(Received for publication, September 10, 1996, and in revised form, November 6, 1996)
From the Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, D-82152 Martinsried, Germany
The transcription bubble formed in the binding complex of T7A1 promoter upon Escherichia coli RNA polymerase was analyzed by chemical probes, namely by single-strand specific reagents, to map the unpaired bases in the bubble, and by FeEDTA, to analyze the accessibility of the DNA backbone. The latter probe could also be used as a local hydroxyl radical probe placed close to the Mg2+-binding site in the active center. The data show that the transcription bubble consists of two parts, an Mg2+-dependent part and an Mg2+-independent part, both having individual transition temperatures. The data further suggest that formation of a transcription active open complex is preceded by a transition state complex having enhanced affinity for those Mg2+ ions presumably participating in the formation of the catalytic site. Our data also suggests that the three catalytically active Mg2+ ions in RNA polymerase are functionally not equivalent. One/two of the three Mg2+ ions are responsible for the polymerization, the other two/one for enlargement of the transcription bubble.
The transcription bubble is a characteristic attribute of the eubacterial transcription-competent complex. Although no three-dimensional structural information on the transcription bubble is yet available, one can visualize it as a region in which the DNA strands are separated in order to facilitate "reading" of the sequence information for RNA synthesis. The transcription bubble is initially formed upon polymerase binding upstream of the start point of RNA synthesis (1-3). It changes its size and position when RNA synthesis proceeds, as analysis in subsequent steps of RNA synthesis between registers 11 and 20 has revealed (4). The position of the upstream lagging end of the transcription bubble remains constant in the registers 11-18, while the position of the downstream lagging end moves downstream in accordance with progress of RNA synthesis. In this way the size of the transcription bubble increases from 11 base pairs in the 11-mer complex to 18 base pairs in the 18-mer complex. If RNA synthesis proceeds beyond register 18, the transcription bubble collapses in the upstream region. As a consequence, it shrinks to its initial size of 11 base pairs. While information about the transcription bubble in the RNA synthesizing complex is rather detailed, there is no correspondingly large body of information on the transcription bubble in the binary complex.
The concept of the transcription bubble (5, 6) was developed from the finding that the transcription active complex, the open complex, is preceded by the closed complex in which the promoter DNA is assumed to be base paired (7). These two complexes are distinguished from each other by their characteristic temperature sensitivity toward heparin. The closed complex exists below 17 °C and is heparin-sensitive (8), while the open complex exists above 17 °C and is heparin-resistant. The validity of this concept was proven by showing that the temperature dependence of DNA strand separation and heparin sensitivity can be correlated (7, 9). Isomerization of the binding complex is a reaction scheme which holds good for most factor-independent promoters. This scheme had to be modified by the finding that the RNA polymerase promoter complex undergoes at least two further isomerization steps before the final transcription active open complex is formed. These transition complexes are the intermediate complex (10-12) and the Mg2+-independent and the Mg2+-dependent complexes (13).
Transition state complexes have been defined by kinetic studies in
which concentrations of the reactants, temperature, and ionic strength
were varied (10, 13). It is plausible that by lowering the temperature,
transition state complexes can be "frozen" and accumulated.
However, correspondence between time-dependent and
temperature-dependent isomerization steps has not been
convincingly demonstrated. Having these reservations in mind, chemical
probing studies at different temperatures can provide useful
information on structural changes of transition state complexes. It has
been shown that RNA polymerase has contact with the promoter in the closed complex from base position 53 to
4 (14-16). In the
intermediate complex the protected region is extended downstream to
position +21 (14, 15).
Probing of the A1 promoter using FeEDTA-generated hydroxyl radicals has
revealed that closed and intermediate complexes differ not only in size
but also in the kind of interaction. In the closed complex the
polymerase faces one side of the DNA (14, 15), a result which is in
line with neutron solution studies (17). In the intermediate complex,
domains of RNA polymerase wrap around the DNA in the region between
base position 15 and +18 covering both DNA strands and including the
starting point of RNA synthesis (14, 15), a finding which is in line
with information obtained from electron microscope studies (18). The
footprint of the open complex visible above 30 °C does not differ
from that of the intermediate complex except for a region of the
template strand at base position
1 which shows enhanced reactivity
toward FeEDTA. It has been suggested by Schickor (14) that this
hyper-reactivity reflects enhanced accessibility of the template strand
due to DNA strand separation. Record and colleagues (16) found a
similar effect in the Mg2+ containing complex and explained
it by a charge effect. We show here that the enhanced cleavage is due
to interaction of the FeEDTA probe with the RNA polymerase promoter
complex. FeEDTA acts as local hydroxyl radical source, presumably by
binding at or near the site occupied by the catalytically active
Mg2+, similar to the recent observation with
Fe2+ (19).
