Reprint requests to: Dr Erkki Vartiainen, Department of Epidemiology and Health Promotion, National Public Health Institute, Mannerheimintie 166, FIN-00300 Helsinki, Finland. E-mail: erkki.vartiainen{at}ktl.fi
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Abstract |
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Methods Cross-sectional population samples were studied in 1972 and 1977 in North Karelia and Kuopio provinces in eastern Finland. An area in southwestern Finland was included in 1982, followed by the Helsinki metropolitan area in 1992 and Oulu province in northern Finland in 1997. A total of 19 761 men and 20 761 women aged 3059 participated in the six surveys (1972, 1977, 1982, 1987, 1992, 1997).
Results The serum cholesterol levels of both genders have continuously declined. Systolic blood pressure levels have declined since 1972, but no further decline in diastolic blood pressure was found in 1997. Smoking prevalence among men continued to decline mainly due to an increase in the percentage of never-smokers. For the first time the increase in smoking prevalence among women levelled off and started to decline, mainly because the number of female quitters had increased.
Conclusions These data suggest that the cardiovascular health programme in Finland has succeeded in decreasing the general risk factor level of the population.
Keywords Cardiovascular diseases, prevention, risk factors
Accepted 22 June 1999
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Introduction |
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In Finland the risk factors have been monitored since 1972 by conducting population surveys every fifth year. The first surveys were done to evaluate the North Karelia Project, which was one of the first community-based CVD prevention programmes.2 From 1982 to 1992 the surveys were part of the WHO MONICA (Multinational MONItoring of trends and determinants in CArdiovascular disease) study and since 1982 also part of the WHO CINDI programme.4 The 1992 and 1997 surveys were expanded to assess the effectiveness of Finland's chronic disease prevention strategies. The aim of this paper is to describe the most recent changes pertaining to the main cardiovascular risk factors in different areas in Finland, and to assess the long-term changes in North Karelia with a community-based CVD prevention programme and its reference area.
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Material and Methods |
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The measurements were taken by specially trained nurses. Each survey followed the same methods as closely as possible. Blood pressure was measured from the right arm of the subject, who was seated for 5 min before the measurement. The fifth phase of the Korotkoff sounds was recorded as the diastolic pressure. In 1972 and 1977, a shorter cuff bladder (23 cm) was used than that used in 1982, 1987 and 1992 (42 cm). Serum cholesterol was determined in 1972 and 1977 from frozen samples using the Liebermann-Burchard method; since 1982 serum cholesterol was measured from fresh serum samples using an enzymatic method (CHOD-PAP, Boehringer Mannheim). The enzymatic assay method gave 2.4% lower values than Liebermann-Burchard. Cholesterol values of the 1972 and 1977 surveys were corrected by this percentage. All cholesterol determinations were made in the same central laboratory standardized with national and international reference laboratories.
Smoking was assessed using a standard set of questions in a self-administered questionnaire. Based on the responses, the participants were classified into three categories: Current smokersthose who had smoked regularly (cigarettes, cigars or pipe) for at least one year and had smoked during the preceding month. Ex-smokersthose who had smoked regularly but had stopped smoking at least one month before the survey. Never smokersthose who had never smoked regularly.
The analysis of variance was done to determine the mean between each 5-year interval for all the areas available in the given year. To calculate the proportions, a log-linear model was used as the statistical method.5
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Results |
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Blood pressure
Between 1972 and 1997, systolic blood pressure in North Karelia has declined by 9 mmHg among men and 20 mmHg among women, and in Kuopio province 7 mmHg and 11 mmHg, respectively. Since 1982 systolic blood pressure in southwestern Finland has declined 8 mmHg among men and 7 mm among women (Table 3).
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It seems that the decline in diastolic blood pressure has ended. From 1972 to 1992 the mean value declined 6 mmHg among men and 11 mmHg among women, but from 1992 to 1997 diastolic blood pressure showed no decline (Table 4). High diastolic blood pressure (95+) was observed in 20% of men and 9% of women.
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Discussion |
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Risk factors developed more favourably in North Karelia at the beginning of the community-based CVD prevention project. Subsequently the development in risk factors has been similar in different areas. This may indicate that the national strategy has been adopted in a very similar way in different parts of the country.
The decline in serum total cholesterol can be explained by dietary changes. Twenty-five years ago the saturated fat intake was 2021% of energy, which decreased to 1516% in 19926 and to 1415% in 1997,7 and the very low level of polyunsaturated fat intake has increased from 23% to 56% of energy since 1972. The main change on a behavioural level has been the decline in the use of butter on bread from almost 90% to 10%. Butter has been replaced by soft margarine and butter-vegetable oil mixtures. Most people also used butter for cooking and baking 25 years ago, but now oils and margarines have replaced it. Whole milk has been replaced by low-fat and skimmed milk.
The North Karelia Project started to communicate health information to the public on diet and heart diseases in the early 1970s. Many Finnish eating habits at that time worked against recommended dietary changes. Butter, cheese, cream and whole milk were regarded as healthy, especially for children. Finland was a butter and milk producer, and all vegetable oil was imported. Butter and milk production was subsidized by the government, and margarine was taxed to keep its price equivalent to butter.
