from the incubation mixture at the appropriate time, quenched
with 10 µl of 3 M HClO4, centrifuged, and
analyzed quantitatively by HPLC for
TNP-D-Tyr-Val--hydroxy-Gly and
TNP-D-Tyr-Val-NH2.
Equilibrium between keto, enol, and hydrate tautomers was analyzed by HPLC. Chromatograms were obtained on a Spherisorb C8 reversed-phase column (Alltech), using an LDC Constametric III system outfitted with an LDC Spectromonitor 3100 variable wavelength detector set at 300 nm. The eluting solvent was 20% (v/v) acetonitrile, 79.9% water, and 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid. 1H NMR spectra were recorded on a Brucker 300 MHz spectrometer.
Syntheses
Benzoylpyruvic AcidAcetophenone (25.0 g, 0.21 mol) and
diethyloxalate (25.5 ml, 0.19 mol) were added to a mixture of sodium
ethoxide (17.0 g, 0.25 mol) in 250 ml of super-dry ethanol, under argon
(20). The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 4 h. Ethanol was then evaporated under reduced pressure and water added to the residue. The aqueous layer was extracted with ethyl acetate to
remove excess diethyloxalate, acidified by the addition of concentrated
HCl, and extracted with methylene chloride. The combined methylene
chloride extracts were dried over MgSO4, filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure. Ethyl benzoylpyruvate, obtained as
an oil, was not further purified. 1H NMR
(CDCl3, 300 MHz) : 8.00 (d, 2H), 7.65-7.49 (m, 3H),
7.09 (s, 1H), 4.41 (q, 2H), 1.42 (t, 3H).
To a solution of ethyl benzoylpyruvate (47.4 g of crude ester) in 125 ml of THF was added 125 ml of concentrated HCl. The reaction mixture
was stirred at room temperature for 48 h and then cooled to
0 °C to maximize the precipitation of the acid. The solid that
formed was then collected by suction, washed with cold THF, and dried
under vacuum. Benzoylpyruvic acid (37.0 g) was obtained as a light
yellow powder. Mass spectrometry (electron impact-MS)
m/z 192 (M); 1H NMR
(CDCl3, 300 MHz) : 8.01 (d, 2H), 7.65 (m, 1H), 7.53 (m, 2H), 7.19 (s, 1H).
A solution of L-phenylalanine (33.0 g, 0.2 mol)
in acetic anhydride (165 ml) and pyridine (110 ml) was stirred at
100 °C for 5 h, under argon (21). The cooled reaction mixture
was then concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in ethyl acetate, washed three times with saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, dried over MgSO4, filtered, and concentrated. The
residue was re-crystallized from hot ethyl acetate. The white
-acetamidobenzyl methyl ketone was filtered off, washed with hexane,
and dried under vacuum. Yields ranged from 50 to 70%, m.p.
90-93 °C; mass spectrometry (CI-MS) m/z 206 (M + 1);
1H NMR (CDCl3, 300 MHz)
: 7.30 (m, 3H), 7.14 (m, 2H), 6.11 (bs, 1H), 4.88 (q, 1H), 3.02-3.18 (o, 2H), 2.16 (s, 3H),
1.99 (s, 3H).
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Sodium ethoxide was prepared in situ by the addition,
under argon, of sodium metal (0.92 g, 40.0 mmol) in 50 ml of super-dry ethanol kept at 0 °C. To this solution was added -acetamidobenzyl methyl ketone (4.1 g, 20.0 mmol) and diethyloxalate (11.0 ml, 81.0 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature, under
argon, for 4 h. Ethanol was then evaporated under reduced pressure
and water added to the residue. The aqueous layer was extracted with
ethyl acetate, acidified by the addition of concentrated HCl, and
extracted with methylene chloride. The combined methylene chloride
extracts were dried over MgSO4, filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure. Purification by flash chromatography (eluting solvent: MeCl2/MeOH 95:5, RF = 0.49)
gave 5.40 g (88%) of a thick brown oil. Mass spectrometry (CI-MS)
m/z 306 (M + 1); 1H NMR
(CDCl3, 300 MHz)
: 7.26 (m, 3H), 7.06 (m, 2H), 5.98 (bd, 1H), 4.95 (q, 1H),4.31 (q, 2H), 3.02-3.18 (o, 2H), 1.99 (s, 3H), 1.32 (t, 3H).
