,d
a Department of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Antwerp, UIA, Antwerp; b Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Food Science, University of Liège, Liège; c Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Food Inspection and Public Health, University of Ghent, Ghent; d Section of Food Science, Scientific Institute of Public Health Louis Pasteur, Brussels; e Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Ghent, Ghent; f Institute for Veterinary Inspection, Brussels, Belgium
![]() |
Abstract |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
![]() |
Introduction |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Campylobacter infection is a mainly food-borne disease because of its widespread commensalism and specific adaptation to the gastrointestinal tracts of domestic and wild animals. The sources most commonly associated with epidemics and sporadic cases have been unpasteurized milk, contaminated drinking water and inadequately cooked meat, particularly poultry.1,13,14 In the USA, case control studies have shown that 4870% of sporadic infections are associated with the consumption of Campylobacter-contaminated chickens.13,15 The cross-contamination of other foods during food preparation is also likely to be important.
There is growing scientific evidence that the use of antibiotics in food animals leads to the development of resistant pathogenic bacteria that can reach humans through the food chain. In the present study, resistance in campylobacters isolated from healthy poultry and pigs at slaughter was examined.
![]() |
Materials and methods |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
From June to December 1998, swabs or samples from healthy pigs (carcass, liver, fresh and minced meat), broilers (carcass, liver and meat), layers (carcass) and turkeys (neck skin) were collected at Belgian slaughterhouses or cutting rooms. Pig carcasses and livers, and carcasses from broilers and layers, were swabbed using a standard cotton swab moistened with Brucella broth (Oxoid, Basingstoke, UK). Samples of 100 g of fresh and minced meat from pigs, liver and meat from broilers, and neck skin from turkeys were taken. In the laboratory the swabs or the samples were homogenized into Preston selective broth (Oxoid) and incubated microaerophilically at 42°C for 48 h. The enrichment was streaked on to modified charcoal cefoperazone deoxycholate agar (mCCDA, Oxoid) and incubated at 42°C for 24120 h.
Identification of isolates
Isolates were identified according to standard criteria including negative Gram's stain, typical morphology, catalase and oxidase reactions, growth at 42°C and hippurate hydrolysis.16 Further identification was made by the API Campy strip system (bioMérieux SA, Marcy l'Étoile, France) and/or by multiplex PCR.17 Isolates for which there were contradictory results were additionally examined by SDSPAGE of whole-cell proteins.18
In total, 677 Campylobacter isolates were collected during the study period. The number of strains isolated from each animal species were: pigs (n = 65), broilers (n = 351), layers (n = 161) and turkeys (n = 100).
Susceptibility testing
MICs were determined by the agar dilution method. Two-fold serial dilutions of antibiotics were used at the following concentrations: erythromycin (Sigma, St Louis, MO, USA), 0.0364 mg/L; ampicillin (Sigma), 0.06128 mg/L; nalidixic acid (Sigma), 0.0364 mg/L; ciprofloxacin (Bayer, Brussels, Belgium), 0.0364 mg/L; tetracycline (Sigma), 0.0364 mg/L and gentamicin (Sigma), 0.06128 mg/L. Inocula were prepared in MuellerHinton broth (BBL, Becton Dickinson, Cockeysville, MD, USA) at a density adjusted to a 0.5 McFarland turbidity standard, and diluted 1:10. A final inoculum of c. 104 cfu was delivered on to MuellerHinton II agar plates (BBL, Becton Dickinson) with a Steers replicating device. The plates were incubated in an atmosphere of 5% O2, 10% CO2 and 85% N2 for 24 h. The MIC was defined as the lowest concentration of an antimicrobial agent that inhibited visible growth completely. Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213 were used as control strains.
The following NCCLS19 breakpoints for resistance were used: for ampicillin MIC 32 mg/L; for ciprofloxacin MIC
4 mg/L; and for tetracycline and gentamicin MIC
16 mg/L. Isolates were considered resistant to erythromycin with an MIC
8 mg/L20 and to nalidixic acid with an MIC of
32 mg/L.21
Statistical analysis
Data were analysed with Epi Info, version 6 (Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA). The 2 test and Fisher's exact two-tailed test were used for statistical analysis of the significant difference of resistant rates. An
of 0.05 was used for statistical significance.
![]() |
Results |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Susceptibility testing
For Campylobacter spp., no internationally accepted criteria for susceptibility testing including assessments of breakpoints for susceptible versus resistant are available, so these data were analysed with reference to the data available from the NCCLS for aerobic bacteria.19
C. jejuni.
The results of antimicrobial susceptibility testing for C. jejuni strains isolated from broilers, layers and turkeys are shown in Table I. Resistance to erythromycin varied from 6.3% (in broilers) to 8.6% (in layers). A high level of ampicillin resistance was found in C. jejuni isolated from turkeys (33.0%). This level was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than the levels found in broilers (24.6%) and layers (14.3%). Nalidixic acid resistance was high in broilers (44.2%) and turkeys (44.7%), but for layers the resistance level was lower (29.5%). Similar findings were observed for ciprofloxacin: resistance was found among 44.2, 35.1 and 27.6% of the isolates from broilers, turkeys and layers, respectively. Tetracycline resistance was the highest in turkeys (37.2%) and broilers (34.4%). All C. jejuni isolates were susceptible to gentamicin. C. jejuni strains isolated from pigs were not considered because only four strains were isolated.
