1 Bacterial Molecular Genetics Unit, Centro de Investigaciones, Universidad El Bosque, Transv 9a Bis No. 133-25, Bogotá; 2 Surgical Microbiology Service, Department of Surgery, Fundación Santa Fé de Bogotá, Calle 116 No. 9-02, Bogotá, Colombia
Received 4 July 2002; returned 2 August 2002; revised 18 September 2002; accepted 20 September 2002
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Abstract |
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Keywords: staphylococci, enterococci, resistance, Colombia
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Introduction |
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Colombia has particular characteristics that directly influence the emergence and dissemination of antibiotic resistance, including: (i) availability of over the counter compounds; (ii) a high referral rate between medical institutions, which is likely to favour the dissemination of resistant clones; and (iii) lack of multicentre surveillance data on antimicrobial resistance for several microorganisms, which prevents closer monitoring of the problem.
We carried out the first multicentre surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) and Enterococcus spp. in Colombian hospitals spanning a year (March 2001March 2002). The study included 15 tertiary care hospitals in five major cities across the country.
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Materials and methods |
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From March 2001 to March 2002, tertiary care hospitals in Bogotá (eight hospitals), Cali (three hospitals), Medellín (one hospital), Bucaramanga (two hospitals) and Cartagena (one hospital) were asked to collect up to 60 consecutive clinical isolates (defined as likely to be causing infection for which there was an intention to treat) of either S. aureus, CoNS or Enterococcus spp. from the following clinical samples: blood, surgical wound, urine, peritoneal fluid, abdominal abscess, joint aspirate, osteomyelitis aspirate, bronchoalveolar lavage, pleural fluid, pericardial effusion, cerebral abscess and cerebrospinal fluid. Isolates excluded from the study included duplicate organisms from the same patient and those coming from sputum, catheters or skin (unless originating in an infected surgical wound). Each hospital identified the microorganisms using either automated (Vitek or MicroScan) or manual methods. Once an isolate was included in the study, the corresponding hospital sent the isolate to the reference laboratory (located in Bogotá) via courier, using a transport medium (Amies, BBL, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA). Upon arrival, the reference laboratory confirmed the purity of the isolate and confirmed identification by the Vitek Gram-positive identification card (bioMérieux, Marcy lÉtoile, France) and by molecular methods using multiplex PCR for enterococci and staphylococci (see below).
Susceptibility testing by the reference laboratory and screening for VISA isolates
Susceptibility tests for staphylococci and enterococci were carried out using an agar dilution method following the recommendations of the NCCLS with an inoculum of 104 cfu/spot.11 For staphylococci, MuellerHinton agar (ICN Biomedicals, Inc., Aurora, OH, USA) was supplemented with 2% NaCl. For both staphylococci and enterococci, isolates were incubated in ambient air at 35°C and MIC results were read after 20 h incubation. For vancomycin, teicoplanin and oxacillin, results were read at 24 h. The following antimicrobial agents were tested against staphylococci: ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, erythromycin, gentamicin, linezolid, teicoplanin, tetracycline, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (SXT), oxacillin, rifampicin and vancomycin. Enterococcal isolates were tested against ampicillin, ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, linezolid, rifampicin, teicoplanin, tetracycline and vancomycin. High levels of resistance to streptomycin (2000 mg/L) and gentamicin (500 mg/L) were also investigated in all enterococci as described previously.11,12 All MIC determinations were carried out with the inclusion of reference strains as controls. These included S. aureus ATCC 29213 and E. faecalis ATCC 29212.
All methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) isolates were screened for intermediate levels of resistance to vancomycin (VISA isolates) following the published recommendations of Tenover et al.13 Briefly, 10 µL of a bacterial suspension at a turbidity equivalent to that of a 0.5 McFarland Standard was inoculated in plates of brainheart infusion agar (BHI, ICN Biomedicals, Inc.) containing 2, 4 or 6 mg/L vancomycin. Further quality control was achieved by carrying out susceptibility testing of 10% of all isolates at the National Microbiology Reference Laboratory, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Bogotá, Colombia.
Molecular methods
Staphylococci. All isolates of S. aureus and CoNS were subjected to a multiplex PCR assay following the protocol of Martineau et al.,14 which allows species-specific identification of S. aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis and detection of the mecA gene. Oxacillin-resistant staphylococci in which mecA was not detected were subjected to a second multiplex PCR assay, which included primers for the blaZ gene instead of those for the mecA gene.14 Methicillin-resistant S. aureus ATCC 43300 was used as a positive control for all experiments.