To a solution of ethyl-N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate (3.66 g, 12.0 mmol)
in 20 ml methanol was added 10 ml of 4 N NaOH. The reaction
mixture was stirred at room temperature for 2 h, under argon.
Methanol was then removed under reduced pressure and 20 ml water added. The aqueous solution was extracted with ethyl acetate to remove any
un-reacted ester, acidified by the addition of concentrated HCl, and
extracted with methylene chloride. The combined methylene chloride
extracts were dried over Na2SO4 and
concentrated under reduced pressure. The resulting free acid (2.1 g,
7.57 mmol) was dissolved in 30 ml of methanol and converted to its
sodium salt by addition of NaOH (304.0 mg, 7.60 mmol). The reaction
mixture was stirred at room temperature for 2 h and ether added to
precipitate the desired compound. The precipitate was collected by
suction, dissolved in methanol, and precipitated again by the addition of ether, affording 1.6 g of pale yellow solid. Mass spectrometry (FAB-MS) m/z 278 (M + 1); 1H NMR
(D2O, 300 MHz) : 7.20 (m, 5H), 3.10, 2.75 (m, 2H), 1.82 (s, 3H).
The
Dakin-West reaction was performed as described for Ac-Phe-pyruvate,
starting from L-tyrosine (18.1 g, 68.74 mmol). The crude
ketone obtained was re-crystallized from hot methanol/ether, giving
16.1 g (89%) of white solid. m.p. 117-119 °C; mass
spectrometry (FAB-MS) m/z 264 (M + 1); 1H NMR
(CDCl3, 300 MHz) : 7.10 (q, 4H), 6.16 (bs, 1H), 4.85 (q, 1H), 3.01-3.18 (o, 2H), 2.29 (s, 3H), 2.18 (s, 3H), 1.99 (s, 3H).
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The coupling reaction was accomplished as described for
Ac-Phe-pyruvate, starting from the product of the Dakin-West reaction (5.26 g, 20.0 mmol), diethyl oxalate (11 ml, 81.0 mmol), and sodium metal (0.92 g, 40.0 mmol) in 50 ml of super-dry ethanol. A yellow oil
(4.6 g, 72%) was obtained. Mass spectrometry (CI-MS) m/z
322 (M + 1); 1H NMR (CDCl3, 300 MHz) : 6.85 (q, 4H), 6.43 (s, 1H), 6.20 (bd, 1H), 4.95 (q, 1H),4.33 (q, 2H),
2.94-3.17 (o, 2H), 2.03 (s, 3H), 1.37 (t, 3H).
The hydrolysis was performed as described before, starting with a
solution of ester (1.50 g, 4.67 mmol) in 40 ml of ethanol. The free
acid obtained (1.40 g) was treated with NaOH to give 0.7 g of the
desired sodium salt. Mass spectrometry (electron impact-MS)
m/z 293 (M-Na + 1); 1H NMR
(D2O, 300 MHz) : 7.12 (d, 2H), 6.71 (d, 2H), 3.00, 2.61 (m, 2H), 1.80 (s, 3H).
The Dakin-West reaction was performed as described for
Ac-Phe-pyruvate, starting from DL-methionine (14.9 g, 0.10 mol). Purification by flash chromatography (eluting solvent:
MeCl2/MeOH 50:1) gave 10.03 g (53%) of a pale yellow oil.
Mass spectrometry (CI-MS) m/z 190 (M + 1); 1H
NMR (CDCl3, 300 MHz) : 6.35 (bs, 1H), 4.75 (m, 1H), 2.50 (m, 2H), 2.26 (s, 3H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.04 (s, 3H), 1.85 (m, 2H).
