1 Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Karolinska Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden, 2 Institute of Primate Research, Nairobi, Kenya, 3 Centocor B.V. Heverlee, Belgium, 4 New England Fertility Center, Reading, Massaschusetts, USA and 5 Leuven University Fertility Center, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, UZ Gasthuisberg, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
6 To whom correspondence should be addressed at: Leuven University Fertility Center, UZ Gasthuisberg, Herestraat 49, B-3000. Leuven, Belgium. E-mail: Thomas.dhooghe{at}uz.kuleuven.ac.be
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Abstract |
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Key words: baboon/CA-125/endometriosis
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Introduction |
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Due to ethical restrictions for performing serial laparoscopies in women, it is difficult to correlate the spontaneous evolution of endometriosis with serum and PF CA-125 concentrations. Such studies can only be done in non-human primates with spontaneous endometriosis. Additionally, the effect of lymphocyte suppression and of induction of endometriosis on CA-125 levels can be studied in this animal model. A high prevalence of spontaneous endometriosis (25%) has been reported in baboons of proven fertility (DHooghe et al., 1991) and the disease seems to be progressive (DHooghe et al., 1992
, 1996a
). The current study was undertaken to document the concentration of CA-125 in serum and PF during the menstrual cycle in baboons with endometriosis and controls, and to assess the effect of the induction of endometriosis (intrapelvic injection of menstrual endometrium) (DHooghe et al., 1995a
), lymphocyte suppression (DHooghe et al., 1995b
) and pregnancy (DHooghe and Debrock, 2002
) on serum and PF CA-125 values. The following hypotheses were tested: (i) PF and serum CA-125 levels are increased in baboons during the menstrual phase when compared to the other phases of the cycle, as is known in women; (ii) serum and PF CA-125 levels are increased after induction of endometriosis due to CA-125 production originating from ectopic endometrium and/or other peritoneal tissues (DHooghe et al.,1995a
,2001); (iii) lymphocyte suppression increases serum and PF CA-125 levels in baboons with endometriosis, since the progression of spontaneous endometriosis appears to be faster in immunosuppressed baboons than in controls (DHooghe et al.,1995b
); (iv) pregnancy reduces serum and PF CA-125 levels in baboons with or without endometriosis, since it is generally believed that pregnancy reduces the extent and activity of endometriotic lesions (DHooghe and Debrock,2002
).
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Materials and methods |
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Part 2
This was a cross-sectional study of CA-125 in serum and PF samples obtained during different stages of the menstrual cycle, to evaluate the impact of the induction of endometriosis, lymphocyte suppression and pregnancy. These samples were collected from a total of 32 baboons during previously published studies (DHooghe et al., 1991, 1992
, 1995a
, 1996a
,b
). This part of the study was subdivided into five parts (Table Ib): (i) determination of serum CA-125 values during different stages of the menstrual cycle; (ii) measurement of CA-125 values in PF during the menstrual cycle; (iii) studying the impact of induction of endometriosis on CA-125 in serum and PF; (iv) studying the impact of lymphocyte suppression by methylprednisolone and azathioprine on CA-125 in serum and PF; (v) studying the impact of pregnancy on CA-125 in serum and PF.
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Baboons
The animals were all trapped in the wild and had been in captivity at the Institute of Primate Research between 9 and 47 months. The study protocol was reviewed and accepted by ISREC (Institutional and Scientific Ethical Committee). The animals were kept in single cages for 3 months prior to onset of the studies. Furthermore, all animals went through a diagnostic laparoscopy to screen the pelvic area for the presence of endometriosis or other abnormalities.
Monitoring of the menstrual cycle
The menstrual cycle was monitored through daily observations of the perineal skin (sex skin) (DHooghe et al., 1991; Bambra, 1993
). No hormonal assays were performed in this study. The menstrual cycle in the baboon is divided into eight different stages, with stage 7 being menstrual phase, stage 15 follicular phase and 6, 0 luteal phase. The sex skin is monitored every day by trained animal technicians. The progressive inflation of the perineum throughout the cycle correlates with the follicular growth and the subsequent deflation (stage 6 and 0) to the luteal phase. Ovulation occurs during stage 5. An additional stage, stage 8, is similar to stage 0 (however more reddish) and becomes apparent during pregnancy (Hendrickx, 1971
). The animals inflated and deflated normally during the studies and their cycle length was comparable to the cycle length they had established in the colony since captivity.
