1 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California and 2 Center for Women's Health Research, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
3 To whom correspondence should be addressed at: Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Women's and Children's Hospital, 1240 North Mission Road, Room 8K9, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA. Email: asteiner{at}usc.edu
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Abstract |
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Key words: clomiphene citrate/ovulation induction/pregnancy/tamoxifen
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Introduction |
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Clomiphene citrate has been the first-line method of ovulation induction in couples with anovulatory infertility since its introduction in 1956 (Greenblatt et al., 1961; Wolf, 2000
). Approximately 80% of women ovulate while using clomiphene (Gorlitsky et al., 1978
); however, only 40% of women will achieve pregnancy (Gysler et al., 1982
). Some authors have proposed that this discrepancy is due to the antiestrogenic effects of clomiphene on the uterus, cervix and vagina, resulting in a thin endometrial lining (Eden et al., 1989
) and poor cervical mucus (Gysler et al., 1982
).
Another non-steroidal SERM, tamoxifen, has also been used to induce ovulation. Although commonly used today as an adjuvant therapy in the treatment of breast cancer, its use as an ovulatory agent was first reported by Williamson and Ellis (1973). Unlike clomiphene, tamoxifen acts as an agonist on the estrogen receptors of the vaginal mucosa and endometrium. Studies on the effects of tamoxifen on cervical mucus have been contradictory (Roumen et al., 1984
; Acharya et al., 1993
; Annapurna et al., 1997
).
A randomized controlled trial found that tamoxifen was as effective as clomiphene in inducing ovulation. Despite a trend toward improved pregnancy rates with tamoxifen, the study was underpowered to confirm this finding (Boostanfar et al., 2001). The purpose of this meta-analysis was to review the literature comparing tamoxifen and clomiphene for ovulation induction and subsequent pregnancy and to obtain a higher-powered estimate of the difference in efficacy between tamoxifen and clomiphene.
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Materials and methods |
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Selection and data extraction
We included prospective clinical trials which compared tamoxifen and clomiphene for ovulation induction in infertile couples with isolated anovulatory infertility. Only studies which enrolled oligo-ovulatory or anovulatory women with no known tubal disease and partners with normal semen analysis were included. Primary outcomes included ovulation and pregnancy per cycle.
Three reviewers (A.S., M.T., A.B.) independently screened all titles and abstracts, when necessary. All articles selected by the authors for further review were independently evaluated by two reviewers (A.S., M.T.) using the predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. After article selection was completed, both reviewers (A.S., M.T.) independently abstracted data from the articles on subject characteristics, interventions, outcomes and study design. Results were compared and differences resolved by consensus agreement. Three authors were successfully contacted via e-mail and additional information on methodology and outcomes was obtained in one case.
Quantitative data synthesis
For both outcomes, results for each trial were expressed as numbers of events per cycle of SERM. All cycles were included in cross-over and parallel trials. STATA statistical software (USA) was used to perform the meta-analysis. Heterogeneity between the results was examined using the Cochrane's Q statistic (assuming statistical significance at P<0.1). As summary statistics, pooled odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated using the, random effects method of DerSimonian and Laird, 1986. Publication bias was assessed using Begg's test for publication bias (Begg and Muzumdar, 1994
) (assuming significant publication bias at P<0.1).
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Results |
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Pregnancy rate
Three studies evaluated pregnancy as an outcome for a total of 743 cycles of which 504 were ovulatory (Elstein and Fawcett, 1984; Vegetti et al., 1999
; Boostanfar et al., 2001
). There was no significant difference between the tamoxifen and control groups in the odds of pregnancy per cycle (OR 1.056, 95% CI 0.5831.912) or per ovulatory cycle (OR 1.162, 95% CI 0.6322.134). No statistical heterogeneity was detected (P=0.815).
Live-birth rate
Only one trial, Elstein and Fawcett (1984), reported all pregnancy outcomes, including miscarriages and live births. In this one trial, there was no significant difference between the groups in the odds of live birth per cycle (OR 0.261, 95% CI 0.0052.711).
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Discussion |
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This meta-analysis is limited by the quality of the included papers. Others have expressed concerns with the use of the cycle as a unit of analysis in subfertility trials (Vail and Gardener, 2003), cross-over design use in subfertility trials (Daya, 2003
), and combining parallel and cross-over trials (Elbourne et al., 2002
). However, these methods continue to be commonly used in the fertility literature (Elbourne et al., 2002
; Hughes et al., 2004
).