The coupling reaction was accomplished as described for
Ac-Phe-pyruvate, starting from the product of the Dakin-West reaction (2.30 g, 12.17 mmol), diethyl oxalate (11 ml, 81.0 mmol), and sodium
metal (0.55 g, 23.91 mmol) in 40 ml of super-dry ethanol. A yellow oil
(2.8 g, 81%) was obtained. Mass spectrometry (CI-MS) m/z
290 (M + 1); 1H NMR (CDCl3, 300 MHz) : 6.51 (s, 1H), 6.36 (bd, 1H), 4.85 (m, 1H),4.38 (q, 2H),2.62-3.00 (m, 2H),
2.54 (m, 2H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.08 (s, 3H), 1.38 (t, 3H).
The hydrolysis was performed as described before, starting with a
solution of ester (2.89 g, 10.00 mmol) in 100 ml of ethanol. The free
acid obtained (1.5 g) was treated with NaOH to give 1.2 g of a
pale yellow solid. Mass spectrometry (FAB-MS) m/z 260 (M Na+); 1H NMR (D2O, 300 MHz)
: 2.45 (m, 2H), 2.01 (s, 3H), 1.94 (s, 3H), 1.73 (m, 2H).
Ac-Leu-pyruvate was synthesized as described for Ac-Phe-pyruvate. Mass spectrometry (FAB-MS) m/z 266 (M + 1); 1H NMR (D2O, 300 MHz) d: 4.24 (m, 1H), 1.82 (s, 3H), 1.56 (m, 1H), 1.43 (m, 2H), 0.8 (m, 6H).
Since the
pyruvate-extended amino acid derivatives reported here are novel
compounds, several synthetic approaches were explored. We found that
our initial prototype, benzoylpyruvate, could be prepared in high yield
by reaction of acetophenone with diethyloxalate in the presence of
NaOEt to give ethyl benzoylpyruvate (20), followed by hydrolysis of
this ester under acidic conditions. We therefore employed the synthetic
sequence illustrated in Scheme II for the preparation of
N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate (2,4-diketo-5-acetamido-6-phenyl-hexanoic acid), N-Ac-Leu-pyruvate
(2,4-diketo-5-acetamido-7-methyl-octanoic acid),
N-Ac-Tyr-pyruvate
(2,4-diketo-5-acetamido-6-(4-hydroxy-phenyl)-hexanoic acid), and
N-Ac-Met-pyruvate
(2,4-diketo-5-acetamido-7-thiomethyl-heptanoic acid). The parent amino
acids, Phe, Leu, Tyr, and Met, obviously represent convenient starting
materials. In order to apply the synthetic strategy used for
benzoylpyruvate, the carboxylic acid functionality had to be first
converted to a ketone. The first step in Scheme II thus entails
conversion of the amino acids 1a-d to the corresponding
-acetamido- methyl ketones 2a-d via the Dakin-West
reaction (21); in our hands, ketone yields ranged from 50 to 90%.
Reaction with sodium ethoxide in super dry ethanol followed by
condensation with diethyl oxalate then gave the desired esters,
3a-d. Finally, hydrolysis of the esters was carried out
under basic conditions, since we found that acidic hydrolysis, as had
been done successfully for benzoylpyruvate, led to decomposition of the
desired compounds. The final compounds, 4a-d, were isolated
as the sodium salts; typical overall yields after isolation and final
purification were 20-30%.
Scheme II.