A previous study concerned Mg2+-dependence of the
transcription bubble of Pr, a promoter which in order to
form a transcription active complex, requires supercoiling of the
promoter DNA. Our study focuses an the Mg2+ effect on the
linear promoter A1. Using this promoter, Escherichia coli
RNA polymerase forms a transcription active complex at 37 °C with
promoter DNA in the relaxed state. In this study three different probes
for analysis of unpaired thymidines, adenines, and cytidines were
applied, allowing us to determine the size of the transcription bubble
precisely within 1 base pair.
RNA polymerase was isolated from E. coli as described
in Ref. 17. Promoter fragment A1-130 containing the sequence of the T7A1 promoter between 69 and +61 was prepared as described (20). The
3
-end labeling and 5
-end labeling was performed as described in Ref.
14. The radioactivity of the preparations was typically 1 µCi/pmol.
For some experiments promoter fragment A1-220 (representing A1
promoter sequence between 96 and +123) was used. End labeling was
performed by filling the BamHI termini with
deoxy-[
-32P]NTP, subsequent removal of the short
fragments near one of the termini with either HaeIII
(non-template strand labeling) or AluI (template strand
labeling), and final purification of the end-labeled promoter fragment
with QIAGEN PCR purification kit. Sequencing ladders were obtained by
A+G cleavage with formic acid and A>C cleavage with NaOH (21).
Formation of Binary Complexes
A1 promoter fragment (1 µg of A1-130 or 2 µg of A1-220 containing typically 105 cpm of the corresponding radioactive fragment) and 12 µg of RNA polymerase were incubated for 5 min at 37 °C in 50 µl of 8 mM Hepes, pH 8, containing 6 mM MgCl2. The reaction mixture was then dialyzed for 1-2 h against proper buffer using the floating membrane filter technique (Millipore, VS 0.025 µm).
Hydroxyl Radical Footprinting using FeEDTA
Hydroxyl radical cleavage was conducted in a similar way as described in Ref. 9. Three drops, 1.2 µl each, of 2 mM (NH4)2Fe(SO4)2, 4 mM EDTA, 3% H2O2, and 0.1 mM dithiothreitol were separately placed onto the inner wall of a Eppendorf tube. The cleavage was started by simultaneous mixing of them with 10 µl of binary complex formed as described above. Cleavage was performed for 4 min at 37 °C. The reaction mixture was then quickly passed through a nitrocellulose filter (13-mm Sartorius) and washed with 200 µl of 8 mM Hepes, 50 mM NaCl in order to get rid of free DNA. The DNA was eluted from the filter using a 100-µl solution containing 1% SDS, 0.3 M sodium acetate, and 0.1 mg/ml carrier DNA (15 min at 37 °C) and precipitated with 300 µl of ethanol. The pellet was dissolved in 80% formamide containing 0.02% bromphenol and xylene cyanol. The solution was heated for 2 min at 95 °C and applied on a 8% sequencing gel. As a control, free DNA was cleaved. For that purpose the polymerase promoter complex was destroyed by addition of SDS, final concentration 0.5%, and subsequently subjected to all cleavage reactions, as described above. The reaction was stopped by addition of 15 µl of 2% glycerol, 0.6 M NaAc, 0.1 mg/ml carrier DNA and by precipitation with 90 µl of ethanol.
Hydroxyl Radical Footprinting using Potassium Peroxonitrite (KOONO)
The cleavage with potassium peroxonitrite was performed as described in Ref. 22. Binary complex was dialyzed against 0.05 M sodium cacodylate buffer, pH 7.2. One µl of 60 mM KOONO in 0.3 M KOH was added to 20 µl of a solution containing the binary complex (final pH of the solution was pH 8). After 30 s of the incubation (the reaction is finished actually within a few seconds) the carrier DNA was added and the mixture precipitated with ethanol.
Single-strand Probing
The reaction was performed in two steps, first the single strand specific reagent was added for modification of the corresponding bases and subsequently the DNA was cleaved at the modified base by applying piperidine.
Modifications
Thymidines Using Osmium Tetroxide (OsO4)One µl of a freshly prepared solution of 10 mM OsO4, 15 mM bipyridine was added to 10 µl of binary complex. The reaction mixture was incubated at 37 °C for 2 min. The cleavage reaction was stopped by addition of 10 µl of 0.1 M dithiothreitol, 0.6 M NaAc, containing 0.1 mg/ml carrier DNA and precipitation with 60 µl of ethanol.