In general, this meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials provides a fairly precise estimate of the effect of SERM on ovulation induction. This analysis was powered to detect an 8% absolute difference in ovulation rates, assuming 80% power, =0.05, and a 70% ovulation rate in the clomiphene group. The similarity in ovulation rates differs from the conclusions by Borenstein et al. (1989)
who found in a retrospective study of 43 clomiphene-resistant patients that tamoxifen was a superior ovulatory agent. Other retrospective studies have concluded that the two agents act similarly (Gerhard and Runnebaum, 1979
; Weseley and Melnick, 1987
). However, Gerhard and Runnebaum (1979)
concluded that ovulation rates with tamoxifen did tend to be higher than those with clomiphene in women with oligomenorrhoea.
This analysis failed to demonstrate any difference in ovulation rates between clomiphene and tamoxifen. However, the familiarity of clinicians with the dosing regimens and side-effects of clomiphene may make this SERM more favourable for clinical use. No studies have addressed the use of adjuvant medications, such as metformin or hCG, with tamoxifen. In addition, patients may have concerns about taking a medication commonly used as a chemotherapeutic agent for breast cancer. In contrast, tamoxifen may be more affordable and some studies have shown that tamoxifen is better tolerated with fewer side-effects (Gerhard and Runnebaum, 1979; Buvat et al., 1987
; Borenstein et al., 1989
), although none of the trials was powered or designed to detect differences in side-effects. Therefore, in women suffering intolerable side-effects from clomiphene, tamoxifen may be an option.
Despite the clinical heterogeneity between the studies, various dosing regimens and patient characteristics, there was no statistically significant heterogeneity. This implies that these findings can be generalized to a variety of dosing regimens and patient populations commonly seeking ovulation induction. Unfortunately the number of published studies and amount of patient information is too limited to permit subgroup analysis. Further studies evaluating the effects of either regimen for women with polycystic ovarian syndrome or obesity are warranted. In addition, this analysis does not evaluate the efficacy of either of these agents to induce super-ovulation. Further studies are needed to compare these two regimens for this clinical scenario.
Our findings on the relative effects of clomiphene and tamoxifen on pregnancy rates or outcome were inconclusive. Pregnancy rates were less frequently described in the literature, and the overall pregnancy rate was low. Unlike the pooled odds ratio for ovulation induction, these limitations resulted in a fairly imprecise estimate of the odds of pregnancy with tamoxifen versus clomiphene. Thus more cycles are needed to quantify this association.
This meta-analysis would imply however, that if there is a difference in pregnancy rates, the difference is probably not large and therefore may not be clinically significant. This analysis was powered to detect a 6% absolute difference in cycle pregnancy rates, assuming 80% power, =0.05, and a 0.06% cycle pregnancy rate in the clomiphene group. Other retrospective studies have reached similar conclusions (Gerhard and Runnebaum, 1979
; Ruiz-Velasco et al., 1979
; Weseley and Melnick, 1987
). However, Buvat et al. (1987)
conducted a prospective randomized controlled trial and concluded that tamoxifen was superior in the face of luteal phase defects.
Only one study included live birth as an outcome. This one study with eight pregnancies found a higher miscarriage rate and lower live-birth rate among those women on tamoxifen. Similarly, Ruiz-Velasco et al. (1979) and Buvat et al. (1987)
found that miscarriage rates among those women prescribed tamoxifen was
35% compared to miscarriage rates between 11 and 14% in the clomiphene group. Elstein and Fawcett (1984)
found a similar tendency toward higher miscarriage rates with tamoxifen in their prospective trial. However, in a retrospective study of 87 patients, Wu (1997)
found that miscarriage rates were significantly lower for those women receiving tamoxifen for treatment of luteal phase defect.
In conclusion, there are no appreciable differences in ovulation or pregnancy rates after treatment with tamoxifen or clomiphene for isolated anovulatory infertility. Clinicians may choose to use the regimen with which they are most familiar for ovulation induction in women with anovulatory infertility. Future studies may help to elucidate clinical settings in which one agent may be superior to the other.
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Acknowledgements |
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References |
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Submitted on January 12, 2005; resubmitted on February 10, 2005; accepted on February 11, 2005.
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