Keto-Enol Tautomerism
As illustrated in Scheme III, 2,4-dioxo-carboxylic acids and esters have been reported to exist in three tautomeric forms (22, 23): enol (i.e. two possible enols, E1 and E2), diketo (K), and hydrate (H), with the equilibrium distribution between these tautomers being dependent on pH and solvent. Fig. 1 shows reverse phase HPLC chromatograms of a solution of N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate in water; chromatograms of the freshly prepared, 1- and 4-day-old solutions are shown in Fig. 1, A-C, respectively. The relative intensities of the peaks at 6.2 and 10.3 min change with time, such that after 4 days the peak at 10.3 min has almost disappeared while that at 6.2 min has increased about 80-fold. This process is accelerated by heating. When the pH of the solution is lowered, a prominent new peak appears at 16.3 min (Fig. 1D), which increases with time while the peaks at 6.2 and 10.3 min disappear. Thus, these HPLC results indicate that N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate exists as an equilibrium distribution of three tautomeric forms, the ratio of each being dependent on the pH of the solution. The solution effects suggest assignment of the peaks at 6.2, 10.3, and 16.3 min to the keto, enol (the two enol forms being indistinguishable under these conditions), and hydrate tautomers, respectively, with the appearance of the hydrate only under acidic conditions being consistent with studies by Becker and co-workers (24, 25) on the hydration of pyruvate.
[View Larger Version of this Image (7K GIF file)]Scheme III.
The tautomerization of N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate was then
investigated using 1H NMR. As shown in Fig.
2A, a fresh solution of
N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate in D2O exhibits a singlet at
1.90 ppm corresponding to the N-acetyl methyl group, a
multiplet at 2.75-3.26 ppm typical of the benzylic methylene group of
phenylalanine and its derivatives, and a multiplet centered around 7.30 ppm for the phenyl ring. The methyne resonance of the phenylalanine
moiety is masked by the HOD peak at 4.8 ppm. After 2 days at room
temperature, two distinct singlets at 1.90 and 1.95 ppm can be seen,
accompanied by an enhancement of the peak at 2.39 ppm (Fig. 2B,
panel II versus panel I). After 20 days, the peak at 2.39 ppm is
prominent, and the singlet at 1.95 ppm is now more intense than the one
at 1.90 ppm (Fig. 2B, panel III). After 30 days, the peak at
1.90 ppm has completely disappeared, and the NMR spectrum in the
1.8-2.4 ppm region consists of one singlet at 1.95 ppm and one singlet
at 2.39 ppm, corresponding upon integration to three protons and two
protons, respectively. The peak at 2.39 ppm is in the region where the
resonance of the -methylene of the diketo form is expected. Thus,
the positions and integrations of the 1.95 and 2.39 ppm peaks indicate
that after 30 days complete conversion of the compound to the diketo tautomer has occurred. It is evident that this tautomerization to the
keto form gives rise to the shift of the methyl signal from 1.90 to
1.95 ppm. Direct precedence for this interpretation is provided by the
case of acetopyruvic acid, where a similar difference between the
methyl signals of the tautomers has been reported (22).
Further support for these conclusions was obtained from NMR studies of N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate in dimethyl sulfoxide-d6, wherein broad singlets are evident at 4.33 (methyne), 5.98, and 7.92 ppm (amide) in addition to the methyl signal at 1.71 ppm, the benzylic methylene at 2.60-3.02 ppm, and the phenyl resonance centered around 7.15 ppm. The singlet at 5.98 ppm is indicative of an olefinic-type proton. A converse experiment was then carried out wherein an aqueous solution of N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate was left standing for a week, lyophilized, and dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide-d6. The 1H NMR spectrum exhibited sharp signals and a singlet at 2.25 ppm, confirming that the compound had tautomerized to the diketo tautomer. Therefore, on the basis of these HPLC and NMR results, we conclude that a freshly prepared solution of N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate consists predominantly of the enol tautomer, characterized by a retention time of 10.3 min under our HPLC conditions. The compound then slowly tautomerizes to the diketo form when left standing in an aqueous medium.