Thymidines Using Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4)One µl of freshly prepared 0.1 M KMnO4 solution was added to 10 µl of binary complex. The reaction mixture was incubated at 37 °C for 1 min. The cleavage reaction was stopped by addition of 10 µl of 0.1 M dithiothreitol, 0.6 M NaAc, containing 0.1 mg/ml carrier DNA and precipitation with 60 µl of ethanol.
Adenines Using Diethyl PyrocarbonateOne µl of freshly prepared 3% diethyl pyrocarbonate was added to 10 µl of binary complex. The reaction mixture was incubated for 4 min at 37 °C. The cleavage reaction was stopped by addition of 10 µl of 50 mM imidazole, 0.6 M NaAc, pH 7, 0.1 mg/ml DNA and precipitation with 60 µl of ethanol.
Cytidines Using Dimethyl Sulfate and Hydrazine (Hz)The cleavage was conducted according to Ref. 23. At first, DNA in the binary complex was methylated by addition of 1 µl of 100 mM dimethyl sulfate to 10 µl of the binary complex. The reaction mixture was incubated for 2 min at 37 °C. The methylation was stopped by addition of an equal volume of 0.1 M imidazole, 0.6 M NaAc, containing 0.1 mg/ml carrier DNA. The DNA was precipitated with 60 µl of ethanol and dissolved in 20 µl of water. Subsequently 10 µl of 1-butanol and 20 µl of hydrazine were added in order to cleave the methylated cytosines. The reaction mixture was incubated at 0 °C for 5 min. After precipitation with ethanol, the DNA was subjected to piperidine treatment.
Piperidine Treatment
The pellet was dissolved in 90 µl of 10% piperidine and incubated at 90 °C for 20 min. Ten µl of 5 M LiCl was then added and DNA precipitated with 300 µl of ethanol. The precipitate was dissolved in 5-10 µl of 80% formamide containing 0.02% of bromphenol and xylene cyanol.
Gel Electrophoresis
The samples were heated at 90 °C for 2 min, chilled on ice, and then applied on 22 × 50-cm (wedge thickness from 0.2 to 0.4-mm) slab of 6 or 8% polyacrylamide gel containing 8 M urea and 50 mM TBE buffer. Gels were run at 55 W for 1-1.5 h using heating plates (55 °C).
The gels were incubated for 15 min in 10% acetic acid, then washed twice with water (total washing time: 1 h), dried, and exposed to x-ray film (3 M). For quantification, gels were exposed to Fuji Imager plate BAS IIIS, which was scanned with Bas-1000 PhosphorImager. Scans were processed with MacBas software.
Temperature Profile of the Activity
Binary complexes were prepared at different temperatures in the
presence of MgCl2, as described above. One µl of
"initiation mixture" (1 mM ApUpC + 1 mM GTP + 1 mM CTP + 0.1 mM ATP + 100 nCi
[
-32P]ATP) was added to 10 µl of the binary complex
and incubated for 5 min at the same temperature (initial experiments
have shown that the kinetics is linear for at least 10 min). The
reaction was stopped by addition of 10 µl of 20 mM EDTA
in formamide, and 5 µl was analyzed on 20% sequencing gel. The gel
was visualized by PhosphorImager, and the bands corresponding to 20-mer
product were quantified.
E. coli RNA polymerase was incubated at 37 °C with DNA containing the sequence of the strong promoter A1 of the phage T7, as described under "Experimental Procedures." The complex was subjected to analysis with two kinds of probes, namely single strand-specific reagents in order to map the transcription bubble, and FeEDTA as a hydroxyl radical source in order to map the RNA polymerase on the DNA. The DNA was subsequently analyzed on a sequencing gel to determine the cleavage sites.
Mg2+-dependent Changes of the Transcription BubbleThree types of single strand-specific reagents were applied, namely (a) dimethyl sulfate, which methylates cytosines at the N-3 position, thus activating them toward hydrazine (Hz) (23); (b) OsO4, which oxidizes thymidines at the C5-C6 double bond (24), (c) diethyl pyrocarbonate, which attacks purines with strong preference for adenines at the N-7 position (25). KMnO4 was also used as an alternative to OsO4.
Two sets of experiments were performed with the radioactive label either in the template or in the non-template strand, each consisting of three samples, namely DNA (a) without RNA polymerase as reference, (b) in the complex with RNA polymerase without Mg2+, and (c) in the complex with RNA polymerase and Mg2+. Each of these samples was treated with OsO4, diethyl pyrocarbonate, and dimethyl sulfate/Hz, then cleaved at the modified nucleotides with piperidine and analyzed on a sequencing gel, as described under "Experimental Procedures." Since dimethyl sulfate modifies guanines with high yield, probing by dimethyl sulfate or Hz alone was included as a control experiment.
