(Received for publication, April 11, 1996, and in revised form, September 26, 1996)
From the Division of Cancer Genetics, Dana-Farber
Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School,
Boston, Massachusetts 02115
A novel human cystatin gene was identified in a differential display comparison aimed at the isolation of transcriptionally regulated genes involved in invasion and metastasis of breast cancer. Messenger RNAs from primary and metastatic tumor cells isolated from the same patient were compared. A partial cDNA was isolated that was expressed in the primary tumor cell line but not in the metastatic line. The full-length cDNA was cloned and sequenced, and the inferred amino acid sequence was found to encode a novel protein, which we named cystatin M, with 40% homology to human family 2 cystatins and similar overall structure. Cystatin M is expressed by normal mammary cells and a variety of human tissues.
The mature cystatin M protein was produced in Escherichia coli as a glutathione S-transferase fusion protein using the pGEX-2T expression system and purified by affinity chromatography. The cystatin M fusion protein displayed inhibitory activity against papain. Native cystatin M protein of approximately 14.5 kDa is secreted and was immunoprecipitated from supernatants of mammary cell cultures using affinity-purified antisera raised against recombinant cystatin M. An N-glycosylated form of cystatin M of 20-22 kDa was co-immunoprecipitated and accounted for about 30-40% of total cystatin M protein. Both forms of native cystatin M also occurred intracellularly. Consistent with the mRNA differential expression, no cystatin M protein was detected in metastatic mammary epithelial tumor cells. Loss of expression of cystatin M is likely associated with the progression of a primary tumor to a metastatic phenotype.
Metastasis of a primary tumor is a multistage process involving aberrant functions of the tumor cell including increased local proteolysis, degradation of extracellular matrix components, invasion, migration, adhesion to the vascular basement membrane, migration through the vasculature, and proliferation at distant sites (1, 2, 3, 4). Therefore, changes in the expression of multiple genes probably occur before tumor cells acquire the potential to metastasize. The identification of genes whose changes in expression determine the metastatic phenotype is essential in understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying metastasis and in the design of novel therapies to arrest progression of primary cancers.
In this study, we have applied differential display (5, 6) to follow changes in gene expression that arise during progression of a primary mammary cancer to the metastatic phenotype (7). Differential display is a PCR1-based method of differential expression cloning and offers the advantage of side-by-side comparisons of mRNAs from closely related cell populations displayed on sequencing gels as partial cDNAs. A novel cysteine proteinase inhibitor, cystatin M, was identified as being down-regulated in metastatic cells as compared with cells from the primary tumor.
Cystatins are endogenous inhibitors of mammalian lysosomal cysteine
proteinases, such as cathepsins B, L, H, and S, and the plant cysteine
proteinases papain, acinidin, and ficin. They function both
intracellularly and extracellularly (8, 9). All inhibitory cystatins
display structural and functional similarities and are members of a
single protein superfamily comprising three distinct families of
closely related proteins: stefins, cystatins, and kininogens (reviews
8-12). Cystatin M is most closely related to family 2 cystatins, which
consist of about 120 amino acid residues, and contain one or two
disulfide loops near their C-terminal domain. Cystatins are postulated
to control the activities of cysteine proteinases, which regulate
protein turnover, as well as the processing of proenzymes and
prohormones (8, 9, 10, 11, 12). Cystatins bind to their target peptidases very
tightly but reversibly, forming high affinity (Ki = 109 to 10
12 M) equimolar
complexes in competition with their substrates (13, 14).
The mammalian lysosomal cathepsins B, L, H, and S are inhibited to varying degrees by family 2 cystatins (15, 16). Cathepsins B and L have been implicated in invasion and metastasis of tumor cells (17, 18, 19). Increased cathepsin B and L activities have been reported in a variety of human and animal malignant tumors, which may reflect alterations in their expression, activation and processing, intracellular trafficking and delivery, as well as decreased regulation of these proteinases due to the reduced expression and activity of their endogenous inhibitors (17, 18, 19).
The isolation and characterization of cystatin M is described in this report. Our results suggest that loss of expression of this cysteine proteinase inhibitor in metastatic tumor cells probably contributes to increased proteolytic potential, a feature of the metastatic phenotype. An invasion/metastasis suppressor function of cystatin M along the metastatic cascade is proposed.
Normal human mammary epithelial cell strains (81N, 76N, and 70N) derived from reduction mammoplasties, as well as primary (21NT, 21PT) and metastatic (21MT-1, 21MT-2) tumor cell lines were established in this laboratory (7, 20). Metastatic tumor mammary epithelial cell lines MCF7, BT474, BT549, T47D, ZR-75-1, MDA-MB-157, MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-361, MDA-MB-435, and MDA-MB-436 were obtained from the American Tissue Culture Collection (ATCC, Rockville, MD). All cell cultures were routinely grown in DFCI-1 medium (20). Cultures were grown in P100 dishes and harvested at about 75% confluence for RNA isolation and near confluence for DNA isolation. Immortal mammary epithelial cells were obtained by transfection of 76N cells with a plasmid containing the human papilloma virus-16 E6 gene (21). Escherichia coli K12 bacteria strain XL-1 Blue was obtained from Stratagene (La Jolla, CA). Tissue culture medium components were purchased from Life Technologies, Inc. or Hyclone (Logan, UT).
