(Received for publication, September 16, 1996, and in revised form, February 10, 1997)
From the Martin-Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Institute of
Biotechnology, Kurt-Mothes-Strasse 3, D-06120 Halle,
Germany, Biocomputing, EMBL, Meyerhofstrasse 1, D-69117 Heidelberg, Germany, the § BIOSON
Research Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG
Groningen, The Netherlands, the ¶ Department of
Genetics, Center for Biological Sciences, University of Groningen,
Kerklaan 30, 9751 NN Haren, The Netherlands, and the
Laboratory of Microbial Gene Technology, Agricultural
University of Norway, P.O. Box 5051, 1432 As, Norway
The thermal inactivation of broad specificity proteases such as thermolysin and subtilisin is initiated by partial unfolding processes that render the enzyme susceptible to autolysis. Previous studies have revealed that a surface-located region in the N-terminal domain of the thermolysin-like protease produced by Bacillus stearothermophilus is crucial for thermal stability. In this region a disulfide bridge between residues 8 and 60 was designed by molecular modelling, and the corresponding single and double cysteine mutants were constructed. The disulfide bridge was spontaneously formed in vivo and resulted in a drastic stabilization of the enzyme. This stabilization presents one of the very few examples of successful stabilization of a broad specificity protease by a designed disulfide bond. We propose that the success of the present stabilization strategy is the result of the localization and mutation of an area of the molecule involved in the partial unfolding processes that determine thermal stability.
Several members of the bacterial genus Bacillus are known to produce extracellular neutral proteases (1-6) that resemble thermolysin, the extremely stable protease from Bacillus thermoproteolyticus. These so-called thermolysin-like proteases (TLPs)1 consist of 300-319 residues and share similar structural and functional characteristics. The three-dimensional structures of thermolysin (7, 8) and the TLP produced by Bacillus cereus (9, 10) have been solved by x-ray crystallography. On the basis of these structures, reasonably accurate models of other TLPs have been built (11). Naturally occurring TLPs exhibit large differences in thermal stability (11) and the structural features causing these differences have been the subject of several site-directed mutagenesis studies (11, 12).
At elevated temperatures TLPs as well as subtilisins are irreversibly
inactivated as a result of autolysis (13-15). Because of the broad
specificity of TLPs (16), conformational features rather than sequence
characteristics determine the sites of autolytic attack (17), and it
has been shown that the rate of thermal inactivation is determined by
the rate of local unfolding processes that render the protease
susceptible to autolysis (11-13, 15, 18, 19). Previous studies on
autolysis of broad specificity proteases (13, 15, 17, 20) together with
observations concerning the structural changes during protein unfolding
(21, 22) suggest that the local unfolding processes that lead to autolysis involve solvent-exposed regions (17, 19, 20). Accordingly, it
has recently been shown that the difference in stability between TLP of
Bacillus stearothermophilus (TLP-ste) and the more stable
thermolysin is determined mainly by amino acid differences at the
surface (12). Furthermore, it turned out that the important mutations
were clustered in a limited part of the N-terminal domain (especially
residues 56-69) of the protein, illustrating the localized nature of
the stability-determining unfolding processes (11, 12). One mutant that
stabilized TLP-ste rather strongly was T63F (23) (see Fig.
1A). Based on these observations we decided to try to
stabilize TLP-ste by introducing a disulfide bond in this critical area
(preferably close to position 63), the rationale being that, in
principle, a disulfide bond can reduce local mobility and unfolding
more than any other type of mutation.
Disulfide bonds can make considerable contributions to the stability of
proteins (24-26), an effect mainly attributed to the decrease of
conformational chain entropy of the denatured protein (26-29). Many
attempts have been made to increase protein stability by introduction
of novel disulfide bonds (24, 27, 30-39). Some studies turned out to
be successful (35-37, 39), whereas others did not give the expected
results (30, 31, 34, 38). Disappointing results have been mainly
attributed to side effects of the individual Xaa Cys mutations (31,
34, 35, 38) and/or to the introduction of strain resulting from
suboptimal geometry of the disulfide bridge (30, 32).
