Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Queen's University Belfast, Mulhouse Building, RVH, Belfast, BT12 6BJ, UK. E-mail: a.evans{at}qub.ac.uk
Robert Owen, the Welsh Philanthropist and William Thompson, the Cork Philosopher, or Communist, were two giants of the Co-operative Movement. While Owen crusaded for the New Moral World, Thompson provided the intellectual spine of the Movement through a series of major books in the 1820s. If the paternalistic Owen outlined the Protocol of the great social experiment, the meticulous Thompson wrote its Manual of Operations. Practical Directions was the complete recipe book for setting up communes and devoted an entire chapter to the Preservation of Health. However, by the time it appeared, in 1830, serious cracks in the two men's relationship had begun to appear. Thompson died comparatively young in 1833, and if he had survived longer the Co-operative Movement might have been more successful.
According to Harrison,1 Robert Owens' life (17711858) fell into six main periods, each characterized by a dominant interest or theme. The first, 17711799, extended from his boyhood in Newtown, Montgomeryshire, where, as the son of an ironmonger and saddler, he had but a few years of schooling before being apprenticed to a draper. He left home at the age of 10, and, About 1778 he arrived in Manchester, a friend having secured for him a position in a draper's shop. He subsequently moved into the cotton spinning business and entered into the cultural life of Manchester.
In 1799 he and his partners acquired the New Lanark Mills in Scotland from David Dale and at the same time Owen fell in love with Dale's daughter, Caroline. The pair were soon married and in 1800 Owen went to live at New Lanark.
The period of Owen's life from 1800 to 1824 was ... in many ways his most splendid.1 In these years he made New Lanark a model factory.' He introduced humane conditions for his staff and provided their children with an education, but according to McLaren, David Dale had already made these improvements,2 having founded the cotton mills at New Lanark with Richard Arkwright in 1785. In any case, Owen acquired a large fortune, and raised a family of seven children. Owen's career was one of the big success stories of the early Industrial Revolution. About 1812, however, Owen began to show signs of departure from the usual pattern of an industrialist's life. His emphasis on schemes of education and social welfare for the employees became more and more pronounced, and he began to talk of extending these ideas to society at large.1 After the ending of:
... the Napoleonic wars he became increasingly absorbed in his plans for the reconstruction of society and his social criticism became more radical. At first he was listened to with respect, and gained support in high places. But, when he went on to attack basic institutions in society such as the family and the churches, sympathy in this quarter ebbed away.1Owen's plan for the reorganization of society (soon for the salvation of the world) matured rapidly between 1816 and 1820. The seeds had been sown earlier in A New View of Society. In 1813, the Utilitarian Philosopher, Jeremy Bentham, became one of a small number of eminent people who bought shares in New Lanark Mills.3 According to Owen,4 Bentham had a nervous temperament and his account of their meeting is somewhat disparaging, He had little knowledge of the world, except through books and ...spent a long life in an endeavour to amend laws, all based on a fundamental error, without discovering this error ..., and he concluded that, His friends have stated that it was the only successful enterprise in which he ever engaged. According to Bentham:3
It was there [at New Lanark] the first experiments were made of infant school educationthat music and dancing were taught to the childrenand that corporal punishment and coercive discipline were wholly excluded. And no one can have witnessed the happy consequences without being convinced of the greater efficiency of kindness and gentleness than of severity and harshness.
Bentham, indeed, had every reason to be satisfied with the pecuniary results of his investments of money in the New Lanark Mills. Years afterwards Bentham had this to say:3
Robert Owen begins in vapour, and ends in smoke. He is a great braggadocio. His mind is a maze of confusion, and he avoids coming to particulars. He is always the samesays the same things over and over again. He built some small houses; and people, who had no houses of their own, went to live in those houses:and he calls this success.