Differential Display of mRNATotal cellular RNAs (50 µg) from exponentially growing cell cultures were treated with DNase
I in the presence of RNasin ribonuclease inhibitor, in order to remove
any residual DNA contamination as described elsewhere (22). Then, RNAs
were extracted with phenol/chloroform, precipitated with ethanol, and
redissolved in diethyl pyrocarbonate-treated water. The RNAs were
subsequently reverse-transcribed by using a 3-anchoring primer
T12MA (where M represents G, C, or
A). The resultant partial cDNAs were amplified by PCR in the
presence of 35S-dATP using T12MA and
OPA6 (GGTCCCTGAC), an arbitrary 10-mer primer, as the 5
-end primer
(Operon Technologies, Inc.) and compared side-by-side on a 6%
acrylamide/urea sequencing gel. These partial cDNA fragments
correspond to the 3
-end of the mRNAs (5). A differentially
displayed cDNA of ~0.3 kb (named 6A2 because it was amplified by
using the T12MA and OPA6 primers) was recovered from the dried gel,
purified by a Millipore Ultrafree mc unit, reamplified by PCR,
32P-labeled by the oligo-labeling method (23), and used as
a probe for hybridization of Northern blots.
The 6A2 partial cDNA obtained from DD was subcloned into the PCRII vector using the TA cloning system (Invitrogen); a clone containing an insert that hybridized to a 0.6-kb transcript was isolated and sequenced on both strands with T7 and SP6 primers. A cDNA library from 21PT cells constructed in Lambda Zap II (Stratagene, San Diego, CA) was screened using the cloned PCR product as a probe; several full-length cDNA clones were isolated. Their differential expression was confirmed by Northern hybridizations of the same RNA samples used for DD, as well as RNAs from a number of normal and tumor cell lines. Three distinct full-length cDNA clones were sequenced on both strands. Sequencing was performed using an ABI automated sequencer, Model 373A, in the Molecular Biology Core Facility of the DFCI. Oligonucleotides were synthesized at the Molecular Biology Core Facility of the DFCI and by Amitof Inc. (Cambridge, MA). The BLAST algorithm was used for nucleic acid sequence comparisons (24). Protein sequence comparisons were performed by GCG with final alignments by PILEUP and PRETTYPLOT (24).
Northern and Southern AnalysisTotal cellular RNA was purified by standard guanidinium isothiocyanate and cesium chloride centrifugation and analyzed as described (25). Genomic DNA was isolated and hybridized by standard methods (25). Hybridizations were performed in formamide at 37 °C overnight. The blots were washed at 65 °C for 1 h in 2 × SSC containing 0.1% SDS. The tissue blot (Human MTN Blot, Clontech, number 7760-1) was washed at 65 °C for 1 h in 0.5 × SSC containing 0.1% SDS. For a loading control, Northern blots were stripped and re-hybridized to 36B4, a gene encoding a ribosomal protein, whose expression is not affected by growth conditions or estrogen receptor expression (26). Densitometric scans of autoradiographs were obtained with an imaging densitometer (Bio-Rad GS-700) using the Molecular Analyst software.
Construction of Cystatin M Expression Vector pGEX-2T/Cystatin MThe open reading frame cDNA sequence encoding the putative
mature cystatin M (Leu22-Met149) was amplified
by PCR using a sense, 5(-GGAATTCTG CCACGAGATGCCCGGGC-)3
, and an
antisense, 5
(-CCCTCGAATTCTTATCAC ATCTGCAC-)3
, 26-mer oligonucleotide designed to create EcoRI overhangs. The
amplification included 2 initial cycles at low stringency (42 °C)
and 38 cycles at higher stringency (60 °C). The amplified product
was sequenced to ensure that it contained no mutations induced by PCR.
The PCR product was then restricted with EcoRI and ligated
to pGEX-2T vector (Pharmacia Biotech Inc.) (27), which was previously
linearized with EcoRI, resulting in the expression plasmid
pGEX2T/cystatin M.
