Department of Pediatrics, Georgetown University School of Medicine, 4431 Albemarle Street NW, Washington, DC 20016, USA
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Abstract |
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Keywords: abscess, Bacteroides spp., therapy, anaerobic bacteria, synergy
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Introduction |
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This review summarizes our past studies of the microbiology of polymicrobial abscesses that occur at various body sites. These were retrospective studies accomplished by reviewing the clinical and microbiology laboratory records of patients whose specimens from infected sites were processed for the presence of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. These studies demonstrated the polymicrobial aetiology of abscesses and the association of their bacterial flora with the anatomical site of the infection. The implications of the microbiology for the management of abscesses are discussed.
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Role of the normal flora in polymicrobial abscesses |
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Variations in the number of bacteria in the GIT account for the differences that are observed in cultures of the peritoneal cavity after perforations. Three different isolates per specimen and 107 organisms/g were recovered from perforation of the small intestine, whereas 26 different bacterial isolates and 1012 organisms/g were isolated from specimens of colonic perforation.4 This high load of microorganisms is believed to account for the higher frequency (50%) of the infections that follow colonic injury, compared with that after chest injuries (18%), found by Dellinger et al.5 The higher number of organisms in the distal part of the colon also explains why infection developed in 45% of patients with descending-colon injuries, compared with
13% in the other sites of the colon.
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Microbiology of abscesses of endogenous origin |
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Organisms belonging to the B. fragilis group, which predominate in the faeces, were cultured most frequently from abscesses of the perirectal area.3 Prevotella melaninogenica, which occurs in stool as well as in the oral cavity,2 was also recovered from this site and from the head.
The microbiology of intra-abdominal abscesses that develop following perforation of viscera is composed of similar patterns of organisms and is made up of the gastrointestinal flora at the level of the perforation (Table 2). The predominant anaerobic bacteria are the B. fragilis group, Peptostreptococcus spp. and Clostridium spp., whereas the most commonly isolated aerobic and facultative bacteria are Enterobacteriaceae and Group D Enterococcus spp. These organisms were recovered from a variety of intra-abdominal,6 retroperitoneal,7 visceral (e.g. pancreatic,8 hepatic, splenic9) and perirectal10 abscesses (post-diverticulitis rupture11 and subphrenic12). A similar pattern also exists in the microbiology of pelvic, vulvo-vaginal13 and prostatic14 abscesses, which originate from the rectal and cervical flora.2,3 The predominant anaerobic bacteria are P. bivia, P. disiens and peptostreptococci, whereas the common aerobic and facultative bacteria include Enterobacteriaceae, N. gonorrhoeae and Group B streptococci (Table 2).
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Aspirates from abscesses of the perineal and oral regions tend to yield organisms found in stool or mouth flora.2123 Conversely, pus obtained from abscesses in areas remote from the rectum or mouth contain primarily constituents of the microflora indigenous to the skin, such as S. pyogenes and S. aureus. Multiple anaerobic organisms are usually recovered from the perineal region, whereas only about one aerobe per abscess is present at other sites (Table 1). Anaerobes are also recovered alone, without aerobes, more often from the perineal area. Mixed aerobic and anaerobic infections are more prevalent in the perirectal, head, finger and nail bed areas. The similarities in the rates of isolation of mixed aerobic and anaerobic flora and the high rate of recovery of anaerobes in these areas are of particular interest. This may be due, in the last two areas, to the introduction of mouth flora, which is predominantly anaerobic, onto the fingers by sucking or nail biting, which are common activities among children. This is parallel to the acquisition of infection following human bites and clenched fist injuries in which anaerobic mouth flora was the source of most bacterial isolates.24
The polymicrobial nature of abdominal, pelvic and skin and soft tissue (proximal to the oral or rectal areas) abscesses is apparent in the majority of patients, where the number of isolates in an infectious site varies between two and six1,2 (Tables 1 and 3). The average number of isolates is 3.6 in skin and soft tissue infections (2.6 anaerobes and 1.0 aerobe) per specimen,2123 five in intra-abdominal infection (3.0 anaerobes and 2.0 aerobes) per specimen and four in pelvic infections (2.8 anaerobes and 1.2 aerobes) per specimen.13,14 Polymicrobial infections are known to be more pathogenic for experimental animals than those involving single organisms.25,26 The number of isolates in these polymicrobial abscesses varies from two to six (Tables 1 and 3), and is generally higher when reported in studies in which stricter methods for collection, transportation and cultivation of anaerobic organisms are employed.17,18,24,27
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Management |
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The early administration of antibiotics can abort the development of an abscess. Once the suppuration has appeared, however, drugs generally become incapable of eradicating the infecting organisms. Several antibiotics can be partially inactivated by the pus, whereas others can maintain their potency. Another factor that decreases the activity of antibiotics that are active only against multiplying organisms (penicillins and cephalosporins) is the failure of offending bacteria to multiply well in pus. Phagocytosis, which is essential to complete elimination of bacteria, is reduced in the abscess cavity. Because of the combination of these two factors, many abscesses are resistant to antimicrobial therapy.
