Division of Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
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Abstract |
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Introduction |
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Several model systems for studying Candida biofilm formation in vitro have been developed recently, including the perfused biofilm fermenter7 and the cylindrical cellulose filter.8 The simplest system9 involves growing adherent cell populations on the surfaces of small discs cut from catheters.10 Growth can be monitored quantitatively by dry weight measurements and by colorimetric or radioisotope assays.9,10 Biofilms of C. albicans produced by this method consisted of yeasts, hyphae and pseudohyphae, arranged in a bilayer structure.11 A matrix of EP surrounded the biofilm cells and the synthesis of matrix material increased markedly when developing biofilms were subjected to a liquid flow.12 The biofilms were resistant to the action of five clinically important antifungal agents, including amphotericin B and fluconazole.13
The mechanisms by which Candida biofilms resist the action of antifungal agents are not known. Possible resistance mechanisms include drug exclusion by the biofilm matrix and phenotypic changes resulting from nutrient limitation or a low growth rate.14 In a previous investigation,7 a perfused biofilm fermenter was used to generate C. albicans biofilms at different growth rates, and the susceptibility of the biofilm cells to amphotericin B was compared with that of planktonic organisms grown at the same rates in a chemostat. The results showed that biofilms were resistant to the drug at all growth rates tested whereas planktonic cells were resistant only at low growth rates. A subsequent study using a different model system8 demonstrated that glucose-limited and iron-limited biofilms grown at the same low rate were equally resistant to amphotericin B.
In this investigation, we have explored the possibility that the matrix of EP might act as a barrier to the diffusion of antifungal agents and so limit the access of drugs to organisms deep in the biofilm. We exploited the earlier finding12 that synthesis of matrix material could be dramatically increased by incubating catheter discs with gentle shaking to produce a flow of liquid over the surface of the developing biofilm. Biofilms showing minimal matrix synthesis (grown statically) and maximal matrix synthesis (grown with shaking) were tested for their susceptibility to a range of antifungal agents. In addition, the chemical composition of biofilm EP was investigated and compared with that of EP isolated from culture supernatants of planktonic cells.
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Materials and methods |
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C. albicans GDH 2346, a denture stomatitis isolate, was used in all experiments. It was maintained on Sabouraud dextrose agar (Difco Laboratories, Detroit, MI, USA) and was grown in liquid culture, or as biofilms, in yeast nitrogen base (Difco) containing glucose or galactose, as described previously.10
Biofilm formation
Biofilms were formed on small discs (surface area, 0.5 cm2) cut from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Faucher tubes (French gauge 36; Vygon, Cirencester, UK), as reported elsewhere.10 In some experiments, discs were cut from PVC vena cava catheters (French gauge 40; Jostra, Hirrlingen, Germany). The discs were placed in wells of 24-well Nunclon tissue culture plates (Nalge Nunc International, Rochester, NY, USA), and a washed cell suspension (80 µL), standardized to an optical density of 0.8 at 540 nm, was applied to the surface of each one. After incubation for 1 h at 37°C (adhesion period), non-adherent organisms were removed by washing with 0.15 M phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) pH 7.2. The discs were then incubated in the wells for 48 h at 37°C, submerged in growth medium (1 mL, containing 50 mM glucose), to allow biofilm formation. In some experiments, biofilms were formed on catheter discs incubated with gentle shaking, at 15 rpm,12 instead of statically.
Biofilms grown for EP extraction were formed on sections (4 cm long) of Faucher tube that had been cut aseptically into three equal concave strips. Standardized cell suspension was added to the surface of each strip and the strips were incubated for 1 h at 37°C. After removal of non-adherent cells by washing, the strips were transferred to a Petri dish (five strips per dish) containing yeast nitrogen base supplemented with 500 mM galactose and incubated at 37°C for 5 days to allow biofilm formation. A 5 day incubation period in medium containing 500 mM galactose was used to facilitate comparison with planktonic EP, the production of which is optimal under these conditions.15
Isolation of EP
Planktonic cultures were grown for 5 days at 37°C in yeast nitrogen base containing 500 mM galactose, and EP was prepared by freeze-drying dialysed culture supernatants, as described previously.16 Biofilm EP was isolated using a slight modification of this protocol. Briefly, catheter strips with their adherent biofilms were transferred to universal bottles (five strips per bottle) each containing 10 mL of distilled water. The bottles were sonicated for 5 min and vortexed vigorously for 1 min to disrupt the biofilms. Cell suspensions were then pooled and centrifuged. The supernatants were concentrated to one-tenth of the original volume using an Amicon DC2 hollow-fibre system (Millipore Ltd, Watford, UK) and dialysed at 4°C for 3 days against five changes (5 L each) of distilled water. The retentates were freeze-dried.