Another partner was William Allen, a Quaker and chemist, whose surname is commemorated in the title of the pharmaceutical firm, Allen and Hanbury. It was to Allen that Robert Owen uttered the immortal words, All the world is queer except thee and me, and even thou art a little queer.5
In 1817 Owen put forward his master plan for communities in The Report to the Committee of the Association for the Relief of the Manufacturing and Labouring Poor6 which was referred in 1817 to the Select Committee of the House of Commons on the Poor Laws.1 In this Report huge parallelograms of buildings to house up to 1500 people were to be planted deep in rural bliss (Figure 1). One of the key recommendations was for the housing of children in dormitories: the Owenites major thrust was against the family as opposed to the subsequent Communists where it was directed against the class system. Interestingly, because the epithet of Socialist was applied to Owen and his followers by the mid 1820s, it was not available for Marx and Engels later on, so they had to resort to the alternative title of Communist.1 Needless to say, Owen's ideas found little favour with the economy-minded Select Committee so he looked elsewhere for support, appealing to the great and the good and generally evangelizing.1
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In 1819 he wrote to Jeremy Bentham on the subject of establishing a Chrestomathic school in Cork.3 (This was a system of schooling devised by Bentham which was to be free of religious instruction and physical punishment.)9 Bentham replied on 7 April, and subsequently wrote inviting William Thompson to his house at Queen's Square, London, giving a fascinating account of his domestic arrangements: At dinner, soup as constantly as if I were a Frenchman, an article of my religion learnt in France, ....3 Subsequently, for fairly lengthy periods of time, Thompson was Bentham's guest. He wrote much of his Inquiry into the Principles of the Distribution of Wealth (1824)10 when staying with Bentham. In this book he introduced the concept of surplus value which was later to be borrowed by Karl Marx.7,11 His other major work on Economics was Labour Rewarded published in 1827.12 At Bentham's he also met Anna Wheeler, the Co-operator and Feminist, with whom he wrote the Appeal of One-Half of the Human Race, Women, against the Pretensions of the Half, Men, ... (1825).13 Anna was born in 1785, the youngest daughter of the famous Irish Protestant Archbishop Doyle, survived a disastrous marriage to a minor Irish aristocrat, and drunkard, before fleeing to Guernsey in 1812.9 The Appeal was written as a riposte to James Mill's Article on Government which appeared in the 1824 supplement to the Encyclopaedia Britannica. The Article stated that it was pretty clear that all individuals (women and children) whose interests were indisputably included in those of others could be denied political representation without inconvenience.7
Thompson also visited Bentham in late 1825 as there is a letter from Anna Wheeler's daughter, Henrietta, to her sister Rosina, soon to be the wife of Edward Bulwer (Bulwer-Lytton the novelist). In this letter written from Paris, Henrietta gives an account of Mr Bentem's [sic] visit. She describes14 him as a:
... charming, gay old man and made a conquest of everyone in the hotel where he lodged. From his amiable manners; he was very much run after here, and his arrival announced in the papers in a most flattering manner; ...
She relates how His two young secretaries were with us;..., but neither could have been Edwin Chadwick as he did not take up his post with Bentham until 1831. Chadwick was subsequently to become the main architect of the 1833 Factory Act and the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834.15 It was the imposition of this Act on Ireland in 1838 which was, according to Kinealy, to have such disastrous consequences in the forthcoming potato famine.16
It is not absolutely clear when William Thompson took up the Owenite cause as he originally thought of Owen's plan as an improved system of pauper-management.1 It is highly likely that he was present at the three lectures which Robert Owen gave in the round room of the Rotunda in Dublin in 1823. Owen's first address lasted for a full 3 hours and evidently both the Speaker and his audience were blessed with stamina.17 It was delivered to a cluster of important people: the Duke and Duchess of Leinster, the Earl of Meath, Lord Cloncurry, and many more. Owen promoted the virtues of temperance and spade husbandry averring that it would solve the Irish problemreligious divisions. The third meeting took place on 19 April when Robert Owen stated:
The population of Ireland, according to the last census, is about seven millions, and of Great Britain, about fifteen millions, making together, in round numbers a population of twenty-two millions.There followed four sets of elaborate calculations leading to the conclusion:
It is, therefore, evident, that this hitherto ill-fated island is competent to maintain, not only all its own inhabitants, but more than double the whole population of Great-Britain and Ireland, in comfort heretofore unattained by any nations or people at any period of the world.This estimate must have come as a shock to Thomas Malthus, who was deeply concerned about Irish population growth, having written to David Ricardo in the early 1800s:
The land in Ireland is infinitely more peopled than in England; and to give full effect to the natural resources of the country, a great part of the population should be swept from the soil.16
Chadwick and Malthus' philosophy was largely based on the political economy of Adam Smith. In contrast, the system of Medical Police developed in Germany was more concerned18 with encouraging population growth than inhibiting it as in Britain, although realists pointed out that this may have been so as to ensure adequate cannon fodder in time of war.
