1 Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Location Stratenum, P.O. Box 85060, 3508 AB Utrecht; 2 Department of General Practice, Erasmus MCUniversity Medical Center Rotterdam, P.O. Box 1738, 3000 DR Rotterdam; 3 Department of Medical Informatics, Erasmus MCUniversity Medical Center Rotterdam, P.O. Box 1738, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Received 24 June 2004; returned 10 August 2004; revised 27 September 2004; accepted 28 September 2004
![]() |
Abstract |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Methods: We assessed the mean proportion of antibiotics prescribed for RTIs per age group, contact-based and population-based using all patient contacts concerning RTIs in the year 2000 selected from the IPCI database, containing information on general practice consultations of 235 290 patients.
Results: In one-third of all contacts concerning RTIs, antibiotics were prescribed, with much variation between age groups and clinical entities. For children (015 years) and the elderly (over 75 years), the lowest contact-based percentages of prescribed antibiotics for RTIs were found, while population-based, children of age 05 years received far more antibiotics for RTIs. High prescribing rates were seen in patients with sinusitis-like complaints (67%) or pneumonia (78%), whereas low rates were found for patients with upper RTIs (16%).
Conclusions: Potential over-prescribing of antibiotics for RTIs occurs in the age group 3165 years, not in children and the elderly, and in patients with upper RTIs, sinusitis and most likely acute bronchitis (contact-based). The management of these subgroups of patients should be addressed in quality assurance programmes. Children and the elderly visit the GP much more often than adults, which can be explained by more frequent (children) or more severe (elderly) RTI morbidity, but in proportion they do not receive more antibiotics.
Keywords: antibiotic prescriptions , respiratory tract infections , age , the Netherlands
![]() |
Introduction |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Population-based studies in the Netherlands as well as in the UK found that antibiotic prescribing rates are highest in children aged 04 years and in the elderly (over 75 years).4,5 High antibiotic prescribing rates are especially seen in children with RTIs, despite recommendations not to prescribe antibiotics for such indications.6
The purpose of this study was to obtain detailed information on current prescribing rates of antibiotics for RTIs in Dutch general practice and examine its relation with age and respiratory tract clinical entities.
![]() |
Materials and methods |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
The study period encompassed the year 2000. Our source population comprised all patients who were registered in the year 2000 with one of the participating GPs. Patients from GPs who provided data only for a part of the year 2000 were excluded. From this population, we selected all patients with at least one RTI as diagnosed by the GP in the year 2000. We used a stepwise approach to select all patient records related to an RTI during the study period. Eligible patient records included surgery encounters, home visits and telephone contacts.
In a first step, a sensitive search strategy was carried out in patients' medical notes and problem lists (lists of main medical problems of the patient, which the GP wants to be aware of during any patient encounter) to identify all records pertaining to RTI. This search included all relevant ICPC codes and related free text words, which were specified for each clinical entity (Table 1).
|
RTI contacts were described by patient characteristics (gender, age, insurance type), type of contact and antibiotic medication (ATC codes starting with J01) prescribed during the contact. All RTI contacts were categorized into clinical entities (ear, upper respiratory tract, sinus, throat, pneumonia, and cough/bronchitis), and were classified as symptoms or as diagnoses (Table 1).
Analysis
Antibiotic prescribing was calculated as the number of RTI-related contacts in which antibiotics were prescribed divided by the number of RTI-related contacts in an age group (contact-based). In addition, we divided the number of patients per age group in whom an antibiotic was prescribed for an RTI by the total number of patients in that age group (population-based). Furthermore, we calculated the mean number of RTI contacts in the year 2000 per 5-year age groups; 5 year age groups were used because of comparability with literature. We determined the age groups on 1 July 2000. Subsequently, we calculated the mean contact-based antibiotic use in four age groups per RTI clinical entity. Age groups in this calculation were classified as pre-school children (04 years), school children (512 years), adolescents and adults (1364 years) and elderly (65+ years). This was done because GPs frequently use this classification, in which every age group has its specific RTIs. Age below 12 years for example is a contra-indication for some antibiotics. 2 statistics were used to compare antibiotic prescribing rates between categories.
![]() |
Results |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
|
|
|
|
|
There was no difference in contact-based antibiotic prescribing between male and female patients, nor between patients with different types of insurance (Table 3), nor between different types of contact.