In the case of industrially important broad specificity proteases such as subtilisin (31, 33, 34) and TLPs (38), most attempts to stabilize these enzymes by the introduction of disulfide bridges have been unsuccessful. Only for one engineered disulfide bridge in subtilisin E has a considerable increase in thermal stability been reported (36). However, this disulfide bridge was not designed de novo but was designed on the basis of a disulfide bridge encountered in a naturally occurring, more thermostable subtilisin variant.
In the present study we show how TLP-ste can be stabilized dramatically by introducing a de novo designed disulfide bridge. Furthermore, we provide an explanation for the lack of success in earlier attempts to stabilize broad specificity proteases by engineered disulfide bridges.
1,4-Dithio-DL-threitol (DTT) and
N-(3-[2-furyl]acryloyl)-Gly-Leu amide were purchased from
Sigma-Aldrich Chemie GmbH (Deisenhofen, Germany), and urea was from ICN
Biomedicals GmbH (Eschwege, Germany). 5,5-Dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoate)
was from SERVA Feinbiochemica GmbH (Heidelberg, Germany). All other
chemicals used were of the highest quality commercially available.
A three-dimensional model of TLP-ste was built exploiting the sequence homology with thermolysin (7, 8) as described previously (11). Most model building and structural studies were done using the program WHAT IF (40). Residues are numbered throughout this paper according to the sequence of thermolysin (1).
Sites for insertion of disulfide bridges were selected using the
program SS-BOND (41) as described previously (38). This program uses
the backbone coordinates from the three-dimensional model to select
residue pairs on the basis of the calculated
C-C
distances. Subsequently,
S
positions with ideal or nearly ideal geometries were
generated for the selected pairs. An energy minimization procedure was
used to select acceptable conformations. Acceptable residue pairs that
were located in the stability limiting region in the N-terminal domain
were visually inspected using the thermolysin crystal structure and the
TLP-ste model. To minimize the risk of modelling errors, the Xaa
Cys mutations were chosen only in regions where thermolysin and TLP-ste
are highly similar. The most promising candidate appeared to be
G8C/N60C. This cysteine pair could be modelled with close to ideal
geometry and is located close to the aforementioned position 63. The
two cysteines, as well as the individual single mutations, were
introduced in a cysteine-free variant of TLP-ste (C288L-TLP-ste, called
wild type throughout this study) whose stability is nearly identical to that of unmutated TLP-ste (42).
Plasmid pGE53042 contains
the gene encoding the C288L variant of TLP-ste, which was used as wild
type in this study. The protease-deficient strain Bacillus
subtilis DB11743 was used as host for this plasmid,
and its variants were obtained by site-directed mutagenesis. Cells
harboring these plasmids were grown at 37 °C in TY broth containing
5 µg/ml chloramphenicol as antibiotic. The Escherichia
coli strains WK6mutS and WK644 as well as XL-1 Blue
MRF (Stratagene GmbH, Heidelberg, Germany) and the plasmids pMa (46)
and pBluescript II SK(+) (Stratagene) were used in site-directed
mutagenesis procedures.
The plasmid pGE530 was used as template for the construction of the N60C single mutant by site-directed mutagenesis via polymerase chain reaction (megaprimer method (45)). Polymerase chain reaction fragments containing the mutation were cloned into pBluescript II SK(+) (Stratagene), and restriction mapping was used to screen for mutant clones. The double mutant G8C/N60C was constructed using the pMa/c system (44, 46) as described previously (42), by simultaneous annealing of two mutagenic primers. The sequence of mutated DNA fragments was verified by dideoxy sequencing (47) before using the fragments to construct pGE530 variants containing mutated forms of the TLP-ste gene. The G8C mutant was obtained by cutting and ligating appropriate fragments of the wild type gene and the gene encoding the double mutant.