What is clear, is that William Thompson's writings provided the intellectual backbone for Robert Owen's missionary zeal. There is some evidence that William Thompson visited New Lanark before 1820 (along with 20 000 others including the Grand Duke Nicholas of Russia between 1815 and 1825).1 In any case, in 1826 Thompson published his Prospectus of the Cork Co-operative Community (distance not to exceed 15 miles from Cork).19 It began:
More than nine-tenths of the products of the skilled labour of the industrious classes, are now consumed by those who, themselves, produce nothing, or whose labour, from want of skill or means of employment, is utterly unproductive; to wit, by paupers, by wholesale and retail dealers of all descriptions, by carriers, employers, possessors of capital, owners of land, consumers of taxes; not to speak of law-supported trade monopolists, nor of the professors of healing, killing (or war), or chicane under the name of law:while the one-tenth left are the only real producers, is liable to be taken altogether out of their hands by causes entirely out of their control, such as wars, bad seasons, impudence and speculations of merchants or manufacturers, awakened industry of foreign nations, improvements in machinery at home or abroad, domestic or foreign financial or currency regulations.It can be seen that Thompson was the master of the long sentence. Thompson had this to say on health:
... they will avoid the expenses of the actual system of healing art; because with them the art of promoting health (which will also form one of the most important branches of universal education) will for the most part supersede the art of curing diseases; so that, by the aid of undeviating temperance, of perfect cleanliness of house and person, freedom from unhealthy employments, with the abundance of all useful things, they will insure to themselves health, long life, the permanent and highest pleasures of appetites and tastes, with the indispensable basis of all other enjoyments; while, when their arrangements are complete, some of themselves, enjoying like themselves, their companions and friends, studying the particular department of health, will be their medical attendants and friends.While:
The leading principles of this community, therefore are mutual co-operation for the supply of each other's wants and equal distribution, amongst all, of the products of their united industry. The rights, duties and means of enjoyment of all the adult members, men or women are equal ...'
Around this time Robert Owen's estimates for setting up communities involved huge sums of money. Thompson's were far more modest, although the fact that a landlord had to set the whole venture up continued to worry him. One can detect some animosity creeping in between Owen and Thompson around this time. and this was truly the case.9 Thompson was certainly worried about Owen's surrounding himself with the titled and the rich for backing, and in Practical Directions (for the Speedy and Economical Establishment of Communities etcthe full title is reminiscent of a short story) published in 1830 he has a subtle jibe at the New Lanark system. On the subject of using music in education he opines:20
If we make use of music and decoration and the colours and luxury of dress, to aid in inculcating our notions and rendering them more impressive, how can we object to those who use the same means to intoxicate men with the delight in, what they call the glory of, the wholesale slaughter of their fellow creatures?In this book and in the earlier Prospectus it is tempting to spot the influence of Andrew Duncan who was Professor of Medicine in the Edinburgh Medical School. He defined21 Medical Police in a Memorial of 1798 as: The application of the principles deduced from the different branches of medical knowledge, for the promotion, preservation and restoration of general health. Duncan's son, who became the first Professor of Medical Police at Edinburgh in 1807,22 taught the great Belfast physician, Henry MacCormac, a Co-operator and a nominated Trustee of Thompson's estate.7
Practical Directions is a wonderful book, extraordinarily comprehensive, covering everything from flax to figs, onions to opium, and silk worms to steam engines. It runs to 278 pages of small print with a plan of the community on the frontispiece showing one grand facade of a huge parallelogram (Figure 2). It was designed for 15002000 people. The book addresses itself to Funds (mode of procuring), Land, Selection of Members, Buildings, Agriculture, Manufacturers, Moving-power (machines), Expenditure of Funds, Education and Mental Pleasures, Management of the General Concerns, or Government of a Community, and Apprehended Evils from Increase of Numbers. The County Clare Co-operator, ET Craig, stated:23 This book is a very valuable one, and is full of practical suggestions in relation to tillage and the architectural arrangement of dwellings of an economical construction. He went on to observe that Thompson was ... somewhat more prolix and redundant in his great book on the distribution of wealth ...