Because anaerobic bacteria are frequently associated with abscesses, especially in areas adjacent to the mucosal surfaces, physicians should anticipate their presence if antimicrobial therapy is employed. Grams stain of aspirated pus and appropriate aerobic and anaerobic techniques can help the physician select proper therapy. Because some of the anaerobes are resistant to penicillin, therapy should also include appropriate coverage of these organisms in more serious infections.
A careful attempt should be made to identify the causative microorganisms, including anaerobes, and as many of the isolated aerobic and anaerobic bacteria produce ß-lactamase and are resistant to penicillins,29 antimicrobial agents effective against these organisms should be used. If anaerobic organisms are isolated, metronidazole, clindamycin, a carbapenem (i.e. imipenem), cefoxitin or the combination of a penicillin and a ß-lactamase inhibitor are the drugs of choice.1,2 Metronidazole is also a very potent amoebicide. An aminoglycoside, a quinolone (in adults) or a third-generation cephalosporin should be added if Gram-negative enteric bacteria are present, and if S. aureus is present anti-staphylococcal agents should be used. Antimicrobial agents, especially when used without surgical drainage, should be given for at least 68 weeks. A shorter course, of 46 weeks, may be used when good surgical drainage has been achieved, but more precise recommendations for the treatment of liver and spleen abscesses have not yet been determined in prospective studies.
Appropriate management of mixed aerobic and anaerobic infections requires the administration of antimicrobials that are effective against both aerobic and anaerobic components of the infection1,2 in addition to surgical correction and drainage of pus. When such therapy is not given, the infection may persist, and more serious complications may occur.30
A number of factors should be considered when choosing appropriate antimicrobial agents. They should be effective against all target organism(s), induce little or no resistance, achieve sufficient levels in the infected site, have minimal toxicity and have maximal stability and longevity.
Antimicrobials often fail to cure the infection. Some of the reasons they do not work are the development of bacterial resistance, achievement of insufficient tissue levels, incompatible drug interaction and the development of an abscess. The environment of an abscess is detrimental for many antimicrobials. The abscess fibrotic capsule interferes with the penetration of antimicrobial agents, and the low pH and the presence of binding proteins or inactivating enzymes (i.e. ß-lactamases) may impair the activity of many antimicrobials. The low pH and the anaerobic environment within the abscess are especially deleterious toward the aminoglycosides and quinolones.31 It should be remembered that an acidic environment, high osmolarity and the presence of an anaerobic environment can develop in an infection site without the presence of an abscess.30
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Footnotes |
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References |
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2 . Finegold, S. M. (1977). Anaerobic Bacteria in Human Disease. Academic Press, New York, NY, USA.