Based on health information, people started to change their dietary habits in the 1970s. The food and agricultural industries followed the trend. Soft margarine was introduced in the late 1970s. A domestic vegetable oil and rapeseed oil industry was developed and their popularity grew in the 1980s. Low-fat and skimmed milk were introduced. The Finnish government issued a health policy statement in 1985 in parliament which indicated that health issues have important implications extending beyond the health sector. A new law was passed to allow low-fat spread and mixed butter and oils to compete.
In the 1970s there was a large debate within the medical community on the role of diet and cholesterol in CVD prevention. However, in the 1980s a general consensus was developed by the medical community on the need for dietary change,3 which led to a larger consensus among the general population and also facilitated the political consensus needed for legislative change. The medical community recommended cholesterol screenings for all people over 20 years of age every 5 years. This greatly increased people's interest in their diets.
It is more difficult to explain why blood pressure has decreased as alcohol consumption8 and obesity have increased.9 The mean annual alcohol consumption was 5 l per capita in 1970 and 7.5 l in 1997. Only part of the decline in blood pressure can be explained by an increase in the use of medication for hypertension, because the whole blood pressure distribution has shifted, and not only the high values have decreased. There has been some decline in salt consumption, but it is unlikely that this explains much of the blood pressure decline. There is some evidence, especially from Finland, that blood pressure can be reduced by decreasing the saturated oil and increasing the polyunsaturated fats in the diet.10 Also, a cohort study showed an association between changes in blood pressure and cholesterol after controlling for age and body mass index.11
A new finding from the last survey was that systolic blood pressure is continuing to decline but diastolic blood pressure stopped declining. This phenomenon has also been observed in the Netherlands and by the Minnesota Heart Surveys.12,13 There is no obvious reason for these observations. One possibility is that reduced atherosclerosis increased arterial elasticity and lowered systolic blood pressure, but increasing obesity unfavourably influences diastolic blood pressure.
Finland has been active in developing anti-smoking initiatives. The work has consisted of comprehensive measures ranging from research and demonstration programmes to legislation and public policy.14 The North Karelia Project has been used as a major national demonstration project. Health services and many non-governmental organizations have been actively involved, and many innovative campaigns have taken place, e.g. TV smoking cessation programmes, and Quit and Win campaigns. A law to reduce the harmful consequences of smoking was passed in 1977 and amended in 1995. The main content of the law is as follows: prohibition of all forms of tobacco advertising, warnings on tobacco packages, limits on harmful substances, prohibition of smoking at schools, public vehicles and public indoor places, prohibition of smoking at all (indoor) workplaces, except in offices intended for only one person and in designated smoking rooms (with special ventilation), prohibition of the sale of tobacco to people under 18 years, prohibition of the sale of smokeless tobacco, prohibition of smoking in school playgrounds, and the designation of 0.5% of tobacco tax revenues for health education and research. This has amounted to about 20 million Finnish marks (5 million USD) annually or roughly 1 USD per capita in Finland.
The development of smoking trends in different populations can be divided into three phases.15 In the first phase smoking is predominantly a man's habit and relatively few women smoke. In the second phase smoking prevalence decreases among men and increases among women, and in the third phase smoking declines among men and women. Finland is clearly entering the third phase. In most European countries female smoking is still on the increase,15 and only a few countries in the world are seeing a decline among both sexes.16 The main reason for the decline among men is the increasing number of subjects who have never smoked regularly in their life. Smoking cessation has not seen a marked increase since the 1970s. The main reason for the levelling off or small decline among women is an increase in the number of women who stop smoking. Smoking onset is still more prevalent among younger cohorts, although this increase is levelling off in the youngest cohort.
Mortality from coronary heart disease has decreased by 73% in North Karelia and 65% nationwide. Among men, cerebrovascular diseases and lung cancer mortality have also greatly declined.17 Most of the decline in mortality seems to be related to the described changes in risk factors, especially those of the 1970s and 1980s.18
In summary, CVD risk factor levels have declined markedly in Finland in the past decades, and the declining trend continued also between 1992 and 1997. The results suggest that the national preventive cardiovascular strategy has been successful. Further reductions of the risk factor levels still hold great potential for improved public health.
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Notes |
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References |
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2 Puska P, Tuomilehto J, Nissinen A, Vartiainen E (eds). The North Karelia Project. 20 Year Results and Experiences. Helsinki: Helsinki University Printing House, 1995.
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16
Dobson AJ, Kuulasmaa K, Moltchanov V et al. (for the WHO MONICA Project). Changes in cigarette smoking among adults in 35 populations in the mid-1980s. Tobacco Control 1998;7:1421.
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18
Vartiainen E, Puska P, Pekkanen J, Tuomilehto J, Jousilahti P. Changes in risk factors explain changes in mortality from ischaemic heart disease in Finland. Br Med J 1994;309:2327.