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Ignorance of moral and physical phenomina [sic], superstition, prejudices the most grovelling and contemptible as well as the most pernicious to human happiness, have hitherto, almost every where [sic], usurped the place of reason and utility, in regulating the power of increasing the numbers of the human race.Birth control could be effected thus:
In the human species, the gentle motion of mere walking immediately after intercourse, will prevent the completion of the process of conception. The few births that take place from what is termed intrigue out of marriage, will be found almost invariably to have occurred where opportunities for rest and sleep occurred and were used by the female; ...'And he goes on to state that in France such post-coital repose is:
...seldom afforded; nor are they wished for by a lively social people, whose enjoyments are exalted and doubled by the gay union of fancy and mutual intelligence, and not degraded to the mere unreflecting, drowsy-animal, propensities of the Irish.Elsewhere he observes:
But the Irish are driven in early youth by every motive that can seduce or terrify, physical, spiritual, and last of all patriotic into premature and indissoluble marriage.And:
... all intercourse tending to happiness or a preponderance of good over evil, might there be termed marriage, to gratify those who have been accustomed to associate morals with the letters forming certain mystic words or with certain arbitrary and entirely unessential ceremonies.To cap it off, he states:
... the burthen of the increase [in the community's numbers] would fall naturally and as a matter of course on those women whose organisation was best adapted to it, the healthiest, the finest formed, and those likely to suffer the least inconvenience;...
The community envisaged in Practical Directions was, of course, never built. However, it is recorded that Thompson built a 100 feet high round tower or turret at Carhoogarriff (the rough quarter), on a lofty peak overlooking the estate. Pankhurst states that Thompson could have watched his boats sailing in and out of Glandore harbour,7 although, to do this he must have had exceptional eyesight, in view of the distance involved.24 In 1841 the six-inch Ordnance Survey map indicates that the tower or turret was ruinous. It had disappeared for building purposes by 19341936. The field was finally cleared in the late 1980s by the present owners and nothing of the site remains, although, there is a faint suspicion of the outline of the base of the tower in dry weather. What does survive, however, are a number of ruined cottages (Figure 3) which may have been the core of Thompson's embryonic community. A combination of the tower and the cottages is reminiscent of one of Bentham's great concepts, The Panopticon, a circular prison with a central surveillance facility25 (Box 1). It should be pointed out that Thompson's Turret was set at some distance from his community.
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Box 1 The Benthamite legacy Bentham developed the idea of the Panopticon when visiting his younger brother Samuel, a naval engineer in Russia who was then employed by Prince Potempkin to reorganise the industries on his Critchef estate in 1787.1 Bentham described the Panopticon Penitentiary as, a mill for grinding rogues honest, and idle men industrious. When Edmund Burke, the Irish Political Philosopher, whom Bentham regarded as shallow and insincere, was first shown the plan, he turned towards its author, saying, Yes there's the keeperthe spider in his web! Although originally intended for a penitentiary it was adaptable, in Bentham's view, to all sorts of other uses, i.e. Sotimions for single mothers (probably a coinage of Bentham's meaning to preserve the honour), the paedotrophium, a nursery for their infants, and since the site was some distance from the metropolis, a hill tavern for the entertainment of visitors curious to inspect these establishments, and even a chicken coop called a ptenotrophium, and the Chrestomathic Schoolhouse was also circular with teachers at its centre. The concept was not universally embraced, although some Panopticon Penitentiaries were built in North America and the concept finally found its way back to England with the building of Pentonville in north London.2 As we have seen, another of' the Benthamite legacies was human dissection, and he practiced what he preached posthumously, as did his friend, William Thompson. What is not commonly appreciated is that the Workhouse system came to provide a ready source of cadavers for dissection in Medical Schools, indeed this statutory requirement for the dissection of pauper inmates of Workhouses became a source of huge social stigma.3 In his book Contrasts in 1836 the architect A Welby Pugin published4 a picture of a modern poor house: it was octagonal, clearly based on the Panopticon principle, and in the foreground, The poor man's convoy depicts a coffin with For dissection written on the side and a legend: A variety of subjects always ready for Medical Students (Figure 4). Other miserable symbols are present and it is pretty clear that Pugin detested the purported Benthamite legacy since he contrasts it with a dignified Ancient poor house which seems an altogether happier place.