The original vector (PGEX-2T) as well as the recombinant
plasmid (PGEX-2T/cystatin M) were transformed into E. coli
XL-1 Blue bacteria and propagated in Luria broth (LB) (25) in the
presence of 100 µg/ml ampicillin for selection of the cells
transformed with the pGEX-2T/cystatin M expression plasmid. The
expression of recombinant protein was induced in exponentially growing
bacteria (A550 = 0.8-1.0) with 0.2 mM
isopropyl-1-thio-b-D-galactopyranoside for
1.5 h at 37 °C with vigorous agitation. The bacteria were harvested by centrifugation, washed twice with MTPBS (150 mM NaCl, 16 mM Na2HPO4, 4 mM NaH2PO4, pH 7.4) and resuspended in lysis buffer, MTPBS containing 1 mM DTT, 1 mM
phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, and 2% Triton X-100. Cells were lysed
on ice by mild sonication, and the suspension was centrifuged at
14,500 × g for 15 min. All subsequent purification
steps were carried out at 4 °C. The fusion protein was purified from
the clear lysate on glutathione-agarose beads under nondenaturing
conditions, with an estimated yield of 3-5 mg per liter of bacterial
culture. The glutathione-agarose column was washed with MTPBS
containing 350 mM NaCl, and the fusion protein was eluted
with 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, containing 5 mM reduced glutathione. Purified rGST-cystatin M was dialyzed against MTPBS containing 10% glycerol, sterilized by filtration through 0.22-µm filters (Costar, Cambridge, MA), and stored at
20 °C.
The GST carrier was proteolytically cleaved from the fusion protein
with thrombin and removed along with any uncleaved fusion protein by
absorption on glutathione-agarose. Thrombin reaction was carried out at
room temperature in the presence of 150 mM NaCl, 2.1 mM CaCl2, 3.2 NIH thrombin units/ml, and 1 mg/ml fusion protein. The reaction was stopped with 0.1 mM
EGTA, and cleavage was monitored by SDS-PAGE. Cleaved protein was
dialyzed against MTPBS and stored at 20 °C. The purity of
rGST-cystatin M was assessed by staining with Coomassie Brilliant Blue
R-250 and Silver (Silver Stain Plus, Bio-Rad). The concentration of the
purified protein was determined by Bradford assay using
-globulin as
a standard. Glutathione-agarose resin and other chemicals were
purchased from Sigma, unless otherwise indicated. The
reagents for SDS-PAGE and the Bradford assay were purchased from
Bio-Rad.
The protein (0.2 mg/ml) was denatured and reduced in 25 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, containing 1 mM EDTA, 15 mM dithiothreitol, and 8 M urea, at 37 °C for 30 min. Then the protein was alkylated with 50 mM iodoacetamide (Sigma) at room temperature for 20 min. Electrophoresis of the modified protein was carried out in nonreducing gels containing 7.5% acrylamide and 8 M urea in 0.375 M Tris, pH 8.5.
Polyclonal AntibodiesThe purified fusion protein was used to immunize New Zealand White rabbits. Antiserum raised against the fusion protein and cystatin M cleaved from the fusion protein by thrombin was affinity-purified on a rGST and, subsequently, on an rGST-cystatin M-agarose column (28). The purified antibody was dialyzed against phosphate-buffered saline containing 50% glycerol, adjusted to 0.02% NaN3, and stored at 4 °C. The anti-cystatin M antibody specifically recognized cystatin M recombinant and native protein and did not cross-react with either cystatin C, stefin A, or stefin B on Western blots containing 10 µg of recombinant proteins.
SDS-PAGE, Western Blotting, and ImmunoprecipitationThe recombinant protein and biological samples were denatured in SDS-PAGE sample buffer at 90 °C for 5 min and analyzed on 15% polyacrylamide gels. For immunoblot detection, the proteins were transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride (0.2 micron, Bio-Rad) and reacted with polyclonal antiserum (1:500) and preimmune serum (1:500). Anti-rabbit IgG horseradish peroxidase-linked whole antibody was used as secondary antibody (1:2000), and immunoreactive proteins were detected with the enhanced chemiluminescence system (Amersham Corp.). Transfer and quantitation of proteins were assessed by staining with 0.1% w/v amido black in 25% isopropyl alcohol and 10% acetic acid. Destaining solution contained 50% methanol and 7.5% acetic acid in H2O.
For the preparation of whole cell lysates, cells were washed with phosphate-buffered saline and resuspended (8-10 × 106 cells/ml) in lysis buffer (50 mM Tris, pH 8.0, containing 120 mM NaCl, 0.5% Nonidet P-40, 5 µg/ml aprotinin, 50 µg/ml phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 5 µg/ml leupeptin, 0.2 mM sodium orthovanadate, and 100 mM NaF). Lysed cells were rocked for 30 min and centrifuged at 14,500 × g for 15 min, and the supernatants were assayed immediately. All steps were performed at 4 °C.
For immunoprecipitation, 3 ml of cell culture supernatant or 250 µl of fresh whole cell lysate were diluted 1:1 with 20 mM Tris, pH 8.0, containing 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, and 0.5% Nonidet P-40; preimmune serum or affinity-purified antiserum were added, respectively, to each sample at a 1:500 dilution, and the samples were incubated with mild agitation for 1 h. The immunoprecipitated proteins were then bound to Protein A-Sepharose beads for 30 min, solubilized in SDS-PAGE sample buffer, denatured at 90 °C for 5 min, and analyzed by SDS-PAGE. Protease inhibitors were added to the supernatants immediately after collection to prevent proteolytic degradation of cystatin M.