Expression and Purification of Wild Type and Mutant EnzymesWild type and mutant proteins were produced and purified as described previously (43, 48) using affinity chromatography on Bacitracin-silica. The enzymes were stored in elution buffer containing 20 mM sodium acetate, pH 5.3, 5 mM CaCl2, 2.5 M NaCl, 20% (v/v) isopropanol, and 0.03% (w/v) sodium azide.
An alternative purification scheme was applied to samples to be used for CD measurements. After separation of cells from the fermentation broth (10 min at 6000 rpm, BECKMAN J2-HC), the supernatant was concentrated by ultrafiltration (FILTRON ProVario-3-System) using an 8-kDa membrane (Nova series, FILTRON), and proteins were precipitated with ammonium sulfate (85% saturation). The precipitate was collected by centrifugation (20 min at 20000 rpm, BECKMAN L8-60 M ultracentrifuge), redissolved in 0.05 M Tris buffer, pH 7.5, 5 mM CaCl2 and dialyzed twice against the same buffer. The concentrated enzyme was further purified by chromatography on a DEAE-Sephacel (Pharmacia Biotech Inc.) column equilibrated with 0.05 M Tris buffer, pH 7.5, 5 mM CaCl2. The enzyme was recovered in the flow through, and active fractions were concentrated by ultrafiltration (DIAFLO membrane) and further purified using gel filtration chromatography (either on Sephadex G75, equilibrated with 0.05 M Tris buffer, pH 9.0, 5 mM CaCl2, or on HiLoad Superdex75, equilibrated with 0.05 M Tris buffer, pH 7.5, 5 mM CaCl2, both column materials being from Pharmacia Biotech Inc.).
Both purification procedures yielded electrophoretically homogeneous enzyme (SDS-PAGE (49)). The specific neutral protease inhibitor phosphoramidon (50) (final concentration, 1 mM) was added to samples for SDS-PAGE to prevent autodigestion of the enzyme.
Characterization of EnzymesThermal stability was expressed
as T50 being the temperature of incubation at
which 50% of the initial activity of a 0.1 µM solution
of purified enzyme in 20 mM sodium acetate, pH 5.3, 5 mM CaCl2, 0.5% (v/v) isopropanol, 62.5 mM NaCl, 0.03% (w/v) sodium azide, and 0.01% (v/v) Triton
X-100 was retained after 30 min. Initial and residual enzyme activities
were determined using a casein assay at 37 °C as described
previously (51). The assay was calibrated using a standard wild type
enzyme preparation, and an arbitrary unit for protease activity was
defined as the amount of activity required to increase the absorbance
at 275 nm by 1 per minute under the conditions of the assay (52). The stability of mutant enzymes is given as T50,
representing the difference in T50 between the
wild type and mutant enzymes. The T50 values
reported in this article differ slightly from previously published
values as a result of some modifications of the assay conditions as
used in Ref. 12. 0.01% (v/v) Triton X-100 was included in the assay
mixtures to prevent unspecific binding of the protease to the surface
of the reaction vessels.
The time course of thermal inactivation was followed using the same conditions as described above. The enzymes were incubated at defined temperatures, and the aliquots removed after different time intervals were assayed for activity toward casein at 37 °C.
The kinetic parameter kcat/Km
for N-(3-[2-furyl]acryloyl)-Gly-Leu amide was determined
according to the method of Feder (53) using a buffer containing 10 mM MOPS, pH 7.0, 5 m M CaCl2, 0.02% (v/v)
Triton X-100, 1% (v/v) isopropanol, and 125 mM NaCl.
Activities were derived from the decrease in absorption at 345 nm,
using a of 317 M
1 cm
1.
The decrease in absorption was recorded at 37 °C, using a
thermostatted cuvette in a Perkin-Elmer Lambda 11 spectrophotometer
(Perkin-Elmer Corp.).