There is no evidence that a single workhouse was built along such lines, although the concept kept re-emerging throughout the 19th century. For example, The Builder in 1846 reviewed5 various plans for lunatic asylums which often had a circular element. In 1878 John Marshall published6 a pamphlet entitled, On a circular System of round wards, and these became popular in the 1880s when they were known as Nightingale round wards. Apparently, they were easier to ventilate than conventional ones, but curves tend to lead to wasted space unless placed on the outside of buildings. The name Panopticon was revived in the early 20th century by the Britannia Music Hall in Glasgow.7 References 1 Evans R. The Fabrication of Virtue: English Prison Architecture, 17501840. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1982, pp. 19535. 2 Hughes R. The Fatal Shore: a history of the transportation of convicts to Australia. I. London: Pan Books, 1988. 3 Richardson R. Death, Dissection and the Destitute. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967. 4 Pugin AW. Contrasts: or, a parallel between the noble edifices of the middle ages, and corresponding buildings of the present day; shewing the present decay of taste. Accompanied by appropriate text. (First published in 1836) Leicester University Press 1969. 5 Anon. Plans of lunatic asylums. The Builder 1846, pp. 349350,354. 6 Taylor J. Circular hospital wards: Professor John Marshall's concept and its exploration by the architectural profession in the 1880s. Med Hist 1988;32:42648. 7 Friends of Britannia Panopticon. Newsletter, Issue 1, Winter 2000/01, p.4.
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The Owenites placed great store on happiness and they quoted Bentham to the effect that, ...the happiness of the greatest number is the only legitimate object of societyto which they added their claim, ...that, only in a system of general co-operation in a community of property could this greatly desired end be attained;1 thus, Bentham's Utilitarian Philosophy was moulded to suit the establishment of communities. Another facet of Thompson's writing was the fact that he meticulously codified and indulged in codificationjust two words of the many which were invented by Bentham.3
When William Thompson died in on the 28 March, 1833, he followed yet another of Bentham's examples. The Anatomy Act of 1832, had been established, thanks to Bentham, for the supply of cadavers for dissection at medical schools26 (Box 1). Perhaps by good luck this coincided with Bentham's own death and on his instructions his colleague, Dr Southwood Smith, dissected Bentham's body and prepared an auto-effigy which can still be viewed at University College Hospital.27 (It is worth noting, that in 2001, it was necessary to have the stuffing around his body disinfected thanks to an infestation with woolly bear larvae28he was wearing the oldest, continuously worn, underpants in London). When Thompson died there were bizarre goings-on: after the funeral the Will was read. The deceased had enjoined in it that no priest, whether Mahomedan, or Hindoo [sic], should meddle with his obsequies.8 When Parson Jones heard this he became enraged at having read prayers over such a reprobate. One account states7 that the ... ribs were to be tipped with silver so that it [the skeleton] might present a fashionable appearance. Another account8 from Dr Donovan was:
He bequeathed his body to me, and with it his library, on condition of my stringing up his bones secundum artem [in a professional manner], and sending the skeleton as memento of love to a Socialist lady in England, a Mrs Wheeler, to whom he had been attached.The skull was claimed by a Frenchman called Baume who wished to study its bumps and lecture on its physical development.7 Phrenology was increasing in popularity at the time and ET Craig, for example, felt the need to supplement Owenism by allying it with phrenology.7
This was not the final chapter in a singular life. Thompson attempted to leave his land to the Co-operative movement in Ireland but this was opposed by his sisters who contested the legality of the demise of land for the purpose intended.7 They set up a plea of insanity which was said to be proved by the nature of the bequest. In any case, the value of the land had been dissipated by 1850 in legal fees.
If William Thompson had lived longer the Co-operative Movement might have been more successful. His death at a comparatively young age meant that his experiments in social-engineering were never brought to fruition. Any one who has looked at Practical Directions will know that it did not lack a scientific basis or fall short on planning. The contrast between Thompson and Owen is stark: Owen, the charismatic polemicist and pamphleteer, the paternalist who relished in his own celebrity, from the mid 1820s onward lurched from one disastrous failed Community to another.1 How different it might have been if the Co-operative Movement hadn't lost its intellectual core.
Undoubtedly, William Thompson was a prime example of a Prophet going unrecognized in his own land (Box 2). Some of William Thompson's writings may appear irrelevant today but what shines across the centuries is the breadth of his imagination.