Fig. 1 shows the results obtained at the template strand
(Fig. 1A) and the non-template strand (Fig. 1B).
The accessible bases indicated in Fig. 1, A and
B, are shown in a schematic representation in Fig.
2. Accessibility is defined here as enhanced reactivity of a base upon polymerase binding. A base pair is considered as being
part of the transcription bubble if one of the two complementary bases
is accessible.
Based on the above definition, the pattern obtained by each reagent
provided an upper and a lower limit of the transcription bubble at both
ends. By combining the results from all three reagents, the bubble
could be located accurately within 1 base pair. Fig. 2 shows that the
upstream lagging end of the bubble is situated at base position 12
and the downstream lagging end at base position
1, if the incubation
of the complex was performed in the absence of Mg2+.
Comparison of the accessibility patterns with and without
Mg2+ (Fig. 2) shows that Mg2+ has two effects.
In the presence of Mg2+ the transcription bubble is
enlarged downstream to base position +2 and the interaction between RNA
polymerase and DNA is enhanced, as indicated by a reduced modification
of some bases. Thus A(4) and A(
6) in the non-template strand (Fig.
1B) are protected in the Mg2+ containing complex
and modified in the Mg2+ free complex. The thymidine at
base position
8 in the non-template strand shows a similar, although
less pronounced, effect to that observed with the adenines mentioned
above. T(
8) is moderately accessible for OsO4 in the
Mg2+ free complex and not accessible in the
Mg2+ containing complex. There is an exception to this
scheme. Cytidine at position
3 in the template strand is inaccessible
without Mg2+ and moderately accessible if Mg2+
is added.
Guanine is the only base for which no probe has been suggested which
would allow a differentiation between paired or unpaired state.
Dimethyl sulfate is assumed to methylate guanines irrespective of
whether they are base paired or not. Our probing studies using dimethyl
sulfate alone show that this is not correct. Dimethyl sulfate has a
preference for guanines in the single stranded region, as indicated by
the improved cleavage of G(3) in the non-template strand and G(
1)
and G(
2) in the template strand, as the patterns in Fig. 1,
A and B, show.
G(9) in the template strand deviates from the pattern described above
in that it is protected, while the complementary C(
9) is accessible.
This might be due to a similar effect to that observed with A(
4) and
A(
6). These bases are fully or partly protected, although the
complementary base is accessible, reflecting perhaps improved
interaction with RNA polymerase. G(
5) at the template strand is not
affected at all by RNA polymerase binding, either in the presence or
absence of Mg2+.
It is interesting to note that some of the guanines located outside of
the transcription bubble show differences in the accessibility depending on whether Mg2+ is present or not. G(13) and
G(
14) in the non-template strand are protected, indicating strong
interaction of these bases with RNA polymerase. It is surprising that
G(+12) in the template strand is enhanced, although this base is not
part of the transcription bubble according to the criteria developed
above. We assume that this is due to distortion, perhaps bending of the
DNA.
The mapping studies on the transcription bubble in
the previous paragraph allowed differentiation between two parts of the transcription bubble, namely an Mg2+-independent part
reaching from base position 12 to
1 and an Mg2+-dependent part reaching from base position
+1 to +2. In order to analyze whether the two parts show different
melting behaviors, the Mg2+ containing complex was analyzed
in the temperature range from 4 to 37 °C. For the purpose of this
analysis, it was sufficient to probe only the accessibility of
thymidines, since the Mg2+ dependent part of the
transcription bubble comprising the bases at position +1 and +2 (see
Fig. 2) consists of AT pairs only.
The binding complex was formed in the presence of Mg2+, as
described above, and subjected to treatment with KMnO4 or
OsO4 at the temperatures indicated. The resulting
accessibility patterns obtained at the non-template strand and the
template strand are shown in Fig. 3A and Fig.
4A, respectively.
The thymidine patterns obtained at different temperatures were
quantified and the resulting intensities were plotted, in Fig. 3B for the template strand and in Fig. 4B for the
non-template strand. The plot revealed that the thymidines have
different transition temperatures (Tm) which are
compiled in Table I along with the corresponding
enthalpies (H). Two groups of thymidines could be
identified according to their transition temperatures, namely
thymidines belonging to the Mg2+-dependent and
those belonging to the Mg2+-independent part of the
transcription bubble. The transition temperatures of the thymidines in
the Mg2+-independent part are between Tm = 10-15 °C, while those of the
Mg2+-dependent part are shifted to higher
temperature by about 15 °C, as shown in Table I. The positive
enthalpy values for the transition indicate that the formation of the
transcription bubble is enthalpy driven, in line with a suggestion from
Suh et al. (13).
|
It is interesting to note that the base at the starting point of RNA synthesis, T(+1), has a transition temperature of Tm = 29 °C, whereas T(+2) located further downstream has a lower transition temperature of Tm = 22 °C. In this context it is worth noting that the temperature dependent accessibility of T(+1) correlates with the temperature dependence of the initiation reaction for RNA synthesis, as shown in Fig. 4B.
