Department of Paediatrics, University of Cambridge, Addenbrookes Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
1 To whom correspondence should be addressed. e-mail: cla22{at}cam.ac.uk
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Abstract |
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Key words: 2D:4D digit ratio/androgens/congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)/testosterone/X-ray hand
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Introduction |
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Recently, relationships between digit length and sex have been observed (Manning et al., 1998; Williams et al., 2000
). Indirect soft tissue measurements from the hand have revealed significant differences in 2nd to 4th finger digit ratios (2D:4D) between the sexes with a higher ratio seen in females (females 1.00, versus males 0.98) (Manning et al., 1998
). Male patients with infertility, low sperm counts and low testosterone levels have higher 2D:4D ratios (Manning et al., 1998
). It has been proposed that sexual dimorphism in skeletal development is established early in fetal life (1st trimester), and that differences in androgen exposure in utero with high concentrations of fetal testosterone lead to expression of a low 2D:4D ratio, possibly by way of altered Hox gene expression (Manning et al., 1998
).
Patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21 hydroxylase enzyme deficiency may be exposed to high concentrations of adrenal androgens in utero (New, 1998). Females with the classical salt wasting or simple virilizing forms of CAH are exposed to high concentrations of testosterone from early fetal life, leading to masculinization of the external genitalia, which is usually evident at birth. Given the hypothesis proposed by Manning and colleagues (Manning et al., 1998
), females with virilizing CAH may be expected to have a lower or male pattern of 2D:4D digit ratio compared with healthy control females. We therefore report the results of a study in which 2D:4D digit ratio measurements were performed in healthy control females and males and were then compared with those in females with classical virilizing CAH.
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Materials and methods |
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All X-rays were obtained from the left hand and wrist for standard bone age estimation, in CAH subjects as part of their routine clinical care and monitoring of treatment, and in control subjects as part of their initial evaluation at presentation. X-rays were excluded if clear demarcation of the extremities was not possible. X-rays of the left hand were used because the age and sex related standards for bone age measurement are based on radiographs of the left hand (Greulich et al., 1971; Tanner et al., 1983
). Measurements were performed by a single observer (J.B.). In females with CAH, X-rays of the left hand were taken
2 years after diagnosis of CAH in the neonatal period and following the commencement of therapy with physiological replacement doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone. Ethical approval was obtained from Cambridge local research ethics committee.
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Statistics |
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Results |
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Discussion |
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The disparity between X-ray and photocopy-determined 2D:4D ratios reflects the fundamental differences underlying the different type of measurements and raises concerns about the significance and accuracy of soft tissue measurements as a marker of true digit length and bone development. The lack of sexual dimorphism in X-ray-determined 2D:4D ratios seen in the Jamaican cohort study is in contrast with our study, due perhaps to ethnic or genetic differences between the two study populations. Furthermore, our control subjects were carefully selected and were known to be healthy individuals with normal growth patterns in whom the possibility of underlying confounding factors, such as skeletal abnormalities, chromosomal aberrations, endocrinopathies and urogenital disorders, had been excluded.
It has been reported that differences in 2D:4D ratio between the sexes is more pronounced when measurements are obtained from the right hand compared with the left (Manning et al., 1998). In our study, we were only able to make measurements from the left hand as X-rays of this hand are routinely used in the determination of bone age, and in order to allow comparison with age and sex, standards for bone age were determined from the left hand. X-rays of the right hand were therefore not available and a prospective study of the right hand X-rays would have been unethical in view of the added risks of radiation exposure. Whilst we have no data on 2D:4D ratio from the right hand, there is no reason to believe that a similar and perhaps even more significant sexually dimorphic pattern in 2D:4D ratio would have been seen in right hand X-rays
It has been hypothesized that sexual dimorphism in 2D:4D ratio is due to differences in androgen level exposure between the sexes in early fetal life (Manning et al., 1998). Exposure to higher concentrations of androgen in the male fetus is thought to determine a lower 2D:4D ratio, and that the 2D:4D ratio itself predicts testosterone concentrations and spermatogenesis in later life (Manning et al., 1998
). Females with the virilizing (classical) form of CAH due to 21-hydroxylase-enzyme deficiency are exposed to high concentrations of adrenal androgens early in the first trimester, which is maintained throughout pregnancy (New, 1998
). Indeed, serum concentrations of testosterone in the newborn are often higher than the male adult range (unpublished data). Affected females undergo significant virilization and masculinization of the external genitalia to a degree that gender determination at the time of birth is often not possible or incorrectly assigned as male. Females with CAH therefore seem suitable to test the hypothesis.