Deglycosylation of Native Cystatin MNative cystatin M protein was precipitated from 3 ml of 21 PT cell culture supernatant with ammonium sulfate, which was then removed by dialysis against 20 mM Na2HPO4, pH 7.2. The protein was deglycosylated in a 50-µl reaction by incubation at 37 °C for 24 h in 20 mM Na2HPO4, pH 7.2, containing 10 mM NaN3, 50 mM EDTA, and 0.5% v/v Nonidet P-40, and 0.25 units of N-glycosidase F (Boehringer Mannheim) (29). Deglycosylation of cystatin M did not require previous denaturation of the protein.
Analysis of Cystatin M Inhibitory Activity by Papain AssaysPapain activity was assayed in 125 mM phosphate buffer, pH 6.8, containing 4 mM DTT, 1 mM EDTA, and 0.05% Brij-35 using the fluorigenic synthetic substrate Z-Phe-Arg-NHMec in both continuous rate and stopped flow assays. Papain solutions were preincubated with increasing amounts of rGST-cystatin M, in a total volume of 50 µl for 5 min, and then added to 2-ml assay buffer containing 2.5-150 µM substrate. Final concentration of papain was 5-100 pM or 10 nM and of rGST-cystatin M 0-5 nM or 0-1 µM. The reaction mixture was stirred during the assay. The initial reaction rates were monitored by the increase in the intensity of relative fluorescence with a fluorimeter (model SFM25, Kontron Instruments). The excitation and emission wavelengths were 380 and 440 nm, respectively. The amount of 7-amino-4-methylcoumarin liberated from the synthetic substrate was determined from a standard curve. All steps were carried out at room temperature. The self-hydrolysis of the substrate was negligible for the applied reaction times. As a negative control, GST and bovine serum albumin were tested under the same assay conditions. Papain (EC 3.4.22.2) from papaya latex was purchased from Boehringer Mannheim. Z-Phe-Arg-NHMec and 7-amino-4-methylcoumarin were purchased from Sigma.
Messenger RNAs from a mammary epithelial primary
tumor cell line, 21PT, and from a metastatic cell line, 21MT-1, derived
from the same patient (7) were compared by DD. Each lane contained 50-100 bands most of which were similar in size and intensity between
the two cell populations. A small number of bands (~1-2%) appeared
in only one of the two lanes. A cDNA of about 0.3 kb was detected,
which was present in 21PT primary, but absent in 21MT-1 metastatic
cells (Fig. 1, lanes A, P, and M,
respectively). This partial PCR product was used as a probe to
hybridize Northern blots containing the same RNAs used for DD. A
differentially expressed transcript of 0.6 kb was detected. The partial
cDNA obtained from DD was cloned into a plasmid vector; Northern
hybridizations were repeated with the cloned cDNA as a probe and
sequenced on both strands. Sequence comparison with the Genbank data
base using the BLAST program (24) revealed regions of homology to
cystatins.
Cloning and Sequencing of a Full-length cDNA Clone
A 21PT
Zap cDNA library was screened with the cloned partial cDNA
obtained from DD. Several positive clones were selected, hybridized to
total RNAs from normal and tumor cell lines, and all displayed
confirmatory differential expression on Northern blots as on the DD
gel. Three longest clones were sequenced on both strands and contained
an ATG initiation codon at the 5
-region (Fig. 2). The
priming site of the 5
-arbitrary primer, OPA6, appears at nucleotides
282-292 of the cDNA sequence and contains three mismatches. The
original DD product of 299 base pairs corresponds to nucleotides
229-598.
Primary Structure Analysis of Cystatin M and Alignments with Other Cystatins
Assuming that translation starts at the first ATG codon
which lies in a Kozak consensus sequence, the full-length cystatin M
cDNA contains an open reading frame of 447 nucleotides (24-470), a
short 5-untranslated sequence (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23), and a 3
-untranslated sequence
of 128 nucleotides, with a polyadenylation signal AATAAA (552-557) and
a poly(A) tail (Fig. 2). This cDNA sequence predicts a 149-residue
initial translation product, which contains a 21-residue signal
sequence and the 128-residue mature cystatin M, with four cysteine
residues toward its C-terminal domain (Fig. 2). The initiator ATG
indicated in Fig. 2 is probably the major translation start site, since
the translated sequence aligns optimally with other human cystatins.
Internal ATGs do not lie within Kozak consensus sequences.