Analysis of EP
EP preparations from planktonic and biofilm cultures were analysed quantitatively for total carbohydrate (with mannose as a standard), phosphorus, protein (with bovine serum albumin as a standard), glucose and hexosamine (with glucosamine as a standard) using procedures described elsewhere.15 Samples of EP were also assayed for uronic acids,17 and for pyruvyl18 and acetyl19 substituents. Before analysis for carbohydrate, EP preparations were treated with detergent to remove any green pigment that might cause interference in the assay.15 EP was dissolved in 0.1% Triton X-100 and the solution was stirred continuously at room temperature for 5 h. Detergent-treated EP was recovered by precipitation with acetone (2 volumes; 2 h at 4°C), washed with ether, evaporated to dryness in vacuo and redissolved in water as required. EP was completely soluble in water.
Acid hydrolysates of biofilm EP (2 M HCl at 100°C for 3 h) were also analysed by high-performance anion-exchange chromatography using a Binary Gradient high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system (Gilson Medical Electronics, Villiers-Le-Bel, France), eluent degas module (Dionex Corporation, Sunnyvale, CA, USA) and PAD electrochemical detector (Dionex). The column used in conjunction with this equipment was a Carbopak PA-100 (4 x 250 mm; Dionex).
Susceptibility of biofilms to antifungal agents
Biofilms, grown with or without shaking, were tested for susceptibility to amphotericin B (Sigma, St Louis, MO, USA), flucytosine (5-fluorocytosine; Sigma), fluconazole (Pfizer Ltd, Sandwich, Kent, UK), itraconazole (Janssen Research Foundation, Beerse, Belgium) and ketoconazole (Janssen) using a method described previously.9,13 Briefly, 48 h biofilms on catheter discs were incubated statically for 5 h at 37°C in wells containing antifungal agents diluted from stock solution in growth medium. The medium contained 50 mM glucose and was buffered to pH 7 with 0.165 M morpholinepropanesulphonic acid (MOPS; Sigma). Amphotericin B was used at 50 mg/L, azoles at
96 mg/L and flucytosine at
250 mg/L. After incubation, biofilms were washed gently in PBS and biofilm activity was measured using assays of [3H]leucine uptake.9,10 The effect of an antifungal agent was assessed in terms of [3H]leucine incorporation by biofilms calculated as a percentage of that for control biofilms incubated in the absence of the agent.
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Results |
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EP surrounding fungal cells in biofilms was isolated and its composition was compared with that of EP obtained from culture supernatants of planktonically grown C. albicans. The overall composition of planktonic EP was very similar to that reported previously15 for the same strain grown under identical conditions. It consisted largely of carbohydrate (86%, including 4.7% glucose), together with smaller amounts of protein (8%) and phosphorus (0.3%; Table). By contrast, biofilm EP contained significantly less total carbohydrate (41%) and protein, but had a higher proportion of glucose (16%) than planktonic EP. Although our analyses accounted for all of the dry weight of planktonic EP, approximately half of the dry weight of biofilm EP remained unidentified and may represent one or more unique components. Neither EP preparation contained detectable amounts of uronic acid, or pyruvyl or acetyl residues.
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Susceptibility to antifungal agents of biofilms incubated under static and flow conditions
To assess the possible role of matrix material in the resistance of C. albicans biofilms to antifungal agents, susceptibility profiles of biofilms incubated statically (which possessed a sparse matrix) were compared with those for biofilms incubated with gentle shaking (which produced copious amounts of matrix material). Biofilms grown for 48 h, with or without shaking, were incubated statically with different concentrations of various drugs for a further 5 h at 37°C. The ability of the biofilms to take up [3H]leucine was then determined as a measure of their metabolic activity. Most of the drugs tested had no effect on [3H]leucine uptake by biofilm cells, even at high concentrations (Figure 1). This is in contrast to their effect on planktonic cells as reported previously.13 For example, flucytosine was ineffective at 1250 x MIC (Figure 1b
), fluconazole at 240 x MIC (Figure 1c
) and both itraconazole and ketoconazole at 3840 x MIC (data not shown). However, at concentrations around the MIC (1.3 mg/L), amphotericin B inhibited [3H]leucine incorporation into biofilm cells by c. 50% (Figure 1a
). Biofilms grown with or without shaking did not show significant differences in susceptibility to any of the drugs, indicating that drug resistance was unrelated to the extent of matrix formation. A more detailed investigation of the inhibitory effect of amphotericin B between 0 and 50 min (Figure 2
) confirmed that this was also true for shorter incubation periods. However, differences in catheter type produced large differences in susceptibility to amphotericin B: biofilms formed on vena cava catheter discs were more susceptible than those grown on Faucher tubes (Figure 3
). Both types are made of PVC, although they are supplied by different manufacturers. The differences in susceptibility were observed for biofilms with or without an extensive matrix, i.e. grown with shaking or statically (Figure 3
).