|
|
Drug resistance to one or more drugs was detected in over 60% of the strains. Multiresistance, which was defined as resistance to four or more of the drugs tested, was found in 7.6% of the C. jejuni strains but was more common in C. coli (17%). Multiresistant isolates always remained susceptible to gentamicin (Table III).
|
![]() |
Discussion |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
During the past decade, fluoroquinolones have been the principal agents in the prophylaxis and treatment of enteric infections. Unfortunately, there has been a rapid emergence of quinolone resistance amongst Campylobacter spp. isolates from around the world.912 This rapid emergence of resistance can be attributed to the unique ability of Campylobacter to develop high-level resistance to quinolones through a single mutation in the DNA gyrase gene.24 We also found alarmingly high levels of quinolone resistance, particularly in poultry. For C. coli isolated from broilers, 62.1% of the strains were resistant to ciprofloxacin. The percentages of quinolone resistance observed were substantially higher than those described in DANMAP 98.23 In this Danish study, 3% of the C. jejuni and 13% of the C. coli isolated from broilers were resistant to nalidixic acid. Further, 13% of the C. coli isolates obtained from broilers were resistant to ciprofloxacin. For C. coli isolated from pigs, 25% of the strains was resistant to nalidixic acid and 17% to ciprofloxacin.23
Poultry constitutes the most important reservoir for human Campylobacter infections. Published epidemiological and laboratory data from other countries as well as our study indicate that the use of fluoroquinolones in poultry has a primary role in increasing resistance to quinolones among Campylobacter isolates from humans.9,11,20,21,25,26 In this regard, Endtz et al.9 observed that the emergence of fluoroquinolone-resistant C. jejuni infections in humans in The Netherlands coincided with the introduction of enrofloxacin for poultry therapy in early 1987. In Spain, an increase in the percentage of ciprofloxacin-resistant human Campylobacter isolates from 03% in 1989 to 3050% in 1991 coincided with the licensing of enrofloxacin for veterinary use in 1990.5,11,26 Also, in the USA, a significant increase from 1996 to 1998 in quinolone-resistant C. jejuni infections that were acquired domestically was temporally associated with the licensing of fluoroquinolones (sarafloxacin in 1995 and enrofloxacin in 1996) for use in poultry.20 In Belgium, flumequine was licensed for use in poultry in 1982, enrofloxacine in 1988 and difloxacine (hydrochloride) in 1998. It has been described that treatment with enrofloxacin of broiler chickens infected with quinolone-susceptible C. jejuni does not eradicate the organism but rather selects for quinolone resistance in C. jejuni.25
We also found high levels of tetracycline resistance, particularly in C. coli strains isolated from pigs (62.3%). A similar observation was described in Spain, where 94.4% of the C. coli strains isolated from pigs between 1997 and 1998 were resistant to tetracycline.27 In contrast, in the DANMAP 98 study,23 virtually no resistance to tetracycline was found in Campylobacter strains isolated from food animals.
In conclusion, alarmingly high resistance rates were observed for erythromycin and ciprofloxacin. These results need to be correlated with antibiotic use in the various animal species before making firm conclusions. However, we consider that the introduction of fluoroquinolones in veterinary medicine might have contributed to the emergence of quinolone-resistant Campylobacter in man. It is unlikely that the human use of fluoroquinolone alone can be held responsible for the very high resistance rates of human Campylobacter to fluoroquinolones observed in Europe and the USA. The detection of multiresistant isolates poses a threat to humans and further limits therapeutic options.
![]() |
Acknowledgments |
---|
![]() |
Notes |
---|
![]() |
References |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
2
.
Frost, J. A., Oza, A. N., Thwaites, R. T. & Rowe, B. (1998). Serotyping scheme for Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli based on direct agglutination of heat-stable antigens. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 36, 3359.
3 . Blaser, M. J. (1990). Campylobacter species. In Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, (Mandell, G. L., Douglas, R. G. & Bennett, J. E., Eds), pp. 164958. Churchill Livingstone, New York.
4
.
Du Pont, H. L. & Ericsson, C. D. (1993). Prevention and treatment of traveller's diarrhoea. New England Journal of Medicine 328, 18217.