Fig. 3 depicts a comparison of the primary sequence for
cystatin M preprotein with those of other family 2 human cystatins (30, 31, 32, 33); chicken cystatin (34) was included in this alignment because
its structure and function have been studied extensively. Cystatin M,
like other members of the family, shares the three conserved domains,
including a conserved glycine at the active site near the N terminus,
Gly36 of cystatin M preprotein (10) (Gly11 of
mature cystatin C and Gly9 of chicken cystatin). Cystatin M
also contains two motifs for cysteine proteinase inhibitory activity,
the "Gln-X-Val-X-Gly" motif in the middle of
the molecule, Gln80-Leu-Val-Ala-Gly84 in
cystatin M preprotein (Gln-Ile-Val-Ala-Gly in cystatin C and Gln-Leu-Val-Ser-Gly in chicken cystatin), as well as the
Val133-Pro-Trp135 motif near the C-terminal
end, conserved in all inhibitory cystatins (Fig. 3). The overall
homology between cystatin M and other cystatins ranges from 30 to 40%
for conserved amino acid residues and 25 to 33% for identical amino
acids. The homology at the nucleotide level is 40-45% to human
cystatins and 42% to chicken cystatin.
Cystatin M shows the closest homology to cystatin C. The two proteins share 33% identical and 38% conserved amino acid residues. The homology between cystatins from different species including chicken, mouse, rat, and puff adder is 39-48% for conserved amino acid residues. All previously characterized cystatins contain about 120 amino acid residues and two intrachain disulfide bridges. Cystatin M indeed contains four cysteine residues near the C-terminal domain, Cys98, Cys113, Cys126, and Cys146. Since cystatin M displays the characteristic structural features of family 2 cystatins, it constitutes a new member of this family. Following the internationally accepted nomenclature (35), this novel cystatin was designated cystatin M, because it was cloned from mammary epithelial cells.
Hopp and Woods (36) hydrophilicity plot (not shown) revealed the presence of a hydrophobic sequence consisting of 20 residues containing only one charged amino acid in the N-terminal region (Arg3) and a Cys at position 18. This sequence probably functions as a secretory signal peptide, and its presence suggests that cystatin M is synthesized as a precursor protein and is secreted (37). The predicted molecular mass for the precursor protein is 16.5 kDa and approximately 14.3 kDa for the putative mature protein, if the proteins do not have post-translational modifications. The estimated isoelectric point is 8.06 for the preprotein and 7.8 for the mature protein.
Northern AnalysisNorthern blots containing total RNA from
exponentially growing normal and tumor mammary epithelial cell lines
were hybridized against a full-length cystatin M cDNA (Fig.
4). The cystatin M mRNA of 0.6 kb was detected in
all three normal mammary cell strains tested, 76N, 70N (Fig. 4), and
81N (not shown), but was absent in many metastatic mammary tumor cell
lines including estrogen receptor (+) and () lines, BT549, MCF7,
T47D, ZR-75-1, BT474, MDA-MB-361 (Fig. 4), and 21MT-1, MDA-MB-157,
MDA-MB-435, MDA-MB-436, while trace transcript levels were detected in
MDA-MB-231 (not shown). Cystatin M mRNA was not expressed by 56NF
(normal human fibroblasts), FS3 human foreskin fibroblasts (not shown),
or by normal human leukocytes (Fig. 4). Although all normal human
mammary epithelial cell strains expressed a clearly detectable cystatin M transcript, its abundance was lower than in the overexpressing 21PT,
21NT, and 21MT-2 tumor cell lines. However, the highly invasive 21MT-1
cell line from the same tumor progression series did not express the
cystatin M transcript. The cystatin M mRNA levels in human
papilloma virus-immortalized normal 76N cells (21) were comparable with
the levels of its expression in the corresponding normal cells (not
shown).
Southern Analysis
A single major band hybridizing with the
cystatin M full-length cDNA was detected in DNAs from a series of
normal and tumor mammary epithelial cell lines cleaved with
HindIII (~15.0 kb) (Fig. 5,
upper) or EcoRI (~7.0 kb) (Fig. 5,
lower). Similarly, NcoI (~3.1 and 1.1 kb) and
PVuII (~2.9 and 2.8 kb) digests showed uniform patterns
(not shown). Based on these results, the cystatin M gene does not
appear grossly rearranged or deleted in tumor cell lines.
Tissue Distribution of Cystatin M
The expression of cystatin
M was studied in normal human tissues (Fig. 6).
Relatively high levels of cystatin M mRNA were present in placenta,
lung, skeletal muscle, kidney, and pancreas. Transcripts larger in size
were detected in skeletal muscle (1.0 kb) and kidney (0.85 kb) (Fig.
6). A second transcript of slightly larger size was detectable in all
the above tissues. A low abundance message was seen in heart tissue.
Whether cystatin M transcript is present in brain tissue is not
conclusive from this blot, since this lane was significantly
underloaded. Trace amounts of a larger transcript of 1.8 kb can be
seen, but it is not clear whether this transcript originates from
cystatin M or from a closely related gene. Cross-hybridization of
cystatin M with cystatin C is unlikely, since the corresponding
cDNAs displayed relatively low homology, and nucleotide sequence
alignments showed that no extended contiguous stretches of homologous
segments are present (not shown). Similarly to cystatin C, which is
widely distributed in tissues and biological fluids (38, 39), cystatin
M is expressed in many tissues. The secretory cystatins S, SN, and SA
have been reported in saliva, seminal plasma, and tears (32, 33),
whereas cystatin D displays a tissue-restricted expression to parotid
gland (31).