3 . Sullivan, A., Edlund, C. & Nord, C. E. (2001). Effect of antimicrobial agents on the ecological balance of human microflora. Lancet Infectious Diseases 1, 10114.[Medline]
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5 . Dellinger, E. P., Oreskovich, M. R., Wertz, M. J., Hamasaki, V. & Lennard, E. S. (1984). Risk of infection following laparotomy for penetrating abdominal injury. Archives of Surgery 119, 207.[Abstract]
6 . Brook, I. (1989). A 12 year study of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria in intra-abdominal and post surgical abdominal wound infections. Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics 169, 38792.
7 . Brook, I. & Frazier, E. H. (1998) Aerobic and anaerobic microbiology of retroperitoneal abscesses. Clinical Infectious Diseases 26, 93841.[ISI][Medline]
8 . Brook, I. & Frazier, E. H. (1996). Microbiological analysis of pancreatic abscess. Clinical Infectious Diseases 22, 3845.[ISI][Medline]
9 . Brook, I. & Frazier, E. H. (1998). Microbiology of liver and spleen abscesses. Journal of Medical Microbiology 47, 107580.[Abstract]
10 . Brook, I. & Frazier, E. H. (1997). The aerobic and anaerobic bacteriology of perirectal abscesses. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 35, 29746.[Abstract]
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Brook, I. & Frazier, E. H. (2000). Aerobic and anaerobic microbiology in intra-abdominal infections associated with diverticulitis. Journal of Medical Microbiology 49, 82730.
12 . Brook, I., & Frazier, E. H. (1999). Microbiology of subphrenic abscesses: a 14-year experience. American Surgeon 65, 104953.[ISI][Medline]
13 . Brook, I., Frazier, E. H. & Thomas, R. L. (1991). Aerobic and anaerobic microbiologic factors and recovery of beta-lactamase-producing bacteria from obstetric and gynecologic infection. Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics 172, 13844.
14 . Brook, I. (1989). Anaerobic bacteria in suppurative genitourinary infections. Journal of Urology 141, 88993.[ISI][Medline]
15 . Brook, I. (1987). Microbiology of abscesses of the head and neck in children. Annals of Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology 96, 42933.[ISI][Medline]
16 . Brook, I., Frazier, E. H. & Thompson, D. H. (1991) Aerobic and anaerobic microbiology of peritonsillar abscess. Laryngoscope 101, 28992.[ISI][Medline]
17 . Brook, I. (1987). Microbiology of retropharyngeal abscesses in children. American Journal of Diseases of Childhood 141, 2024.
18 . Brook, I., Frazier, E. H. & Thompson, D. H. (1991). Aerobic and anaerobic microbiology of acute suppurative parotitis. Laryngoscope 101, 1702.[ISI][Medline]
19 . Brook, I. & Frazier, E. H. (1998). Microbiology of cervical lymphadenitis in adults. Acta Otolaryngologica 118, 4436.[ISI][Medline]
20 . Brook, I., Frazier, E. H. & Gher, M. E. (1991). Aerobic and anaerobic microbiology of periapical abscess. Oral Microbiology and Immunology 6, 1235.[ISI][Medline]
21 . Meislin, H. W., Lerner, S. A., Graves, M. H., McGehee, M. D., Kocka, F. E., Morello, J. A. et al. (1977). Cutaneous abscesses. Anaerobic and aerobic bacteriology and outpatient management. Annals of Internal Medicine 87, 1459.[ISI][Medline]
22 . Brook, I. & Finegold, S. M. (1981) Aerobic and anaerobic bacteriology of cutaneous abscesses in children. Pediatrics 67, 8915.[Abstract]
23 . Brook, I. & Frazier, E. H. (1990). Aerobic and anaerobic bacteriology of wounds and cutaneous abscesses. Archives of Surgery 125, 144551.[Abstract]
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26 . Altermeier, W. A. (1942). The pathogenicity of the bacteria of appendicitis. Surgery 11, 3748.
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30 . Brook, I. (1999). Anaerobic infections. Reviews in Medical Microbiology 10, 13753.[ISI]
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