Enterococci. Identification of all isolates of enterococci was confirmed by PCR as described previously.15,16 Vancomycin-resistant isolates (MIC 4 mg/L) were further characterized by PCR to detect specific genotypes.15 Enterococcus faecium BM4147 (vanA), E. faecalis V583 (vanB) and Enterococcus gallinarum BM4174 (vanC-1) were used as control strains. Molecular typing of both glycopeptide-resistant E. faecalis and E. faecium was carried out by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) as described previously.17 Restriction of DNA was carried out with SmaI. Fragments were separated by agarose gel electrophoresis (CHEF DRII apparatus, Bio-Rad Laboratories, Richmond, CA, USA) at 6 V/cm with switch times ramped from 1 to 35 s over 23 h at 14°C. Following staining with ethidium bromide, the restricted DNA fragments were visualized under UV light and photographed. A previously characterized glycopeptide-resistant strain of E. faecium (known to be the first GRE isolated in the country) was included in the electrophoresis gel.17 The interpretation of the band patterns was carried out according to the criteria of Tenover et al.18
Statistical analyses
Differences in resistance patterns between isolates from Bogotá and Cali were calculated using the 2 test (Epi info 6.04d, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA) for each antimicrobial agent. A P value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant.
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Results |
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A total of 663 isolates were sent to the reference laboratory from the participating hospitals, of which 66 were discarded due to contamination or misidentification. Only isolates with agreement between microbiological and molecular identification methods were included. From the 597 that were available for evaluation and susceptibility tests, S. aureus comprised 296 (49.6%) of the isolates. Surgical wound infection, blood and joint aspirate were the most common sources, accounting for 36%, 30% and 8%, respectively. A total of 177 (29.6%) isolates were identified as CoNS, of which the majority (62%) were S. epidermidis. Other species of CoNS identified by the automated Vitek system included Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Staphylococcus auricularis, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Staphylococcus sciuri, Staphylococcus capitis, Staphylococcus hominis, Staphylococcus simulans and Staphylococcus warneri. Most CoNS were isolated from blood (60%), surgical wound infection (16%) and urine (6%).
Enterococci comprised 20.8% (124) of isolates. The majority (82%) were E. faecalis isolated mostly from urine (33%) and surgical wounds (27%). E. faecium comprised 14% (18) of enterococcal isolates. Most common sources of E. faecium included surgical wound infection (33%), urine (22%) and blood (17%), and were sent mainly from hospitals in Bogotá (17 isolates). Enterococcus avium (also identified by PCR), Enterococcus hirae and Enterococcus durans accounted for the remaining isolates.
Susceptibilities, resistance genes and genotyping
S. aureus. Table 1 shows the MIC distributions and resistance rates for S. aureus. The overall prevalence of MRSA amongst consecutive isolates of S. aureus was 52%. In contrast to methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA), MRSA isolates exhibited higher rates of resistance to most antibiotics (Table 1). The highest rates of resistance were found with erythromycin (89%), gentamicin (86%) and ciprofloxacin (83%). Resistance rates for SXT and rifampicin were 8% and 17%, respectively (Table 1). As expected, MRSA isolates were all susceptible to glycopeptides and linezolid. No VISA isolates were found. MICs of linezolid were between 0.25 and 4 mg/L. No specific difference was found between MSSA and MRSA, although one MSSA isolate exhibited an MIC of 0.12 mg/L (tested three times). Linezolid MIC90s for MRSA and MSSA were 2 and 4 mg/L, respectively. Among MRSA, 97.5% (151 isolates) carried the mecA gene. The remaining isolates (four) were positive for the blaZ gene.19 Oxacillin MICs for these four isolates were 64 mg/L. The mecA gene was not detected in any of the MSSA isolates.
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CoNS. MIC distributions and resistance rates for CoNS are shown in Table 2. A high proportion of isolates were methicillin resistant (73%). High resistance rates were also found to erythromycin, SXT and gentamicin. CoNS were less resistant to ciprofloxacin than MRSA (29% versus 83%, respectively) (Table 2). Apart from glycopeptides and linezolid, rifampicin and chloramphenicol exhibited the lowest rates of resistance (Table 2). No teicoplanin or vancomycin resistance was observed. The majority of isolates exhibited linezolid MICs between 0.12 and 2 mg/L. Only one isolate had an MIC of 4 mg/L (re-tested and confirmed).