Cystatin M Is Down-regulated in Human Cancers
The expression of cystatin M was tested in other human cancers. No cystatin M message was detected in the following cell lines: PC-3 prostate adenocarcinoma, A549 and Calu-1 lung carcinomas, MIA Pa-CA-2 pancreatic carcinoma, A2058, G-361 and SKME30 malignant melanomas, T24 bladder transitional cell carcinoma, HuTu80 duodenal adenocarcinoma, OAT4 small cell lung carcinoma, SCC-25 tongue squamous cell carcinoma, whereas a relatively low message was detected in WiDr and SW480 colon adenocarcinomas (not shown). These results indicate that cystatin M might be down-regulated in other epithelial cancers, although this speculation should be confirmed by studies employing matched normal and tumor cells.
Isolation and Characterization of Recombinant Cystatin MThe cDNA encoding the mature cystatin M protein was
amplified and expressed in E. coli as a GST-cystatin M
fusion protein (27). Single-stranded cDNA from the full-length
clone was PCR-amplified using a pair of gene-specific synthetic
oligonucleotides corresponding to sequences on the sense strand
upstream to the ATG start site and to the antisense strand downstream
to the stop codon. The amplified region of the cDNA sequence does
not contain the hydrophobic signal peptide, and Leu22 is
its N-terminal amino acid. A single PCR product of the anticipated size
was subcloned into the PGEX-2T expression vector. The resulting plasmid
contained the coding sequence for the putative mature cystatin M in
frame with the sequence coding for a thrombin site, at the C-terminal
of the GST sequence. The fusion protein was purified by affinity
chromatography and was eluted as a single band of 40.5 kDa (Fig.
7A, lane 4). This band was not present in
control extracts, which contained only the rGST protein of 26 kDa (Fig.
7A, lane 2).
The rGST carrier was completely cleaved from the purified fusion protein by proteolytic digestion at the thrombin site (Fig. 7A, lanes 5-8). Recombinant cystatin M protein was further purified by absorption of rGST and any traces of uncleaved rGST-cystatin M on immobilized glutathione and eluted as a single band with a molecular mass of ~14.5 kDa (not shown). Cleaved cystatin M showed a tendency to aggregate resulting in a low yield purification.
The possibility that a contaminating bacterial protease could be co-purified with the cystatin M fusion protein was examined by overloading the protein preparation on nonreducing substrate gels (zymograms) containing either 0.2% casein or 0.1% gelatin, in parallel with purified papain and trypsin as positive controls. No protease activity was detected for the cystatin M protein preparation (not shown).
The fusion protein migrated mainly as a single band, and only 1-2% of the protein appeared as a dimer on a nonreducing, nondenaturing acrylamide gel (not shown). In order to determine whether recombinant cystatin M contained the predicted disulfide bonds, the protein was completely unfolded in 8 M urea and reduced with excess DTT, and the reduced thiols were carboxymethylated with iodoacetamide. The electrophoretic mobility of the untreated protein, in nonreducing urea/acrylamide gels at pH 8.5, was compared with the mobility of the modified protein (Fig. 7B). The slower migration of the reduced protein (Fig. 7B, lanes 2-3) indicates the presence in the untreated protein of intramolecular disulfides, which restrict its flexibility. The slowing in migration was more pronounced when the protein was alkylated with the neutral iodoacetamide, which blocked the negative charges on the reduced thiols (Fig. 7B, lane 4). The reduced-alkylated protein should rather be compared with the control, since it carries the same net charge. The band shift was specifically due to the modification of the cysteine residues involved in disulfide bonds and not to the modification of other residues since, when the protein was alkylated without being previously reduced, it migrated like the untreated control (Fig. 7B, lane 1). These results show that disulfide bridges have formed in the recombinant protein. The fact that the recombinant protein displays inhibitory activity against cysteine proteinases (see below) establishes that the protein is properly folded and that at least one disulfide bond is present. A previous study with chicken cystatin has shown that only one disulfide bond (proximal to the C terminus) is enough for maintaining the conformation of the inhibitor required for binding of target proteinases, and absence of it completely destroys the inhibitory activity (40).