CD spectra were recorded using a JASCO J-710 circular dichroism spectrometer. Measurements were performed at 25 °C using a quartz cell of 1-mm path length. Samples contained 0.08 mg of enzyme/ml in 0.05 M Tris buffer, pH 9.0, 5 mM CaCl2. Protein concentrations were determined with the Micro BCA protein assay reagent (Pierce) using bovine serum albumin as a standard.
Free thiols were determined according to Ellman (54) under denaturing
conditions (6 M urea); the presence of free thiol groups in
the G8C/N60C mutant was determined without or with previous incubation
with reducing agents (0.2 M DTT). Excess of reducing agent
was removed via extensive dialysis. The amount of free sulfhydryl groups was calculated using an extinction coefficient of 13,600 M1 cm
1.
SDS-PAGE analysis of purified TLP-ste variants was performed using a method essentially similar to the method described by Laemmli (49). The presence of disulfide bonds was analyzed by comparing mobilities during SDS-PAGE of enzyme samples that had been prepared in the absence or the presence of reducing agent.
Fig. 1
(A and B) shows the 8-60 disulfide mutant as
designed in the three-dimensional model of TLP-ste. The disulfide bond connects the N-terminal -hairpin (residues 1-25) with a region that
is crucial for thermal stability (residues 56-69) (11, 12). Inspection
of the thermolysin crystal structure and the TLP-ste model indicated
that the individual mutations needed for the disulfide bond (G8C and
N60C) would not lead to significant clashes or have other negative side
effects.
The selected mutants were constructed and could successfully be
expressed in B. subtilis DB117. Wild type TLP-ste, G8C, and G8C/N60C mutants were similar with respect to expression levels and
yields of purification. The expression level was approximately three
times lower for the N60C mutant. Wild type and mutant proteins had
similar specific activities toward casein as substrate at 37 °C, pH
7.5 (81.5 ± 5.3 units/mg, 82.3 ± 5.0 units/mg, 75.0 ± 5.2 units/mg, 82.4 ± 6.2 units/mg protein for purified wild type,
G8C, N60C, and double mutant enzymes, respectively). The kcat/Km of the double mutant
enzyme for the synthetic dipeptide substrate
N-(3-[2-furyl] acryloyl)-Gly-Leu amide (53) was similar
to that of the wild type enzyme (27.8 ± 3.5 · 103
and 30.0 ± 4.4 · 103 M1
s
1, respectively).
Nonreducing SDS-PAGE showed that the double mutant enzyme migrated slightly faster than the wild type enzyme, whereas identical mobilities were observed in the presence of reducing agent (DTT; results not shown). This suggests that the expected disulfide bond was formed in vivo in the G8C/N60C mutant. No free thiol groups could be detected by thiol titrations (under denaturing conditions) with Ellman's reagent (54), confirming the spontaneous formation of the disulfide bridge in the double mutant. After treatment with excess of DTT (0.2 M), the number of sulfydryl groups in the double mutant was determined to be 1.95 ± 0.15/molecule.
The CD spectrum of the double mutant was identical to that of the wild type enzyme (not shown), indicating that the tertiary structure had not changed significantly as a result of the introduced disulfide bond.
Thermal StabilityPurified, electrophoretically homogeneous
wild type and mutant enzymes were used for determining
T50 as described under "Materials and
Methods." As shown in Table I, the single mutant
enzymes were considerably less stable than the wild type enzyme
(T50 is
11.0 and
16.2 °C, for G8C and
N60C, respectively). Reducing agents had a stabilizing effect on the
single mutant enzymes but only a small effect on the wild type enzyme.