Sample collection
In the longitudinal part of the study, 264 peripheral blood (PB) samples were collected from the right or left forearm vein of the baboon. The PB was immediately centrifuged and sera were snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at 80°C before being analysed.
In the cross-sectional part of the study, a total of 112 PF and 92 serum samples were analysed. These samples had all been obtained and archived from other studies performed at IPR. Serum samples were handled as described above. The PF was aspirated during laparoscopy before the animal was placed in the Trendelenburg position and stored at 80°C before being analysed, as described previously (DHooghe et al.,1991).
Both serum and PF samples were freeze-thawed only once during the studies. During the study period of 2 years, five animals with an initially normal pelvis developed endometriosis at a later stage and were therefore used both as controls and as primates with spontaneous endometriosis.
Laparoscopies and induction of endometriosis
Laparoscopies and anaesthesia were carried out as previously described (DHooghe et al., 1991). The pelvic area was thoroughly screened for the presence of endometriosis. Spontaneous endometriosis was classified according to the rAFS (ASRM) classification system (DHooghe et al.,1991
). Lesions were characterized either as typical blue-black, red or white. Endometriosis was induced as previously described (DHooghe et al., 1995a
). Briefly, endometrium obtained through transcervical curettage was seeded onto the pelvic area under laparoscopic vision.
Lymphocyte suppression
A daily injection of 0.8 mg/kg i.m. methylprednisolone and 2 mg/kg azathioprine was performed for 3 months in 11 baboons (three animals with induced endometriosis, five baboons with spontaneous endometriosis and three controls with a normal pelvis, Table I), as described previously (DHooghe et al., 1995b).
Pregnancy
Serum and peritoneal fluid samples were analysed before pregnancy (Table I) and during the second trimester. Pregnancy was verified with ultrasound.
CA-125 assay
The CA-125 assays were performed using kits from Centocor Inc. (Malvern, Pennsylvania, USA). For serum samples the one-step IRMA (immunoradiometric assay) was performed and the two-step for PF samples. All assays were performed in duplicates in one run. Intra- and inter-assay coefficients of variation were 3.8 and 5.7% respectively.
The rationale for using two different assays is that early experiments with these kits revealed an artefact when analysing PF samples with a one-step IRMA (Williams et al., 1988; Hunter et al., 1990
). Serially diluted serum samples showed excellent parallelism with the one-step assay but when repeated in PF, a marked hook-effect (limited parallelism to the calibration standard) was observed. However, with the two-step IRMA, the parallelism for diluted PF samples was equal to the parallelism observed in serum using the one-step IRMA. The two-step assay involves incubation of a 100 µl sample with capture-MAb (monoclonal antibody) at room temperature, followed by 3 h of incubation with signal-MAb for quantifying CA-125 in PF. Kruitwagen et al. (1991b)
has recommended using the two-step IRMA for PF samples whereas the one-step is sufficient for serum samples.
Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was done using linear regression, KruskalWallis, analysis of variance and MannWhitney tests where appropriate and a value of P < 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant.
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Results |
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Part 2
In the serum samples from 12 baboons (28%; eight controls, three with spontaneous endometriosis and one animal with induced endometriosis) CA-125 was not detectable and these samples were excluded for further statistical analysis. No significant changes were observed in CA-125 concentration in serum during different stages of the menstrual cycle in baboons with a normal pelvis, spontaneous or induced endometriosis (Table II).