Figure 4 shows the contact-based antibiotic prescribing rates in four age groups for different clinical entities of RTI. Overall, children (012 years) received antibiotics less often (25% of contacts) than adolescents and adults (over 13 years) (34% of all contacts) (2=506, df = 1, P < 0.001). This trend was also seen for upper RTIs (
2=175, df = 1, P < 0.001) and cough/bronchitis (
2=129, df = 1, P < 0.001). On the other hand, children of age 04 years with ear complaints received more antibiotics (38%) than older patients with ear complaints (27%) (
2=86, df = 1, P < 0.001). In throat complaints the elderly (over 65 years) received less antibiotics than younger patients (
2=24, df = 1, P < 0.001). In cases of sinusitis-like complaints and pneumonia, age made no significant difference for antibiotic prescribing.
|
![]() |
Discussion |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
The validity of the results depends on the completeness and quality of the data used. Prescription records in the IPCI database can be assumed to be complete since participating GPs are not allowed to write paper prescriptions. Therefore, prescription rates of antibiotics in this study can be considered complete. In addition, GPs who keep patient records on a computer do not differ much from GPs with patient records on paper.10
ICPC codes and free text words were used to select contacts concerning RTIs. GPs who provide data to the IPCI database, are requested to use ICPC codes. However, for this analysis, 39% of the RTI contacts did not have an ICPC code, which emphasizes the importance of searching free text words in identifying RTI contacts. By excluding irrelevant contacts we attempted to minimize the number of false-positive contacts, but a certain amount of misclassification cannot be avoided. We were unable to differentiate between multiple visits pertaining to the same RTI episode, which may have caused an underestimation of the antibiotic prescribing rate. From a recent study, we know that 95% of all upper RTI episodes presented to general practice consist of only one contact with the GP. In lower RTIs, it would be somewhat lower, around 90%. So, the underestimation will not be more than 10%.
Population-based, children (05 years) received by far the most antibiotics for RTIs, but per contact, children were less likely to receive antibiotics, just like the elderly (over 75 years). Children and the elderly visit the GP more often than adults, probably because of more frequent (children) or more severe (elderly) RTI morbidity, but RTI visits less often result in antibiotic prescriptions. Low contact-based antibiotic prescribing rates for children with RTIs,11 and a low antibiotic prescribing rate for the elderly (over 64 years)12 were also found in the USA. Some studies found no association between antibiotic prescribing rates and patient age in cases of RTIs, but these studies excluded children.13,14
We did not find a high population-based antibiotic prescription for the elderly (over 65 years), whereas others did.4,5 Probably this is because our population only comprised patients in general practice and not patients in institutes, such as homes for the aged, where antibiotics are often prescribed.15
The high contact-based antibiotic prescribing rate for RTIs in adults (3165 years) could be explained by the fact that these are mainly working people. Perhaps these patients ask for an antibiotic more often or the GP feels the patient's pressure to prescribe an antibiotic.
In general, Dutch prescribing rates of antibiotics are relatively low compared to other European Union countries,16 the USA17 and Canada.18
The mean prescription rates for children with RTIs in this study are rather similar to those found in Dutch studies 10 years ago.19 In Germany, antibiotic prescribing rates for children with RTIs are similar,20 but in the USA6 and Canada21 they are nearly twice as high.
There was a considerable variation in antibiotic prescribing rates between the different clinical entities. This relation between antibiotic prescribing rates and diagnoses has been found before.14,17,22 The varying role of bacterial and viral infections between clinical entities may be an explanation. The vast majority of upper RTIs have a viral aetiology,23 whereas for lower RTIs this is about 60%.24
We compared the contact-based antibiotic prescribing rates of Figure 4 with estimates of evidence-based antibiotic prescribing rates for RTIs that de Melker made several years ago25 [based on the guidelines of the Dutch College of General Practice (Table 4)]. This revealed that antibiotics were over-prescribed in cases of upper RTIs, because for these clinical entities no antibiotics are indicated. For ear complaints the indications for antibiotics are more stringent for older than for younger children. Overall, appropriate prescription rates for otitis media should be around 15%. In line with current guidelines we saw that antibiotic prescribing rates in children with otitis media decreased with age. The indications for antibiotic treatment in tonsillitis are rather stringent and the relatively low prescribing rates are therefore plausible, close to de Melker's estimate of 3040%. The finding that the elderly (over 65 years) with throat complaints received less antibiotics than younger patients (contact-based) is not supported by the literature. In cases of sinusitis-like complaints or pneumonia, contact-based antibiotic prescribing was not related to age. This may be because of the weight GPs give to these complaints, irrespective of patient age. In cases of sinusitis, the antibiotic prescribing rates are high compared to the estimation of de Melker that only 10% of antibiotics prescribed for sinusitis would be appropriate. For pneumonia, the antibiotic prescribing rates appeared to be low, because antibiotics are always indicated for this diagnosis. These relatively low antibiotic prescribing rates are most likely a consequence of including pneumonia-related follow-up visits. In cases of cough/bronchitis the antibiotic prescribing rates are not supported by the guidelines. This can be explained by the fact that the guideline about cough/bronchitis was not published at the time the consultations in the IPCI database were registered. Based on these data, it is difficult to state whether antibiotics are under- or over-prescribed, because we do not know the clinical factors of the patients (e.g. severity of illness, fever, duration of complaints). Recently, we finished a project about clinical determinants of under- and over-treatment of antibiotics for RTIs in general practice. Data will be published in the near future.
|
![]() |
Acknowledgements |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
![]() |
Footnotes |
---|
![]() |
References |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
2
.
Wenzel, R. P. & Edmond, M. B. (2000). Managing antibiotic resistance. New England Journal of Medicine 343, 19613.