This suggests that the decrease in thermal stability of the single
mutants is at least partly due to oxidation of the introduced cysteine
residue and, possibly, formation of intermolecular disulfide bonds
(55).
|
Despite the destabilizations observed for the single mutants, the
double mutant displayed a drastic increase in
T50 (T50 = +16.7 °C). DTT reduced the stability of this mutant, but even at 10 mM DTT the mutant was much more stable than the wild type (
T50 = +11.8 °C). Thus, it seems that the
engineered disulfide bridge is rather resistant toward reduction. At
higher DTT concentrations (50-100 mM) the stability of the
double mutant was further reduced, but stability measurements at such
high concentrations could not be performed accurately, because
increasing DTT concentrations resulted in considerable decrease of the
enzymatic activity in wild type and in all mutant enzymes.
In the temperature range of 80-95 °C for the stable double mutant
enzyme and 55-75 °C for the unstable single mutant enzymes, the
kinetics of thermal inactivation was measured and compared with those
of the wild type TLP-ste. In all cases the inactivation was
irreversible and followed a first order kinetics. Thermal inactivation
of the double mutant coincided in the usual manner with the
disappearance of protein material visible in SDS-PAGE gels (Fig.
2). The results (Table II) confirmed the
low stability of the single mutants and the extreme stabilization
obtained by introduction of the disulfide bond. The half-life of the
enzyme at 92.5 °C was increased more than 120-fold, from less than
0.3 to 36 min. Remarkably, even the stability of the most stable
naturally occurring TLP, thermolysin, was exceeded considerably (Table
II).
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In the present study we provide the first example of drastic stabilization of a broad specificity protease by a de novo designed engineered disulfide bridge. In terms of kinetic stability, the disulfide containing mutant of TLP-ste is one of the most stable enzymes ever obtained by protein engineering. The stability of this designed mutant is comparable with the stability of a recently published mutant of TLP-ste in which five amino acids (all in the 1-70 region) had been replaced (12) by the corresponding residues in a naturally occurring more stable TLP variant (thermolysin).
Broad specificity proteases, in particular subtilisin, were among the first enzymes the stability of which was manipulated using protein engineering (31, 33, 34, 36, 38). Attempts to introduce disulfide bridges were successful in the sense that it turned out that, indeed, completely rational design of spontaneously forming disulfide bridges was possible (31, 33, 35, 36). However, the stabilizing effects of these mutations were disappointing (30, 31, 34, 38). Taking into account that the rate of thermal inactivation of broad specificity proteases is determined by the rate of local unfolding processes preceding autolysis (11-13, 18, 19) we propose that the lack of success of these engineered disulfide bridges is at least partly due to the fact that these bridges were introduced in regions of the protease molecule that do not play a role in stability-determining local unfolding processes. Designed disulfide bridges have been extremely successful in cases were the stability measurement was based on monitoring global (as opposed to local) unfolding (24, 35). In these cases, the success of the bridge is more exclusively determined by the success of the design, and much less (if at all) by the location of the bridge in the molecule. Unfortunately, the phenomenon of autolysis prevents analysis of reversible unfolding in TLPs (e.g. Ref. 13). In cases where stability is determined by autolysis or other irreversible mechanisms of inactivation that do not depend on complete unfolding, mutational effects are at least partly determined by the location of the mutation. Accordingly, the present study shows that unspecific proteases can be stabilized dramatically by introduction of disulfide bridges, provided that thorough stability studies have indicated where the bridge has to be introduced. Only bridges introduced in regions involved in the stability determining local unfolding processes will lead to stabilization, and if such a region is found, the resulting stabilization may be enormous.
It may be possible to stabilize TLP-ste even more effectively if the rate-limiting cleavage sites are known. However, as a result of the rapid degradation after the first cleavage, it has so far not been possible to isolate kinetically relevant autolytic breakdown products of TLP-ste.2 The present and previous data (12) on engineering the stability of TLP-ste clearly show that the stability of this enzyme is determined by a part of the N-terminal domain (important mutations have been found between positions 1 and 70). It remains to be elucidated where the stability determining autolytic cleavages take place and what extent of local unfolding is needed for those to occur. The present study shows, however, that highly successful rational design of stabilizing mutations in TLP-ste is possible on the basis of the information that is currently available.