5 . Reina, J., Borrell, N. & Serra, A. (1992). Emergence of resistance to erythromycin and fluoroquinolones in thermotolerant Campylobacter strains isolated from faeces 19871991. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 11, 11636.[ISI][Medline]
6 . Taylor, D. E., Blaser, M. J., Echeverria, P., Pitarangasi, C., Bodhidatta, L. & Wang, W. L. (1987). Erythromycin-resistant Campylobacter infections in Thailand. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 31, 43842.[ISI][Medline]
7 . Pichler, H. E. T., Dirdl, G., Stickler, K. & Wolf, D. (1987). Clinical efficacy of ciprofloxacin compared with placebo in bacterial diarrhoea. American Journal of Medicine 82, Suppl. 4A, 32932.[ISI][Medline]
8 . Rademaker, C. M. A., Hoepelman, I. M., Wolfhagen, M. J. H. M., Beumer, H., Rozenberg-Arska, M. & Verhoef, J. (1989). Results of a double-blind placebo-controlled study using ciprofloxacin for prevention of travellers' diarrhoea. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 8, 6904.[ISI][Medline]
9 . Endtz, H. P., Ruijs, G. J., van Klingeren, B., Jansen, W. H., van der Reyden, T. & Mouton, R. P. (1991). Quinolone resistance in Campylobacter isolated from man and poultry following the introduction of fluoroquinolones in veterinary medicine. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 27, 199208.[Abstract]
10 . Rautelin, H., Renkonen, O.-V. & Kosunen, T. U. (1991). Emergence of fluoroquinolone resistance in Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in subjects from Finland. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 35, 20659.[ISI][Medline]
11 . Sánchez, R., Fernández-Baca, V., Díaz, M. D., Muñoz, P., Rodríguez-Créixems, M. & Bouza, E. (1994). Evolution of susceptibilities of Campylobacter spp. to quinolones and macrolides. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 38, 187982.[Abstract]
12 . Gaunt, P. N. & Piddock, L. J. V. (1996). Ciprofloxacin resistant Campylobacter spp. in humans: an epidemiological and laboratory study. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 37, 74757.[Abstract]
13 . Harris, N. V., Weiss, N. S. & Nolan, C. M. (1986). The role of poultry and meats in the etiology of Campylobacter jejuni/coli enteritis. American Journal of Public Health 76, 40711.[Abstract]
14 . Kapperud, G., Skjerve, E., Bean, N. H., Ostroff, S. M. & Lassen, J. (1992). Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a casecontrol study in south-eastern Norway. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 30, 311721.[Abstract]
15 . Deming, M. S., Tauxe, R. V., Blake, P. A., Dixon, S. E., Fowler, B. S., Jones, T. S. et al. (1987). Campylobacter enteritis at a university: transmission from eating chicken and from cats. American Journal of Epidemiology 126, 1220.
16 . Washington, J. A. (1985). Identification of aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria. In Laboratory Procedures in Clinical Microbiology, (Washington, J. A., Ed.), pp. 131250. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY.
17
.
Vandamme, P., Van Doorn, L.-J., Al Rashid, S. T., Quint, W. G. V., Van Der Plas, J., Chan, V. L. et al. (1997). Campylobacter hyoilei Alderton et al. 1995 and Campylobacter coli Véron and Chatelain 1973 are subjective synonyms. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 47, 105560.
18 . Pot, B., Vandamme, P. & Kerstens, K. (1994). Analysis of electrophoretic whole-cell organism protein fingerprints. In Modern Microbial Methods. Chemical Methods in Prokaryotic Systematics, (Goodfellow, M. & O'Donnell, A. G., Eds), pp. 493521. J. Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK.
19 . National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards. (1999). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing: Ninth Informational Supplement M100-S9. NCCLS, Villanova, PA.
20 . Smith, K. E., Besser, J. M., Hedberg, C. W., Leano, F. T., Bender, J. B., Wicklund, J. H. et al. (1999). Quinolone-resistant Campylobacter jejuni infections in Minnesota, 19921998. New England Journal of Medicine 20, 152532.
21 . Reina, J., Ros, M. J. & Fernandez-Baca, V. (1995). Resistance to erythromycin in fluoroquinolone-resistant Campylobacter jejuni strains isolated from human faeces. Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 35, 3512.
22 . Figueroa, G., Troncoso, M., Galeno, H., Soto, V. & Toledo, M. S. (1990). Biotypes, serogroups and antibiotic susceptibility of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in Chile. Journal of Infection 20, 1237.[ISI][Medline]
23
.
Bager, F., Emborg, H.-D., Hovgaard, K., Boel, J., Jrgensen, T. R., S
rensen T. L. et al. (1998). DANMAP 98 Consumption of Antimicrobial Agents and Occurrence of Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria from Food Animals, Food and Humans in Denmark. The Danish Integrated Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring and Research Programme, Copenhagen, Denmark.
24 . Gootz, T. D. & Martin, B. A. (1991). Characterization of high-level quinolone resistance in Campylobacter jejuni. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 35, 8405.[ISI][Medline]
25 . Jacobs-Reitsma, W. F., Kan, C. A. & Bolder, N. M. (1994). The introduction of quinolone resistance in Campylobacter bacteria in broilers by quinolone treatment. Letters in Applied Microbiology 19, 22831.[ISI]
26 . Velazquez, J. B., Jimenez, A., Chomon, B. & Villa, T. G. (1995). Incidence and transmission of antibiotic resistance in Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 35, 1738.[Abstract]
27
.
Sáenz, Y., Zarazaga, M., Lantero, M., Gastañares, M. J., Baquero, F. & Torres, C. (2000). Antibiotic resistance in Campylobacter strains isolated from animals, foods, and humans in Spain in 19971998. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 44, 26771.
Received 15 January 2001; returned 11 April 2001; revised 30 April 2001; accepted 17 May 2001