3 . Menown, I. B., Archbold, J. A., Bamford, K. B. et al. (1997). Community-acquired lower respiratory tract infection: implementation of an antibiotic protocol. British Journal of Clinical Practice 51, 747.[ISI][Medline]
4 . Geneesmiddelen Informatie Project (GIP) (Dutch Drug Information Project) (2000). Volume en kosten per ATC-hoofdgroep naar leeftijd en geslacht (tabel 5a&b). In GIPeilingen 1998, Kengetallen farmaceutische hulp, pp. 303, (College voor Zorgverzekeringen (Health Care Insurance Board)), Amstelveen, the Netherlands.
5 . Majeed, A. & Moser, K. (1999). Age- and sex-specific antibiotic prescribing patterns in general practice in England and Wales in 1996. British Journal of General Practice 49, 7356.[ISI][Medline]
6
.
Nyquist, A. C., Gonzales, R., Steiner, J. F. et al. (1998). Antibiotic prescribing for children with colds, upper respiratory tract infections, and bronchitis. Journal of the American Medical Association 279, 8757.
7 . Anonymous (1998). ICPC-2: International Classification of Primary Care. World Organization of National Colleges, Academies, and Academic Associations of General Practitioners/Family Physicians, Oxford, UK.
8 . WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology (2004). Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical classification [Online.] http://www.whocc.no/atcddd (16 June 2004, date last accessed).
9 . Vlug, A. E., van der Lei, J., Mosseveld, B. M. et al. (1999). Postmarketing surveillance based on electronic patient records of the IPCI project. Methods of Informatics in Medicine 38, 33944.
10 . Westert, G. P., Hoonhout, L. H. F., de Bakker, D. H. et al. (2002). Huisartsen met en zonder elektronisch medisch dossier: weinig verschil in medisch handelen. Huisarts en Wetenschap 45, 5862.
11 . Stone, S., Gonzales, R., Maselli, J. et al. (2000). Antibiotic prescribing for patients with colds, upper respiratory tract infections, and bronchitis: a national study of hospital-based emergency departments. Annals of Emergency Medicine 36, 3207.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
12 . Cantrell, R., Young, A. F. & Martin, B. C. (2002). Antibiotic prescribing in ambulatory care settings for adults with colds, upper respiratory tract infections, and bronchitis. Clinical Therapeutics 24, 17082.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
13 . Gonzales, R., Steiner, J. F. & Sande, M. A. (1997). Antibiotic prescribing for adults with colds, upper respiratory tract infections, and bronchitis by ambulatory care physicians. Journal of the American Medical Association 278, 9014.[Abstract]
14 . Kuyvenhoven, M. M., Verheij, T. J. M., de Melker, R. et al. (2000). Antimicrobial agents in lower respiratory tract infections in Dutch general practice. British Journal of General Practice 50, 1334.[ISI][Medline]
15
.
Meydani, S. N., Leka, L. S., Fine, B. C. et al. (2004). Vitamin E and respiratory tract infections in elderly nursing home residents: a randomised controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 292, 82836.
16 . Cars, O., Mölstad, S. & Melander, A. (2001). Variation in antibiotic use in the European Union. Lancet 357, 18513.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
17
.
Steinman, M. A., Gonzales, R., Linder, J. A. et al. (2003). Changing use of antibiotics in community-based outpatient practice, 19911999. Annals of Internal Medicine 138, 52533.
18 . Hutchinson, J. M., Jelinski, S., Hefferton, D. et al. (2001). Role of diagnostic labeling in antibiotic prescription. Canadian Family Physician 47, 121724.[ISI][Medline]
19 . van der Ven-Daane, I., van der Ven, M., Bruijnzeels, M. A. et al. (1992). Het voorschrijven van antibiotica aan kinderen in de huisartspraktijk. Huisarts en Wetenschap 35, 2724.
20 . Schindler, C., Krappweis, J., Morgenstern, I. et al. (2003). Prescriptions of systemic antibiotics for children in Germany between 0 and 6 years. Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety 12, 11320.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
21 . Wang, E. E., Einarson, T. R., Kellner, J. D. et al. (1999). Antibiotic prescribing for Canadian preschool children: evidence of overprescribing for viral respiratory infections. Clinical Infectious Diseases 29, 15560.[ISI][Medline]
22 . Akkerman, A. E., Kuyvenhoven, M. M., van der Wouden, J. C. et al. Prescribing antibiotics for respiratory tract infections by general practitioners: management and prescriber characteristics. In press.
23
.
Snow, V., Mottur-Pilson, C. & Gonzales, R. (2001). Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of nonspecific upper respiratory tract infections in adults. Annals of Internal Medicine 134, 4879.
24 . Graffelman, A. W., Knuistingh Neven, A., le Cessie, S. et al. (2004). Pathogens involved in lower respiratory tract infections in general practice. British Journal of General Practice 54, 1519.[ISI][Medline]
25 . De Melker, R. A. (1998). Effectiviteit van antibiotica bij veelvoorkomende luchtweginfecties in de huisartspraktijk. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde 142, 4526.[Medline]