Detection of Cystatin M in VivoNative cystatin M protein
secreted into 21PT cell culture supernatants was immunoprecipitated
using an affinity-purified antibody against cystatin M fusion protein
and was detected by Western blotting. An immunoreactive protein of
approximately 14.5 kDa was detected (Fig. 8A, lane
2) consistent with the predicted size for the cystatin M gene
product. This result suggests that the initiation ATG codon shown in
Fig. 2 is the translation start codon for cystatin M in
vivo. Cystatin M was not present in MDA435 (Fig. 8A, lane
4), as expected from the Northern expression pattern. A second
immunoreactive protein of 20-22 kDa was co-precipitated, which
represents a glycosylated form of cystatin M, since it was completely
abolished by treatment with N-glycosidase F (Fig. 8B, lane 2). The 14.5-kDa band co-migrated with cystatin M cleaved from the fusion protein (Fig. 8B, lane 3); a small
difference in migration indicates that Leu22 might not be
the N-terminal residue of the secreted protein or that in
vivo cystatin M might be proteolytically cleaved at the N
terminus. The 40-kDa band (Fig. 8B, lane 3) is due to
uncleaved fusion protein. A potential site for N-linked
glycosylation of cystatin M is Asn137, near the C terminus
and in close proximity to the conserved Val133-Pro-Trp135 motif. Asn137 is
located between the cysteine residues that form the disulfide bridge,
which is important in maintaining the conformation required for
inhibitory activity of cystatins (40). The increase in size of
glycosylated cystatin M by 6 kDa could account for two carbohydrate moieties, although presence of charged sugars like sialic acid would
change the net charge of the protein and thus modify its electrophoretic mobility. Approximately 30-40% of the total cystatin M protein was estimated to occur in the glycosylated form. Both forms
of cystatin M were present in 21PT whole cell lysates (not shown).
However, no cystatin M was detected in lysates from MDA435, MDA157, and
BT549 metastatic tumor cell lines nor in the corresponding supernatants
(not shown), as expected because these cells do not express a
transcript for cystatin M. The amounts of cystatin M protein secreted
by 70N cells are very low, whereas no intracellular protein was
detected (not shown). This result is in accordance with the low
abundancy of cystatin M transcript in 76N and 70N normal cells (Fig. 4,
lanes 1-2).
Inhibitory Activity of Cystatin M
The inhibitory profile of
cystatin M fusion protein against papain was studied in continuous rate
in vitro assays by incubation of papain with increasing
concentrations of the inhibitor and assessment of the residual activity
assayed in the presence of the fluorogenic substrate Z-Phe-Arg-NHMec.
Papain activity was almost completely inhibited in the presence of 2 nM of the inhibitor (Fig. 9). Papain
activity in these assays was completely inhibited in the presence of
E-64
(trans-epoxysuccinyl-L-leucylamido(4-guanidino)-butane), a specific inhibitor of cysteine proteinase activity. Similar results
were obtained by stopped-flow papain assays. The fusion protein had no
inhibitory activity against trypsin. Neither rGST nor bovine serum
albumin proteins had any effect on papain activity when added at
concentrations similar to or much higher than the inhibitory
concentrations of rGST-cystatin M. Cleaved cystatin M also displayed
inhibitory activity against papain (not shown), but its concentration
could not be determined accurately, because cleaved cystatin M was
partially aggregated under the purification conditions applied. These
results suggest that native cystatin M is an active cysteine proteinase
inhibitor.
The differential display method was applied to the isolation of transcriptionally regulated genes involved in metastasis of a primary mammary tumor. The isolation of a novel gene likely associated with cancer invasion/metastasis is described in this report. The gene encodes cystatin M, a new member of human family 2 cystatins, expressed by normal and 21PT primary breast tumor cells but absent in metastatic cells. Cystatin M mRNA is abundantly present in a variety of normal human tissues. Cystatin M protein contains all the functional motifs conserved among thiol proteinase inhibitors, which suggests that cystatin M is an active inhibitor and could play a role in a variety of cellular functions (8, 9, 10, 11, 12). Indeed, recombinant GST-cystatin M fusion protein efficiently inhibited papain in in vitro assays.
A unique feature of cystatin M is that 30-40% of the native protein is glycosylated, whereas all other known human family 2 cystatins are not glycosylated. Whether the carbohydrate moiety modifies the inhibitory activity and specificity or the subcellular localization of cystatin M requires further investigation. If the carbohydrate moiety affects the conformation and inhibitory activity of cystatin M, the recombinant protein might not display optimal inhibitory activity, since it is not glycosylated. However, the fact that the non-glycosylated recombinant protein efficiently inhibited papain indicates that the sugar is not indispensable for the inhibitory activity, consistent with the inhibitory activity being determined in an additive manner by independent affinity contributions from three different domains of the cystatin proteins.
Structural Similarities and Differencies Between Cystatin M and Other Family 2 CystatinsCystatin M contains the three structural motifs associated with cysteine proteinase inhibitory activity. A structural element unique to cystatin M is a five-residue insertion, Arg102 to Asp106, which is located between the cysteine residues forming the first interchain disulfide bridge and is absent in all other cystatins (41). Data from x-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy of phosphorylated and unphosphorylated chicken cystatin (42, 43) revealed that the corresponding segment comprising residues Cys71 to Met89 is a structurally variable region containing the disulfide bridge (Cys71 to Cys81) and the phosphorylation site Ser80. The presence of this insertion in an unstructured region is not likely to cause significant changes in conformation, like phosphorylation of Ser80 had no significant effect on the structure of chicken cystatin (42). In addition, based on the secondary structure described for chicken cystatin (42), this part of the molecule lies on the opposite site to the conserved hairpin loop segments, which interact with the cysteine proteinase, and most likely is not important for the inhibitory activity of cystatin M, although it could possibly play a role in targeting of the protein.