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Enterococci. Resistance rates and MIC distributions for the enterococci are shown in Table 3. All E. faecalis were susceptible to ampicillin. Resistance to ciprofloxacin was 25%. In contrast, for E. faecium, resistance rates for the same antibiotics were 67% and 55%, respectively. From 18 E. faecium isolates collected during the year, nine (50%) exhibited high-level resistance to streptomycin (>2000 mg/L), three (17%) to gentamicin (>500 mg/L) and one to both antibiotics. The phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of the GRE are shown in Table 4. Five vancomycin-resistant E. faecalis isolates were received from hospitals in Bogotá. Two were isolated from surgical wound infections. Urine, peritoneal fluid and blood were the sources of the other three isolates. Multiplex PCR for the van genes revealed the presence of the vanB gene in all five isolates that correlated with the phenotype: high-level resistance to vancomycin (256 mg/L) and susceptibility to teicoplanin (1 mg/L). Genotyping by PFGE yielded a similar DNA banding pattern in all five vancomycin-resistant E. faecalis isolates (designated pattern A, Table 4). One band difference was noted in two isolates (pattern A1, Table 4), and one isolate exhibited a difference in two DNA fragments (pattern A2). The results indicated that all isolates were closely related.18
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Discussion |
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The overall rate of methicillin resistance among S. aureus in our study was 52%, which is significantly higher than in other parts of the world.22 As found by others, higher resistance rates to other antibiotics were seen for MRSA than for MSSA.23,24 Resistance to ciprofloxacin, erythromycin and gentamicin was found in >83% of the MRSA isolates. Nonetheless, rates of resistance to SXT and rifampicin were relatively low in Colombian MRSA. Hence, as in other parts of the world, these antibiotics might be used as alternatives for the treatment of MRSA in selected cases.25 None of the S. aureus isolates was resistant to teicoplanin or vancomycin. Screening for VISA isolates was negative, indicating that reduced susceptibility to glycopeptides has not yet emerged in this country. In South America, VISA isolates have already been reported in Brazil.26 Linezolid also exhibited good activity against all S. aureus isolates with MICs 4 mg/L.
Antibiotic resistance in MRSA is directly related to the successful dissemination of specific clones. In Colombia, the first study on the molecular characterization of MRSA isolates (recovered in Bogotá between 1996 and 1998) showed the prevalence of a single multiresistant clonal type (designated II::NH::D).27 This clone was previously described among paediatric (almost exclusively) MRSA isolates recovered in the early 1990s in European, New York and South American hospitals. The MRSA isolates in this study, however, differed phenotypically from the clone II::NH::D. Resistance to rifampicin, SXT and tetracycline was lower compared with other antibiotics (17%, 8% and 24%, respectively). The same study also noted that a new clonal type emerged in 1998 in a single isolate: the organism showed no similarity to any of the major international clones identified previously, and exhibited resistance to oxacillin, ciprofloxacin and erythromycin but not to rifampicin, SXT or tetracycline: a pattern that resembles the antibiotic profile of the isolates of the current study.27 Molecular epidemiology analysis of the isolates is currently under way to determine whether a clonal shift in Colombian MRSA has occurred.
As expected, the vast majority of MRSA in the current study carried the mecA gene. We were unable to detect the mecA gene in four MRSA isolates. The presence of the blaZ gene in these organisms indicates that they are likely to produce ß-lactamase. These four isolates were also resistant to erythromycin and tetracycline but susceptible to the other antibiotics.
The resistance rate to oxacillin among CoNS was 73%, using the NCCLS breakpoint (0.5 mg/L). Among the nine isolates that were negative for the mecA gene and positive for the blaZ gene, oxacillin MICs were
64 mg/L. Seven isolates (all non-epidermidis) were negative for both mecA and blaZ, with MICs ranging between 0.5 and 1 mg/L; these isolates would have been reported susceptible if a breakpoint of
2 mg/L (e.g. British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy recommendations) had been used. All isolates were susceptible to the glycopeptides (teicoplanin and vancomycin) and linezolid. Chloramphenicol and rifampicin exhibited low levels of resistance against CoNS (11% and 15%, respectively). Rifampicin has been widely used in combination for the treatment of CoNS infections.2830 The clinical value of chloramphenicol in this setting is unclear.