Inhibition of Peptidylamidoglycolate LyaseThe rationale
underlying our preparation and characterization of
2,4-diketo-5-acetamido-alkanoic acids as potential PGL inhibitors is
based on our view of the likely reaction pathway for PGL catalysis. Ketonization at the -hydroxyl with electron delocalization into the
adjacent amido moiety, as illustrated in Scheme IV,
provides a mechanistic driving force for the C
N bond cleavage which
occurs in the course of the lyase reaction. Indeed, good precedence for such a reaction pathway is provided by the well established breakdown of the reactive indolenine species which occurs in the mechanism of
action of tryptophan-indole lyase (26, 27). Clearly, the pyruvate-extended N-acetyl-amino acid derivatives (which
exist in solution in tautomeric enol and keto forms, as established by
the HPLC and NMR results presented above) possess structural features
which closely mimic the chemistry occurring along this reaction pathway
for PGL catalysis. Since these pyruvate-extended N-acyl-amino acids obviously cannot undergo PGL-catalyzed
N-dealkylation, we expected that these compounds would act
as potent inhibitors for PGL.
Scheme IV.
Initial kinetic experiments carried out using
N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate confirmed that this compound is indeed a
potent PGL inhibitor and that inhibition is purely competitive (Fig.
3). Corresponding experiments were then carried out with
the other pyruvate-extended N-Ac-amino acid derivatives, and
the results are listed in Table I. In all cases,
inhibition is purely competitive. It is apparent from the
KI values that the hydrophobic aromatic side chain
of a Phe residue at the S2 subsite favors binding to PGL. Accordingly, N-Ac-Tyr-pyruvate and
N-Ac-Leu-pyruvate are somewhat less potent, whereas
N-Ac-Met-pyruvate is more than 60-fold less potent than
N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate.
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Since a dioxo-carboxylic acid moiety is present
in these pyruvate-extended N-acyl-amino acids, it seemed
possible that these compounds might bear sufficient resemblance to
ascorbate so as to interact with ascorbate binding sites of enzymes.
Kinetic experiments to investigate this possibility were therefore
carried out using both PAM and dopamine--monooxygenase (DBM); both
of these enzymes are ascorbate-dependent copper
monooxygenases, and we have previously noted that they have a number of
mechanistic features in common (13, 28).
Inhibition experiments with DBM were carried out by monitoring oxygenation of the standard DBM substrate, tyramine, using a polarographic assay method (19). The results confirmed that N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate is a DBM inhibitor which is competitive with respect to ascorbate and uncompetitive with respect to tyramine. These findings are in accord with those reported by Townes et al. (29) with quinolinecarboxylic acids, picolinic acids, and thiazoline carboxylate; all of these compounds are DBM inhibitors which are competitive with respect to ascorbate and uncompetitive with respect to tyramine. Similarly, for PAM, inhibition by N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate was found to be competitive with respect to ascorbate and uncompetitive with respect to the peptide substrate, TNP-D-Tyr-Val-Gly. Corresponding inhibition experiments with the other pyruvate-extended N-Ac-amino acid derivatives also gave uncompetitive inhibition patterns with respect to two different peptide substrates. Thus, these results indicate that the pyruvate-extended N-acyl-amino acids interact in a kinetically similar way with these two analogous monooxygenases.
Selective Targeting of the Lyase Domain of a Bifunctional Amidating EnzymeThe kinetic inhibition results described above established that those pyruvate-extended N-acyl-amino acid derivatives possessing hydrophobic side chains are much more potent inhibitors of PGL than of PAM. Thus, for example, the KI of N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate toward PGL is more than 2 orders of magnitude lower than that toward PAM, and the corresponding KI ratios for N-Ac-Tyr-pyruvate and N-Ac-Leu-pyruvate are 83 and 60, respectively. Accordingly, we utilized the bifunctional amidating enzyme from X. laevis skin (17) to demonstrate selective targeting of the lyase, but not the monooxygenase, domain by N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate.
Fig. 4A shows the normal time course of the
reaction of the substrate TNP-D-Tyr-Val-Gly with the
bifunctional amidating enzyme; formation of each enzymatic product was
quantitatively determined using reverse phase HPLC.
Time-dependent formation of the monooxygenase product,
TNP-D-Tyr-Val--OH-Gly, and, after an initial lag, of the
final amide product, TNP-D-Tyr-Val-NH2, is
evident. The time course of this reaction in the presence of
N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate (1.1 µM) is shown in Fig.