In order to analyze whether charge or shielding effects, especially in
the presence of Mg2+, influence the cleavage pattern, we
compared the patterns obtained with KMnO4 and
OsO4. Both reagents attack the same positions of thymidines, but have different charges and sizes. Probing of the thymidines of the non-template strand using both probes (Fig. 3A) revealed that the pattern is qualitatively the same but
differs quantitatively. When KMnO4 is used, the yield of
cleavage is generally higher, and moreover cleavage of T(12) in the
template strand is more pronounced. Otherwise no difference was
observed between the two reagents with respect to temperature or
Mg2+ dependence of the transcription bubble.
For comparison purposes, the transition temperatures of the Mg2+-dependent and the Mg2+-independent part of the transcription bubble of another eubacterial RNA polymerase, Thermotoga maritima, a thermophilic organism, was included in Fig. 4C. The data were taken from a previously published study (26) on the Mg2+ containing and a Mg2+-free binding complex of T. maritima RNA polymerase and the A1 promoter. The size of the transcription bubble of the thermophilic RNA polymerase differs from that of E. coli RNA polymerase, but the finding that the transcription bubble can be subdivided in an Mg2+-dependent and Mg2+-independent part having characteristic transition temperatures is the same in both systems (26). Of course, according to the thermophilic nature of T. maritima the transition temperatures are shifted to higher values, as shown in Table I.
Probing of the Binding Complex using FeEDTA-generated Hydroxyl RadicalsThe binding complex of RNA polymerase and the A1
promoter is formed as described in the previous paragraph with and
without Mg2+ and subjected to footprinting analysis using
FeEDTA-generated hydroxyl radicals (14, 27, 28), as described under
"Experimental Procedures." Fig. 5 shows the patterns
obtained on both strands.
The probing pattern of the Mg2+-free binding complex shows,
besides the footprint of RNA polymerase, an enhanced cleavage at position 1 in the template strand, previously discovered by Schickor et al. (14). This hyper-reactive region is located within a stretch of fully protected DNA reaching from base position
13 to +13.
This enhanced cleavage is also observed, although less pronounced, in
the Mg2+-containing complex. We were interested in finding
out the origin of this hyper-reactivity, especially since its
temperature behavior (14) is similar to that observed with T(+1) in the
above described Mg2+-containing complex.
In order to understand the reason for the enhanced cleavage of the
template strand around position 1, it is worth recalling how the
hydroxyl radicals were generated, namely according to the Fenton
reaction by reduction of H2O2 with
Fe2+. The resulting Fe3+ is reduced by
dithiothreitol back to Fe2+, starting a new cycle. EDTA is
necessary in order to prevent Fe2+ binding to DNA (27). A
prerequisite for obtaining a footprint which reflects the contact sites
between RNA polymerase and DNA is spatial independence of the hydroxyl
radical source and the probed DNA molecule (14, 27). This is achieved
if the hydroxyl radicals stem from molecules freely diffusing in
solution. An enhancement of the cleavage beyond that expected for free
DNA could indicate activation of sugars by interaction with the enzyme or by a distortion of DNA (e.g. due to bending). An
alternative explanation could be an increase of the local concentration
of hydroxyl radicals due to binding of the hydroxyl radical source, similar to what was reported for, e.g. OpCu-phenanthrolin
(29). In order to determine which of these possibilities is correct, other OH radicals generating systems, namely KOONO and
Fe2+, were applied and compared with the FeEDTA
footprints.
It has previously been reported that potassium
peroxonitrite (KOONO) produces hydroxyl radicals as freely diffusing
molecules (22, 30) and can thus be used as an alternative to FeEDTA. We
used KOONO in order to decide whether a component of the Fenton reaction is responsible for the observed hyper-reactivity. We subjected
the binding complex formed with and without Mg2+ to KOONO
treatment (Fig. 6, A, lane 5, and B,
lanes 3 and 4). The patterns obtained by using both
hydroxyl radical generating reagents is essentially the same with
exception of the hyper-sensitive spot. We conclude from this finding
that a component of the Fenton reaction, namely FeEDTA, acts as local
hydroxyl radical source.