In a recent report Brown and colleagues, using photocopied images of the hand, have reported that females with CAH have a smaller 2D:4D ratio compared with non-CAH females (Brown et al., 2002). This observation was much more significant in the right hand (0.957 versus 0.981, P = 0.03) compared with the left (0.952 versus 0.968, P = 0.1) and is in keeping with the proposal that the relationship between 2D:4D ratio and testosterone concentration is more evident in the right hand than the left (Manning et al., 1998
). Manning and colleagues observed that right hand digit ratio predicted relationships with testosterone, estrogen, LH, prolactin and sperm counts. In contrast, left hand 2D:4D ratio did not predict testosterone concentrations, although a weakly significant relationship with LH was observed (Manning et al., 1998
). Nevertheless, a relationship between left hand 2D:4D ratio and testosterone cannot be entirely discounted from Mannings observations given that in males, LH primarily stimulates testosterone production from the Leydig cells of the testis. Females with CAH in our study were known to be significantly virilized at birth, yet having been exposed to increased prenatal concentrations of adrenal androgens they did not demonstrate any lowering of the 2D:4D ratio in the left hand, and had greater adrenal androgen levels than control males. This is in contrast to the observations of Brown et al. (2002) where both left (0.952) and right (0.957) hand 2D:4D ratios in CAH females were similar to control males (0.955 and 0.957) suggesting an effect of prenatal androgens on digit 2D:4D ratio development (Brown et al., 2002
). Nevertheless, it is difficult to draw any conclusions from their study given that only a very small number of CAH females were studied (n = 13). Furthermore, their report does not provide any detail regarding the type and severity of CAH in the affected cases. However, it is unlikely that they were more severely affected than the cases in our study, considering that all our subjects presented with significant genital virilization at birth.
It is possible that our results in CAH females were influenced by the effects of glucocorticoid treatment on 2D:4D ratio development. This would occur either through pituitaryadrenal suppression or by a direct effect on bone metabolism. While this cannot be discounted, such effects are unlikely. The 2D:4D ratio is established and thought to be fixed from an early gestational age (Garn et al., 1975). To our knowledge none of the mothers of the female CAH subjects in our study had received antenatal dexamethasone therapy as part of a prenatal virilization prevention programme. Postnatally, extreme care is taken with glucocorticoid replacement therapy in CAH in order to titrate doses at physiological replacement levels from an early stage, although a tendency to over-treat in early infancy has been recognized in the past (Jaaskelainen and Voutilainen, 1997
; Van der Kamp et al., 2002
). Although exposure to excessive amounts of glucocorticoids is known to have direct suppressive effects on bone growth (Brook et al., 1974
), there is no evidence that the effect is specific to selective digits.
The results of our study raise the possibility that factors other than androgens may be more important in determining the sexual dimorphism observed in digit development. The presence of estrogen receptors in both osteoclasts and osteoblasts has suggested a direct role for these hormones in early skeletal development. In addition, estrogens can modulate the expression of genes belonging to the Hox family (Taylor et al., 1999). Fetal estrogen exposure in animal experiments results in significant changes in bone mineralization and in a shortening of bone length (Migliaccio et al., 1996
). Perhaps non-hormonal factors determined by the sex chromosomes may be directly involved in digit length determination. It is well recognized that females with Turners syndrome (45 XO karyotype) are often observed to have abnormal shortening of the metacarpals (Preger et al., 1968
) and relatively longer 4th digit phalanges (Necic and Grant, 1978
). The skeletal abnormalities of Turners syndrome have been attributed to haplo-insufficiency of the SHOX gene (Clement-Jones et al., 2000
). Other X-chromosome (non-SHOX) related syndromes are also known to be associated with congenital skeletal abnormalities, and hypoplasia of the phalanges and shortening of the metacarpal bones of the hand have been described (Lizcano-Gil et al., 1994
; Donovan et al., 1996
). The possibility that digit length determination is due to the expression and interaction with a sex chromosome dependent gene cannot be completely discounted.
In conclusion, we have confirmed, using radiological techniques, that a significant difference in 2D:4D ratio exists between healthy males and females when measured in the left hand. Females with virilizing classical CAH did not express a lower or male pattern 2D:4D ratio in this hand. The results suggest that, at least in the left hand, in-utero exposure to androgens is not responsible for the observed sexual dimorphic pattern, and that alternative mechanisms may be responsible for the difference in 2nd and 4th finger length development between the sexes.
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Acknowledgements |
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Submitted on October 11, 2002; accepted on January 13, 2003.