4B. It is clearly apparent that the lyase activity of the
bifunctional enzyme has been abolished by the inhibitor, whereas the
monooxygenase activity of the enzyme is completely unaffected. Thus,
the initial rate of formation of the monooxygenase product,
TNP-D-Tyr-Val-
-OH-Gly, is identical (0.25 µM/min) in either the presence (Fig. 4B) or
absence (Fig. 4A) of N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate. In the
absence of N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate, the concentration of the
TNP-D-Tyr-Val-
-OH-Gly intermediate levels off at
approximately 10 µM, since it is further converted by the lyase domain to the final amide product,
TNP-D-Tyr-Val-NH2. In contrast, in the presence
of N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate, formation and accumulation of
TNP-D-Tyr-Val-
-OH-Gly continues over the entire time
course of the reaction, since lyase-catalyzed amide formation cannot
occur. Moreover, it is important to note that the total amount of
TNP-D-Tyr-Val-
-OH-Gly formed after 120 min (23 µM) in Fig. 4B corresponds to the sum of
TNP-D-Tyr-Val-
-OH-Gly plus TNP-D-Tyr-Val-NH2 formed (24 µM)
in Fig. 4A. This confirms that catalytic turnover at the
monooxygenase domain is completely unaffected by the presence of
N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate.
These results clearly demonstrate selective inhibition by
N-Ac-Phe-pyruvate of only lyase, and not monooxygenase,
catalysis, under conditions where both PAM and PGL are present and
functional. Physiologically, PAM and PGL are co-localized within
secretory granules which maintain an acidic pH of approximately
5.5-6.0 (30). In this pH range, both PAM and PGL are highly active, whereas the rate of nonenzymatic -hydroxyglycine peptide breakdown is expected to be quite low (8, 31). In this regard, we have carried
out a kinetic study of the nonenzymatic N-dealkylation of a
series of N-acyl-
-hydroxyglycine compounds over the pH
range 5.0-9.0. In all cases, these nonenzymatic reactions were found to be second order, with rate = k
[N-acyl-
-hydroxyglycine] [OH
]. In
addition, each reaction product was confirmed to be the corresponding
amide, using reverse phase HPLC analysis. The results are summarized in
Table II. It is quite evident that all of the hydroxyglycines are quite stable under acidic conditions, with half-lives of weeks. Even when the pH is raised to 7.0, these compounds
exhibit half-lives of several days. (Similarly, the nonenzymatic
half-life of our standard PGL assay substrate,
TNP-D-Tyr-Val-
-OH-Gly, is more than 3 days). Thus, these
results provide support for the expectation that amidative processing
of glycine-extended peptides in the presence of a lyase inhibitor could
well lead to a physiologically significant accumulation of
-hydroxyglycine-extended neuropeptides within secretory
granules.
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Carboxyl-terminal amidation has commonly been viewed as an activating
event in neuropeptide biosynthesis (1, 2), with relatively little
attention being given to possible biological roles of the
glycine-extended precursors. In this regard, recent findings regarding
the bioactivities of the amidated peptide, gastrin17-NH2, and its glycine-extended analog
are remarkable. Yamada et al. (32) have now shown that both
gastrin17-NH2 and gastrin17-Gly
stimulate DNA synthesis in the exocrine pancreatic AR4-2J tumor cell
line via distinct receptors (32). Moreover, they have also reported
that gastrin17-NH2 and
gastrin17-Gly act cooperatively via different intracellular
mechanisms to stimulate cell growth (33). These findings raise the
highly intriguing possibility that, in addition to its role in
bioactivation, carboxyl-terminal amidation may represent a mechanism
for shifting the bioactivity of a given peptide hormone from one target
to another. Obviously, key issues in this regard are the metabolic and
regulatory relationships between glycine-extended peptides and the
-hydroxyglycinated peptides generated from them, as well as the
important question of whether such hydroxyglycinated peptides which, as
we have established, have substantial half-lives, exhibit distinct
biological activities. The availability of potent lyase inhibitors
should greatly facilitate studies regarding these important aspects of
neuropeptide processing.