In order to determine which part of the pattern can be attributed to hydroxyl radicals stemming from freely diffusing FeEDTA and which part to those stemming from bound FeEDTA, the Mg2+-free binding complex was subjected to FeEDTA treatment in the presence of glycerol. Glycerol is a hydroxyl radical scavenger which can absorb diffusing hydroxyl radicals (28). Lane 3 of Fig. 6A shows the pattern obtained. As expected, the typical RNA polymerase footprint is blurred, because the hydroxyl radicals generated in solution are captured by glycerol. On the other hand, the hyper-sensitive spot remains unchanged, as comparison with the glycerol free complex in Fig. 6A, lane 2, indicates. From this finding we conclude that the hyper-reactive spot generated by a hydroxyl radical source specifically bound to the binding complex is shielded against access by glycerol.
(ii) FeEDTA Competes with Mg2+ for a Binding Site in the Transcription Complex near Base PositionAs seen at Fig.
5, Mg2+ ions specifically inhibit the hyper-cleavage of the
template strand centered at base position 1, while the footprint
outside the hyper-sensitive part remains unchanged.
Fig. 7 shows the dependence of the hyper-reactivity on
the Mg2+ concentration in the range of 0-10
mM. In the absence of Mg2+ the cleavage
intensity exceeds that of free DNA by a factor of 10. The
hyper-reactivity decreases with increasing Mg2+
concentration, indicating displacement of FeEDTA by Mg2+.
But whether the displacement is competitive or non-competitive is not
clear from this curve. The cleavage intensity decreases to 50% at a
Mg2+ concentration of about 0.5 mM comparable
with the applied FeEDTA concentration, indicating that both
Mg2+ and FeEDTA have an affinity constant of the same order
of magnitude.
It appears that hyper-cleavage near the 1 position cannot be
suppressed fully even at the highest MgCl2 concentration.
This fact along with the finding that the KOONO-generated hydroxyl radical pattern shows no hyper-cleavage either in the absence or
presence of Mg2+ (Fig. 6B, lanes 3 and
4) suggests that residual cleavage in the presence of
Mg2+ is also caused by FeEDTA, indicating that FeEDTA can
bind but with reduced affinity even in excess of Mg2+. This
result is in line with a finding by Craig et al. (16) on the
Pr, who showed slightly enhanced cleavage near the
1 position in the presence of Mg2+.
It has previously been shown that
Fe2+ binds to the RNA polymerase active site by replacing
Mg2+ and produces hydroxyl radicals which cleave
specifically the peptide chains of RNA polymerase as well as the
template DNA of the promoter around position 1 (19). The authors
conclude that Fe2+ is bound by chelate formation with
aspartates of the NADFDGD sequence of the
subunit. This conclusion
is based on the finding that a mutant RNA polymerase (DDD mutant), in
which the aspartates are replaced, does not bind Fe2+.
Support for this view that FeEDTA binds at the same or a similar site
is provided by a comparison of the cleavage patterns obtained with
Fe2+, shown in lane 1 of Fig. 6A, and with
FeEDTA, shown in lane 2 of Fig. 6A. As expected,
Fe2+, in contrast to FeEDTA, produces no footprint of RNA
polymerase, since Fe2+ does not generate hydroxyl radicals
in solution. However, the intensive cleavage around base position
1
is visible with both reagents. Quantification of the patterns in Fig.
6C shows that the intensity distribution of the
hyper-reactive spot differs slightly for both reagents. The intensity
distribution is broader with FeEDTA, indicating that FeEDTA and
Fe2+ have slightly different binding sites.
Further support for the view that Fe2+ and FeEDTA bind to
RNA polymerase in different modes comes from experiments with the DDD
mutant which is incapable of binding catalytically active Mg2+ (19). The data in Fig. 8 show that
while the wild type RNA polymerase is able to bind both
Fe2+ and FeEDTA (lanes 3 and 4), the
DDD mutant binds only FeEDTA (lanes 6 and 7).
This suggests that the three Asp residues mutagenized in the DDD mutant
are not absolutely necessary for FeEDTA binding.
To map the
transcription bubble, we have applied three different probes which
modify unpaired thymidines, adenines, and cytidines. Until now there
has been no adequate procedure for probing unpaired guanines. We have
filled this gap by showing that dimethyl sulfate cleaves guanines
located within the transcription bubble more efficiently than those
located outside. The observation that dimethyl sulfate has a preference
toward guanines in single stranded regions is in line with previous
dimethyl sulfate methylation studies on the transcription bubble in the
ternary complex (4). Analysis of results obtained from methylation
studies on the binary complex using the Pr promoter by
Cowing et al. (15) also coincides with our view.
Using these different probes, the transcription bubble was located
between base position 12 to
1 in the Mg2+ free complex.