Box 2 William Thompson: a prophet in his own land? As will have become apparent, William Thompson's adopted causes and perceived eccentricities may have upset many groups of people during his lifetime, and even after his death. Undoubtedly he was the first Irish Socialist.1 Like the Biblical Prophet, he was not without honour, except in his own land. He must have been seen as a traitor by his own class by espousing Co-operation and common ownership, and establishing a commune on his own land. He even backed the cause of Catholic emancipation,2 and he was a vegetarian and teetotaller to boot.3 This would have paled into insignificance in comparison to the hostility he must have engendered in the Catholic Church. This would have arisen on several accounts: the Co-operators were inimical to the family unithence the emphasis which they placed on dormitories for the children. Thompson, an atheist, was the first male to write a book on Feminism and this must have been viewed as pretty deviant behaviour. There were also his forays into economics which must also have been unpopular as they too went against society's normal grain. However, it must have been his radical views on sexual reproduction which so inflamed the Irish Catholic Establishment. There were several bêtes noires but chief among these must have been his advocacy of free love, eugenics, of the passive rather than active variety, and birth control. The latter must have been a particular anathema as the priesthood sought to increase family size, but in fact, what Thompson was recommending had its limitations. Devotees of the Thompson Method must have had some rude awakenings, not to mention morning sickness. (What would an old bachelor have known about birth control anyway? And at a time when the female sexual cycle remained a mystery).
Then there is the testimony of his tower; a few years after its completion it was in ruins and later was carted away for building purposes. Despite his position in society there is not a single portrait of Thompson to be found in Ireland. CJF McCarthy of Cork City was shown a bust of what was claimed to be of Thompson in The Lenin Museum on Hibernsky Street in Prague in the early 1970s. Since then there have been many attempts to locate it but none has been successful. The Museum has since been dismantled. There is also the strange absence of Practical Directions from Irish libraries. We know that Thompson presented a copy to E T Craig, Secretary of the Ralahine Community in County Clare.3 The only copy extant seems to be in The Bodleian Library in Oxford. It is dedicated to The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland by Thompson in the year before his death. Cal Hyland (email,
References 1 Lynch PK. William Thompson of Cork. The Bell 1946;XII:3446. 2 Bolger P. William Thompson. In: The Irish Co-Operative Movement: its History and Development. Dublin: Institute of Public Administration, 1977, pp. 2431. 3 Craig ET. An Irish Commune: the History of Ralahine. Dublin: Martin Lester, 1919.
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3 Bowring J. The Works of Jeremy Bentham, Vol. X. Edinburgh: William Tait, 1843.
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5 Owen R. A Supplementary Appendix to the First Volume of the Life of Robert Owen. Vol. 1A [1858]. London: Frank Cass, 1967 Appendix 1.
6 http://www.xrefer.com/entry/169610
7 Pankhurst R. William Thompson (17751833): Pioneer Socialist. London: Pluto Press, 1991.
8 Anon. Philosopher Thompson. Journal of the Cork Historical and Archaeological Society 1914;XX:19598.
9 Dooley D. Equality in Community: Sexual Equality in the Writings of William Thompson and Anna Doyle Wheeler. Cork: Cork University Press, 1996.
10 Thompson W. An Inquiry into the Principles of the Distribution of Wealth Most Conducive to Human Happiness; Applied to the Newly Proposed System of the Voluntary Equality of Wealth. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown & Green, 1824.
11 Lynch PK. William Thompson of Cork. The Bell 1946;XII:3446.
12 Thompson W. Labour Rewarded. The Claims of Labour and Capital Conciliated: or How to Secure to Labour the Whole Products of its Exertions. London: Hunt and Clarke, 1827.
13 Thompson W. Appeal of One-Half the Human Race, Women Against the Pretensions of the Other Half, Men, to Retain them in Political and Thence in Civil and Domestic Slavery. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown &Green, 1825.
14 Devey L. Life of Rosina, Lady Lytton. London: Swan Sonnenschein, Lowrey, 1887.
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16 Kinealy C. This Great Calamity: the Irish Famine, 184552. Dublin: Gill & MacMillan, 1994.
17 Report of the proceedings at the several public meetings held in Dublin by Robert Owen, Esq ... Extracted from his Essays on the Formation of Human Character. Dublin: J Carrick and Son, 1823.
18 Rosen G. The fate of the concept of medical-police: 17801890. Centaurus 1957;5:31428.
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21 Duncan A. Memorial presented to the Patrons of the University of Edinburgh in 1798. Edinburgh, 1806.
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23 Craig ET. An Irish Commune the History of Ralahine. Dublin: Martin Lester, 1911.
24 Coombes J. Utopia in Glandore. Co Cork: Butlerstown, 1970.
25 Evans R. The Fabrication of Virtue: English Prison Architecture, 17501840. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 19535.
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28 Anon. The Guardian. 27 November 2001.
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