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In contrast to the serum samples, CA-125 was detected in all PF samples. In PF from baboons with a normal pelvis, the mean concentration of CA-125 in PF was significantly higher during the follicular phase than during the menstrual or luteal phase (Table II). However, no significant cycle changes were observed in CA-125 levels in PF from baboons with (spontaneous or induced) endometriosis. During both the menstrual and luteal phase, the mean concentration of CA-125 in PF was significantly higher in baboons with (spontaneous or induced) endometriosis than in primates with a normal pelvis (Table II).
The concentration of CA-125 in serum was not affected by lymphocyte suppression, pregnancy or induction of endometriosis. The concentration of PF CA-125 was significantly increased after induction of endometriosis, but lymphocyte suppression and pregnancy had no effect (Table III).
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Discussion |
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CA-125 is the most extensively studied serum marker, with high specificity but, unfortunately, low sensitivity. However, some recent studies indicate that CA-125 could be used as an adjuvant together with other markers or methods. In a recent meta-analysis, it was suggested that routine use of CA-125 in subfertile patients could be justified to identify a subgroup likely to benefit from laparoscopy (Mol et al., 1998). Other authors have reported that a screening method combining CA-125 with the level of a leukocyte subpopulation increases the positive predictive value in detecting endometriosis (Gagne et al., 2003
).
In part 1 of the study, a serial analysis of serum CA-125 levels during the menstrual cycle revealed that the highest CA-125 levels were observed during menstruation with subsequent progressive decline during follicular phase and luteal phase, as has also been demonstrated in humans and in rhesus monkeys (Pittaway et al., 1986; Lanzone et al., 1991
; Pittaway and Fayez, 1987
; Fedele et al., 1988
; Hornstein et al., 1992
). These cycle-dependent changes of the CA-125 levels in serum indicate that the CA-125 originates mainly from the endometrium and that the endometrial breakdown is probably associated with direct secretion of CA-125 into the peripheral blood. This idea is shared by several authors (Jäger et al., 1988
; Zeimet et al., 1993
; Hompes et al., 1996
) and supported by the detection of CA-125 in cultured endometrium (Bischof et al., 1986
) and positive indirect immunoperoxidase staining for CA-125 in endometrial biopsies (Fedele et al., 1989
).
The purpose of the cross-sectional part of the study was to enable comparisons of serum CA-125 between groups (endometriosis versus controls), since the number of animals was insufficient in the first part for these statistical analyses. Furthermore, the cross-sectional part allowed analyses of changes in PF CA-125 during the cycle. From a methodological point of view, a longitudinal study with serial samples of these changes is superior to the cross-sectional with only one sample/animal/cycle stage. However, this would require daily laparoscopies, introducing the bias of repeated surgery on PF content (inflammatory response to surgery) and CA-125 levels (DHooghe et al., 1999).
It is not surprising that the significant cycle-dependent changes of CA-125 seen in part 1 (longitudinal study) were not confirmed in part 2 (cross-sectional study), since there were important methodological differences between these two parts. In part 1, a longitudinal design (analysis of serial blood samples from the same baboon during one menstrual cycle) was applied and more samples (n = 264) with detectable serum CA-125 were available. Such longitudinal design is less influenced by inter-individual variability than the cross-sectional method used in part 2, where only one sample per baboon was analysed and the lower number of samples (n = 58) was much lower.
The origin of peritoneal fluid CA-125 is a puzzling question. Our results are consistent with studies in women reporting a poor correlation between the concentration of CA-125 in PF and serum (Ismail et al., 1994). Several authors have suggested that non-endometrial sources of PF CA-125 are important, including peritoneum and endometriotic lesions (Fedele et al., 1988
; Kruitwagen et al., 1991a
; Ismail et al., 1994
). Indeed, Barbieri et al. (1986)
demonstrated the presence of CA-125 on the cell surface of ovarian endometrioma from three patients, whereas other investigators have failed to reproduce these results (Fedele et al., 1988
, 1989
). In our study, the induction of endometriosis resulted in a significantly increased concentration of CA-125 in PF (Table III). These results are in line with previous observations in baboons showing an increase in inflammation markers, i.e. leukocytes, macrophages and inflammatory cytokines in PF after induction of endometriosis (DHooghe et al., 2001
). Furthermore, a rise in the concentration of CA-125 in PF has also been demonstrated after abdominal surgery in men (Duk et al., 1986
). Taken together, these data suggest that both damaged peritoneum and ectopic endometrium are important sources of CA-125 in PF.