In the Mg2+ containing complex the transcription bubble is
enlarged further downstream to base position +2 encompassing the
starting point of RNA synthesis (Fig. 2).
The necessity for opening the +1 position is obvious, because the
sequence information required for initiation of RNA synthesis would
otherwise not be readable. Mg2+-dependent
enlargement of the transcription bubble including the +1 position seems
to be a requirement for open complex formation of all eubacterial
promoters. This enlargement was observed previously in the
Pr promoter, but only if the promoter DNA was
supercoiled (31), and also in a RNA polymerase promoter complex of a
thermophilic eubacteria, T. maritima (26). The
Mg2+ dependent enlargement was observed in this system at
the physiological temperature of this organism which is 80 °C.
Mapping of the transcription bubble was complicated due to the finding that there are several base pairs of which only one of both complementary bases was modified. Such a base pair was considered as open. But this finding also shows that other effects, such as shielding due to close interaction with the protein can prevent modification and can obscure the disruption of base pairs. Differentiation between the two effects was facilitated by using the surplus information obtained by probing the single strandedness of all four bases.
In order to judge the conclusiveness of results from single stranded probing studies, it is worth recalling the different modifications due to treatment by the single strand-specific reagents. Only dimethyl sulfate/Hz probes cytidines directly involved in Watson-Crick base pairing. All other single strand-specific reagents modify positions of the corresponding bases which do not directly participate in base pairing. The suggested single strand specificity of these reagents is a phenomenological finding for which there is no obvious explanation. Analysis of a DNA model suggests that for example, the C5-C6 bond of thymidines becomes accessible for OsO4 only if the stacking interaction is disrupted. Such rather drastic conformational change can be induced by, e.g. breakage of the hydrogen bonding between the base pairs.
Among the bases participating in formation of the transcription bubble most adenines are protected despite accessibility of the complementary thymidine, indicating close contact between protein and adenines. This effect is even more pronounced in the Mg2+ containing complex, suggesting that the adenines are the target sites for opening of the DNA strands.
Additional information about protein-DNA contacts are provided by
footprinting studies using FeEDTA-generated hydroxyl radicals. This
reagent cleaves the sugar moiety (28) of the bases. Comparison of the
results from footprinting studies and single strand-specific probing
studies show that the transcription bubble is located at the upstream
end of a DNA stretch which is fully protected. This region reaches from
base position 12 to +16 at the non-template strand and from base
position
13 to +14 at the template strand. The fully protected region
is interrupted by a window of accessibility at base positions
9,
10
in the non-template strand and by a window of enhanced cleavage around
position
1 in the template strand. We speculate that the contacts
with the sugar phosphate moiety hold the DNA in the proper position,
while the contacts with the base moiety, especially of adenines, are
required to turn the two strands against each other leading to base
pair disruption.
A striking difference between the FeEDTA footprint of
the Mg2+-free and the Mg2+ containing complex
is the hyper-sensitive spot in the template strand at position 1.
While Schickor et al. (14) suggested that the observed
effect reflects an enhanced accessibility of the DNA due to a
conformational change of the DNA, our results rule out this possibility
and suggest that the enhancement is due to hydroxyl radicals generated
by a FeEDTA molecule bound to polymerase and thus acting as a local
hydroxyl radical source. Analysis of the origin of the hyper-reactivity
was complicated by the fact that FeEDTA can act as a hydroxyl radical
source in solution which generates the footprinting pattern of RNA
polymerase and can as well act as bound hydroxyl radical source which
generates the hyper-sensitive spot. It was possible to differentiate
between the two effects by using glycerol as scavenger of
FeEDTA-generated hydroxyl radicals in solution (28) and using
peroxonitrite (KOONO) as an alternative hydroxyl radical source instead
of FeEDTA.
KOONO is assumed to produce hydroxyl radicals directly upon protonation
of the OONO anion as freely diffusing reagent. The
footprint with KOONO has the same appearance as that obtained with
FeEDTA, except for the hyper-sensitive spot. This observation supports
the view that the hyper-cleavage observed with FeEDTA is due to binding
of FeEDTA acting as local hydroxyl radical source. Glycerol has the
opposite effect. It suppresses the RNA polymerase footprint but leaves unchanged the hyper-sensitive spot, suggesting that hydroxyl radical generated by bound FeEDTA are not accessible for glycerol, probably due
to sterical hindrance.
It was previously shown using locally generated OpCu-hydroxyl radicals
that, provided there are no shielding effects, hydroxyl radicals have a
range of about 15 Å (32). Our data show that the bases ranging from
base position 5 to +3 are affected, which is in line with the
proposed range of locally generated hydroxyl radicals.