In mammalian cells cystatin M may target any of the lysosomal cathepsins B, L, H, and S or an unidentified cysteine proteinase with papain-like activity. Unlike serine proteases (44), cystatins do not bind covalently to target proteinases but rather block their active site (45) and display a broad specificity. The importance of the binding segments for this interaction varies with the target cysteine proteinase due to structural differences in the active-site region of the proteinase (15, 16). In general, the N-terminal segment is essential for the tight-binding inhibitory properties of cystatins (13, 46, 47) and contains an evolutionarily conserved Gly residue, which confers flexibility to the N-terminal segment, a prerequisite for optimal enzyme binding. Interactions between side chains of the residues Val10, Leu9, and Arg8, preceding the conserved Gly11, also contribute to tight binding (45, 48).
The mechanism of interaction of cystatin M with cysteine proteinases is likely to be similar to the mechanism described for other family 2 cystatins. However, the biological specificity of cystatin M for lysosomal cathepsins remains to be determined. Two of the three residues preceding the conserved Gly in cystatin M are identical with residues at corresponding positions in cystatin C, except that in cystatin M a Met appears at the position of Leu9 which confers selectivity in cystatin C (16).
Role of Cystatin MCystatin M mRNA and protein are absent in metastatic as well as in the BT474 primary breast tumor cell lines. In the 21PT primary tumor cells, however, cystatin M is expressed at levels higher than in 76N and 70N normal cells grown under the same conditions. In recent unpublished studies, we2 have found that cystatin M is highly expressed in normal luminal epithelial cells, which line the ducts, produce milk, and give rise to cancer cells but at low levels in myoepithelial cells. From other evidence, it is likely that cultured normal mammary epithelial cells (e.g.. 76N and 70N) resemble myoepithelial more than luminal cells, which may account for the low cystatin M expression found in these cells.
The cystatin M gene may be regulated at the level of transcription,
possibly via the retinoic acid -receptor/retinoic acid pathway. In
recent experiments, the expression of cystatin M mRNA was induced
by retinoic acid in metastatic mammary epithelial tumor cell lines
transfected with the retinoic acid
-receptor.3 The mechanism of
down-regulation of cystatin M in tumor cells will require further
investigation, including promoter analysis.
Loss of expression of cystatin M is associated with the progression of a primary tumor to a metastatic phenotype, suggesting a putative metastasis suppressor function of the protein. The molecular basis of this function is likely to be the inhibition of cathepsin B and/or L activities. Indeed, cystatin M possesses strong inhibitory activity against both lysosomal cathepsins B and L.4 Loss of expression of cystatin M in metastasizing tumor cells could, at least partially, underlie their aberrant proteolytic function (3). Increased proteolytic potential of metastatic cells results from the combined aberrant regulation of proteolytic enzymes and their endogenous inhibitors (2, 3, 17, 18), involving aberrant expression, processing, stability, activity, intracellular trafficking, and localization of cathepsins B and L (17, 18, 49). Lysosomal cathepsins B and L normally act only intracellularly but, when overexpressed in tumor cells, are secreted or associated with the plasma membrane, where they probably act cooperatively in increasing local proteolysis and directly degrading components of the extracellular matrix and basement membrane (17, 18). The cystatin M protein is mainly secreted and could act to inhibit the extracellular or near-surface activities of cathepsins B and L in malignant cells and block invasion and metastasis to distant sites. Cystatin M also occurs intracellularly at low levels, as shown by steady state and pulse-chase metabolic labeling of 21PT cells.5
Endogenous inhibitors of cathepsins constitute the ultimate level of regulation of the overall cellular cysteine proteinase activity. Decreased cysteine proteinase inhibitory activity in tumor cells contributes to malignant progression (17, 18) and results from decreased protein levels, as well as expression of defective and less active protein forms of cystatin inhibitors (50, 51). Stefin A has been proposed to be a tumor suppressor because its expression and activity correlates reversibly with malignant tumor progression (49, 50, 51). However, the hypothesis that cysteine proteinase inhibitors are tumor suppressors has been questioned (12). Among known cystatins, cystatin M might be most closely associated with tumor suppression. Our results shed light on the possible roles of cystatins in cancer and indicate that down-regulation of cystatin M during growth of the primary tumor may contribute to aberrant proteolysis in metastasizing tumor cells.
The nucleotide sequence(s) reported in this paper has been submitted to the GenBankTM/EMBL Data Bank with accession number(s) U62800[GenBank].
We thank Dr. Bonnie Sloane for critical reading of the manuscript, Tom Graf for assistance with sequence analysis, and Drs. Othon Iliopoulos and Robert Liddington for critical suggestions.