In baboons with a normal pelvis (controls), a significantly higher concentration of CA-125 in PF was observed during the follicular phase when compared to menstrual or luteal phase. We hypothesize that it takes a few days before the inflammatory effects of retrograde menstruation in baboons (DHooghe et al., 2001) result in peritoneal damage leading to increased PF CA-125 concentration during the follicular phase rather than during the menstrual phase. A similar but non-significant trend was observed in PF from baboons with spontaneous endometriosis, probably since the CA-125 levels in PF were significantly higher during menstrual and luteal phase in baboons with spontaneous endometriosis than in those with a normal pelvis (Table II), resulting in the loss of cyclical variation in PF CA-125 concentrations, as has been suggested before in women (Kruitwagen et al., 1991a
).
Although we reported that the progression of spontaneous endometriosis appears to be faster in immunosuppressed baboons than in controls (DHooghe et al., 1995a), our hypothesis that lymphocyte suppression increases serum CA-125 levels and PF CA-125 levels in baboons with endometriosis was not confirmed in the current study. This can be explained by the small number of baboons tested, the heterogeneity in terms of presence of endometriosis and cycle stage, and possibly a limited biological effect of general lymphocyte suppression with methylprednisolone and azathioprin on the CA-125 production by endometrium, endometriosis or peritoneum. In spite of these inconclusive results, modulation of the immune system and the inflammatory system are interesting fields of future research. Recently, blocking of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-
has been demonstrated to reduce the extent of endometriosis in baboons (Barrier et al., 2004
). Several other cytokines and immunomodulators, such as interleukin-8 and pentoxifylline, could be interesting targets in the development of new drugs against endometriosis.
Although it is generally believed that pregnancy reduces the extent and activity of endometriotic lesions in women, this was not clinically confirmed in baboons (DHooghe et al., 1997). Therefore, it is not surprising that we could not confirm the hypothesis that pregnancy reduces serum CA-125 and PF CA-125 levels in baboons with or without endometriosis. This is a relevant observation, since no paired comparisons between CA-125 levels before and during pregnancy are available in women with or without endometriosis. In women, serum CA-125 levels show wide fluctuations during the first trimester with values above normal (Spitzer et al., 1998; Bon et al., 2001
).
The cause of undetectable serum CA-125 in 30% of the baboons is unclear. PF concentrations are generally 10-fold higher, which is the likely reason why CA-125 was detected in all PF samples as opposed to serum samples. The serum CA-125 concentrations in baboons seem to be lower than serum CA-125 concentrations observed in women, and we speculate that the sensitivity of the human CA-125 kits might have been too low to detect very low values in serum from baboons. This may be related to the speculation by some authors that the molecular structure in PF CA-125 differs from that in serum (Kruitwagen et al., 1991a
). Finally, inter-species differences between humans and baboons in CA-125 turnover and structure could be additional sources for undetectable values.
In conclusion, serum CA-125 levels were increased during menstruation in all baboons whereas PF CA-125 levels were increased during the follicular phase in baboons with a normal pelvis when compared to other phases of the cycle. Higher PF CA-125 levels were also observed after induction of endometriosis. Finally, PF CA-125 levels were higher in baboons with spontaneous endometriosis when compared to baboons with a normal pelvis during the menstrual and luteal phase. Collectively, these suggest that serum CA-125 originates mainly from bleeding eutopic endometrium whereas CA-125 production in PF seems to come from ectopic endometrium and/or peritoneal damage or inflammation, possibly in response to and following retrograde menstruation The baboon seems to be a valid model for further studies evaluating causeeffect relationships between endometriosis and the production of CA-125 in serum and peritoneal fluid.
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References |
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Submitted on December 22, 2005; resubmitted on May 3, 2005; accepted on May 11, 2005.
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