The first cluster of glycopeptide-resistant E. faecium in Colombia was identified in the city of Medellín in a single hospital in 1998.17 These isolates, which belonged to a unique clonal type, harboured the vanA gene cluster and were resistant to all antibiotics except chloramphenicol, linezolid and nitrofurantoin.17 This hospital did not participate in the current surveillance study; all the GRE reported here were identified at hospitals in Bogotá (Table 4). Amongst the vanA-carrying E. faecium, all were resistant to ampicillin (MIC > 128 mg/L) and high levels of streptomycin but only one was resistant to high levels of gentamicin. PFGE analysis indicated that all isolates were closely related, suggesting that clonal dissemination of GRE has already occurred amongst hospitals in Bogotá. The genotyping results also indicate that a different clonal type of GRE from that of Medellín is present in Bogotá. These data suggest that the prevalence of GRE in Colombia is likely to increase as specific clones disseminate to other hospitals as well.
Apart from linezolid, chloramphenicol was active against all isolates of E. faecium (including glycopeptide resistant). Several reports have documented the efficacy of chloramphenicol for the treatment of VRE infections, including endocarditis and infections in immunocompromised patients.3133 Although large clinical trials are not available to recommend chloramphenicol as first line therapy for VRE in Colombia, it emerges as an interesting alternative.
Unlike E. faecium, the majority of E. faecalis isolates were susceptible to all antibiotics tested. Resistance to vancomycin was present in five isolates. All of them exhibited the VanB phenotype, harboured the vanB gene and were resistant to ciprofloxacin and high levels of gentamicin and streptomycin. Ampicillin, teicoplanin, linezolid and rifampicin were active against all VanB E. faecalis. As occurred with E. faecium, PFGE analysis indicated that all E. faecalis isolates were closely related, suggesting that a single clonal type was present in the two hospitals where the organisms were isolated.
Linezolid, a member of the oxazolidinone group, was recently launched in Colombia for the treatment of Gram-positive infections. The antibiotic showed activity against all isolates in this study, which indicates that it is a promising therapeutic alternative in particular clinical settings. It is important to note, however, that resistance to linezolid has already been reported in both enterococci and staphylococci clinical isolates and was associated with prolonged courses.1,4,34 Attention to proper dosing, specific indications and monitoring of susceptibility is recommended for all patients chosen to be treated with linezolid.
Quinupristin/dalfopristin consists of a 30:70 ratio of two different streptogramin antibiotics that bind to separate sites on the bacterial ribosome and are active against a broad variety of multidrug-resistant Gram-positive organisms.6 Quinupristin/dalfopristin has been available in other parts of the world for the treatment of infections caused by vancomycin-resistant E. faecium. However, this antibiotic has not been released in Colombia and it is not available in this country.
In summary, S. aureus was the most prevalent Gram-positive invasive organism in Colombian hospitals during this surveillance. High rates of resistance to methicillin were observed. GRE are emerging pathogens in Colombian hospitals, although most isolates remained susceptible to other antibiotics. Linezolid was the only compound with activity against all staphylococci and enterococci.
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Acknowledgements |
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The RESCOL group comprised the following hospitals: Fundación Santafé de Bogotá, Mónica Gutiérrez and Nohra de Merino; Hospital San Ignacio, Gloria Pacheco, Otto Sussmann and Diana Moncada; Instituto Nacional de Cancerología, Ruth Quevedo and Patricia Arroyo; Clínica San Rafael, Martha Garzón and Carlos Saavedra; Clínica El Bosque, Amparo de Otero; Clínica Reina Sofía, Oscar Martínez and Edilma Torrado; Hospital Pablo Tobón Uribe, Jaime López; Hospital Universitario Ramón González V, Mauricio Rodríguez; Clínica Ardila Lulle, Luis Ángel Villar; Hospital Universitario del Valle, Luz M. Gallardo and Ernesto Martínez; Fundación Valle del Lilli, Ma del Pilar Crespo and Juan D. Velez; Centro Medico Imbanaco, Beatriz Vanegas and Maria V. Villegas; Clínica Carlos Lleras Restrepo, Gloria Cardona and Carlos Saavedra; Hospital Bocagrande, Mario Mendoza; Hospital Militar Central, Carlos Perez.
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Footnotes |
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Members of the RESCOL group are listed in the Acknowledgements.
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References |
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