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Discussion |
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Possible drug exclusion by the matrix of bacterial biofilms seems to depend on a number of factors, including the nature of the antibiotic and the binding capacity of the matrix towards it.14,20 For compounds such as tobramycin and cefsulodin, reductions in diffusion coefficients across the matrix, relative to liquid media, are insufficient to account for the different susceptibilities of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm cells.21,22 On the other hand, mucoid strains of P. aeruginosa grown as biofilms are significantly less susceptible to the quinolone ciprofloxacin than are non-mucoid strains.23 With C. albicans biofilms, our results indicate that the matrix does not constitute a barrier to the penetration of five clinically important antifungal agents of differing chemical structure. Previous studies with a perfused biofilm fermenter7 and a cylindrical filter model system8 showed that resuspended biofilm cells (which presumably had lost most of their matrix) were some 20% less resistant to amphotericin B than intact C. albicans biofilms, suggesting that the matrix might play a minor role in drug resistance. However, the detailed investigation of amphotericin action on biofilms in experiments reported here provides no support for that conclusion.
Certain bacterial genes are known to be switched on at a surface24,25 and there is mounting evidence for the involvement of cellcell signalling in the development of bacterial biofilms.2629 Since the drug resistance of Candida biofilms cannot be attributed to a matrix barrier effect or to a low growth rate,7 it seems increasingly likely that contact-induced gene expression may be the mechanism by which drug resistance is acquired. It is already known that synthesis of new proteins occurs after attachment of the yeast to certain surfaces.30 Moreover, previous work from this laboratory has shown that exclusively yeast-form biofilms are observed with C. albicans GDH 2346 growing on cylindrical cellulose filters,8 but not on cellulose acetate membrane filters,7 suggesting that morphogenesis is dependent on highly specific contact-induced gene expression. The present study has demonstrated that biofilms formed on two different types of PVC catheter, obtained from different manufacturers, showed significant differences in susceptibility to amphotericin B. It is also noteworthy that antifungal susceptibilities reported here for all five drugs do not wholly correspond with previous values determined for biofilms of the same strain of C. albicans using a type of PVC catheter that is no longer produced.13 Clearly, catheters made of the same material (PVC), but perhaps with a different plasticizer content or composition, can generate C. albicans biofilms with varying resistance properties, suggesting that drug resistance may also arise as a consequence of highly specific, surface-induced gene expression.
Matrix polymers of bacterial biofilms are primarily exopolysaccharides and many of them are negatively charged. Smaller amounts of proteins, nucleic acids and various other components may also be present. The polysaccharides vary considerably from species to species according to the nature of the sugar residues involved, their linkages and the presence of uronic acids or acetyl, pyruvyl and succinyl substituents.31,32 Analytical evidence presented so far indicates that, in the majority of environments, biofilm bacteria produce exopolysaccharides of the same composition as those formed in planktonic cultures and that biofilmspecific polysaccharides are rarely found.33 However, a recent study by Ruiz and co-workers34 demonstrated that biofilms of P. fluorescens produce a distinct matrix polymer of high molecular mass that is not synthesized by equivalent planktonic cells; interestingly, the analyses reported by these authors, like those presented here, failed to account for the total weight of matrix material. Our analyses of EP isolated from biofilms and planktonic cultures of C. albicans revealed both qualitative and quantitative differences in composition. Quantitative analysis of planktonic EP indicated a composition very similar to that reported previously for the same strain.15 By comparison, biofilm EP contained much less carbohydrate and rather less protein. Both preparations contained glucose, mannose and hexosamine, but galactose was also detected in biofilm EP. Glucose was the most abundant monosaccharide in biofilm EP, whereas planktonic EP contained more mannose, probably present as mannoprotein.15 These analytical data suggest that C. albicans, unlike many bacteria, may produce biofilm-specific EP. If these findings were confirmed, they would provide further evidence for contact-induced gene expression in Candida biofilms.
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Acknowledgments |
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Notes |
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References |
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Received 28 October 1999; returned 25 January 2000; revised 18 February 2000; accepted 19 May 2000