It was reported recently that Fe2+ can act as local hydroxyl radical source replacing Mg2+ (19). We rule out the possibility that FeEDTA dissociates and that enzyme-bound Fe2+ generates the hydroxyl radical, since the binding constant of the Fe2+-EDTA equilibrium is about 9 orders of magnitude higher than that of the Fe2+-RNA polymerase equilibrium.1 While replacement of Mg2+ by Fe2+ is feasible due to the same positive charge of the two reagents, it is less feasible for FeEDTA which is negatively charged. Despite this charge difference, the binding site of the two reagents at the polymerase promoter complex must be adjacent but is not identical, as indicated by the similarity of the hydroxyl radical cleavage patterns obtained by the two reagents.
Role of Mg2+ Ions at the Active SiteCrystallographic analysis of different template-dependent polymerases (33) indicates that two or three Mg2+ ions are required to form the active site for nucleic acid polymerization. These Mg2+ ions are bound by chelating with aspartates (or glutamates) belonging to a sequence motif which is conserved in all nucleic acid polymerases (34, 35). Comparison of the different polymerase structures known today shows that the distance geometry of the Mg2+ ions and the aspartate residues in the active site is the most conserved structural detail.
There are indications that the polymerization active site of E. coli RNA polymerase is assembled in a similar way as in the other
polymerases: kinetic studies using E. coli RNA polymerase showed that uptake of three Mg2+ ions is required for
formation of a transcription active complex (13); site-specific
hydroxyl radical probing by Fe2+ shows cleavages around the
suggested Mg2+ pocket (19); the subunit of E. coli RNA polymerase contains the preserved sequence motive with
three aspartates which is assumed to participate in formation of the
binding pocket of Mg2+ (19).
If the aspartates are replaced, the RNA polymerase (DDD mutant) is unable to synthesize RNA, but still retains promoter binding specificity and the capacity to form the Mg2+-dependent enlarged form of the transcription bubble (19). We conclude from these findings that the three Mg2+ ions participating in formation of the active site fulfill different functions. That Mg2+ ions which are coordinated by the aspartates facilitates the polymerization activity. The other Mg2+ ions facilitate enlargement of the transcription bubble. These conclusions derived from functional studies using wild type and mutant RNA polymerase are supported by our site-specific hydroxyl radical cleavage studies of the binding complex using Fe2+ and FeEDTA.
Using wild type RNA polymerase both probes generate similar patterns suggesting that they have binding sites which are adjacent but not identical. Both probes can be displaced by Mg2+ indicating that the sites are identical with, or close to, at least one of the putative Mg2+-binding sites in wild type RNA polymerase. But they differ with respect of their affinity to the polymerase promoter complexes formed with mutant enzyme (DDD), where Mg2+-chelating aspartates are replaced by alanines. While Fe2+ does not bind to the DDD mutant RNA polymerase (19), FeEDTA does. These findings support the view mentioned above, in that the two probes monitor different subsets of Mg2+ ions.
Temperature-dependent Change of the Size of the Transcription BubbleTemperature-dependent analysis
of thymidines shows that size and position of the transcription bubble
in the Mg2+ free complex is the same as that in the
Mg2+ containing complex at low temperature reaching from
base position 12 to
1. Increasing the temperature of the
Mg2+ containing complex leads to enlargement of the
transcription bubble downstream by 2 base pairs. The two parts of the
transcription bubble, namely the Mg2+-independent part
between base position
12 and
1 and the
Mg2+-dependent part encompassing base positions
+1 and +2, melt at different transition temperatures, the
Mg2+-independent part at T1/2 = 10-15 °C and the Mg2+-dependent part at a
temperature more than 10 °C higher. If one accepts that lowering the
temperature leads to freezing of transition state complexes, our
finding show that formation of the transcription active open complex is
preceded by formation of a complex which has the appearance of a
Mg2+ free complex. A similar suggestion was made previously
by Record for the supercoiled
Pr promoter (13, 31).
It is interesting to note that temperature course of the hyper-cleavage reaction in the FeEDTA footprint is the same as the modification reaction of T(+1) by KMnO4 having a transition temperature of 30 °C. However, the first effect is observed in the Mg2+ free complexes, while the second one in the Mg2+ containing complex. We suggest from this finding that the transition at 30 °C reflects a conformational change of the polymerase promoter complex which does not require Mg2+, but enhances the affinity for Mg2+. We suggest further that the bound Mg2+ facilitates then the apparent Mg2+ dependent effects, such as enlargement of the transcription bubble and enhancement of the contacts between bases of the transcription bubble and RNA polymerase.
We thank Anne Whelan and Peter Fringgs for valuable discussion during preparation of the manuscript.