1 Women's and Child Health, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, Dundee and 2 Division of Maternal and Child Health Sciences, University of Dundee, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, Dundee DD1 9SY, United Kingdom
3 To whom correspondence should be addressed at: Division of Maternal and Child Health Sciences, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, Dundee DD1 9SY, UK. Tel: 01382 632147; Fax: 01382 633847; Email: d.j.murphy{at}dundee.ac.uk
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Abstract |
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Key words: cohort study/cystic fibrosis/fertility/pregnancy outcomes
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Introduction |
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It is known that menarchal age is directly related to health status. This includes height, weight and the percentage of body fat exceeding 18% as well as general health. Once established, most girls with CF will exhibit normal or near-normal menstrual cycles (Edenborough, 2001). The most striking feature among girls with menstrual problems was that those who were amenorrhoeic had forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) <55% predicted. Recent studies have shown that there is no difference in the numbers of CF females who are in relationships, age of coitarche or prevalence of intercourse compared to age matched non-CF controls. Sexual adaptation in CF sufferers is normal (Edenborough, 2001
). In terms of fertility, older studies have quoted poor figures, with fertility at <20% among female CF sufferers (Rodgers et al., 2000
). There appears to be little evidence from more recent data to suggest that healthy women with CF have fertility problems apart from differences in the quality of cervical mucus (Kopito et al., 1973
). It is widely known that 98% of males with CF are infertile due to absent or atretic vas deferentia, and dilated or absent seminal vesicles. However, with the advent of assisted conception techniques such as microscopic epididymal sperm injection (MESA) and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) many men are able to father children, and therefore factors such as general health must be taken into account (Edenborough, 2002
).
Health status is crucial. In terms of respiratory disease, sufferers of CF develop accelerated obstructive patterns of airways disease with poor peak flow, reduced FEV1 and decreased oxygen saturation. They have superimposed infection with organisms such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, the Burkholderia complex, and the fungus Aspergillus(Mehta et al., 2004). Insulin dependant diabetes and on-going prophylactic therapy with antibiotics and corticosteroids become increasingly prevalent. These health complications and therapeutic interventions have important implications for planning and achieving pregnancies with a good maternal and perinatal outcome. The aim of this study was to explore the fertility and pregnancy outcomes of men and women with cystic fibrosis within a large British cohort (McCormick et al., 2002
; Mehta et al., 2004
) and to relate their reproductive outcomes to post-pubertal health status.
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Methods |
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We examined all indicators of proven fertility, and general and specific markers of health and well-being. Information was not available about the use of contraception or the length of time trying for a pregnancy. Proven fertility was taken as being a positive pregnancy test. We considered an FEV1 of <50% predicted to represent poor respiratory health. We compared the characteristics and health status of pre- and post-pubertal males and females within the cohort. For the purpose of this analysis, pre-pubertal individuals were chosen as the reference category. The definition of puberty was the voice breaking in males and menarche in females. We also included data about fertility treatment, individual pregnancies and pregnancy outcomes in those of reproductive age. We then examined the health status of both men and women in relation to reproductive outcomes and compared our data with other recently published studies (Edenborough et al., 2000; Gilljam et al., 2000
; Gillet et al., 2002
; Odergaard et al., 2002a
,b
). Comparisons between groups were presented as relative risk ratios (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Age adjusted comparisons for post-pubertal individuals were estimated by logistic regression and presented as odds ratios (OR) and 95% CI. Statistical significance was set at a P-value <0.05. The data was analysed using SPSS (v 11.5) software.
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Results |
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Discussion |
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Almost all the health parameters examined showed deterioration in adulthood compared with childhood, in keeping with the recognized pattern of disease progression in CF (Edenborough, 2001; Ratjen and Doring, 2003
; Mehta et al., 2004
). However, it is interesting to note that height and weight centiles appear to be determined in childhood with significant numbers of males and females recorded below the 10th centile. This may have important implications for fertility and for pregnancy outcomes. The prevalence of both impaired glucose tolerance and insulin dependant diabetes increased significantly in adulthood for both men and women. While historically, most pregnancies to CF individuals occurred in those with normal or near normal pancreatic function (Corkey et al., 1981
; Canney et al., 1991
), more recent studies suggest that many women do embark on pregnancy with diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance. Planning of pregnancies and careful management during pregnancy with specialist multidisciplinary input appears to result in favourable outcomes (Gilljam et al., 1999
; Goss et al., 2003
). The use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medication and choice of prophylactic antibiotics pose additional challenges when balancing maternal health with optimal foetal development. Obstetric cholestasis is associated with poor pregnancy outcomes (Milkiewicz et al., 2002
) and may pose further concern when the high rate of disturbed liver metabolism among CF adults is considered.
Although this study included a large number of individuals, the overall pregnancy rates were very low, as were the number of individuals seeking fertility treatment. This may relate to social and personal factors as well as to health status. A survey in the United Kingdom reported that 70% of adults with cystic fibrosis were living full and productive lives, however, only 26% of men were married or co-habiting (Walters et al., 1993). It is known that 98% of men with CF have azoospermic infertility, and will require some form of assisted conception technique or donor sperm for conception. It may be that many individuals are not in the social, domestic or economic circumstances to embark on MESA, ICSI or donor sperm insemination. In addition, the ethical issues of assisted conception in the face of chronic ill-health and altered life expectancy are difficult. This may be another reason why so few men embark upon infertility treatment. Parenting and fertility issues are important for men and women with CF but many patients report deficiencies in the discussions with their health care professionals. Men in particular are reluctant to initiate discussions (Fair et al., 2000
; Sawyer et al., 2001
).
The number of pregnancies in this study was low but the outcomes were generally good with a high percentage of term live born infants. In the general population, the pre-term birth rare is 6% compared with 18% for this study (Chamberlain and Morgan, 2002
). The spontaneous miscarriage rate was 8% compared to a typical rate of 1015% quoted for the general population (Regan et al., 1989
). There were no therapeutic terminations in this study group, which either reflects a population who are in optimal health when planning their pregnancies, or, more likely, under-reporting. Our findings compare favourably with pregnancy outcomes for women with CF in other developed countries (Gilljam et al., 2000
; Gillet et al., 2002
; Odergaard et al., 2002a
,b
). A previous UK study reported a high rate of terminations at 19%, a lower full-term live-born pregnancy rate and a higher rate of pre-term births (Edenborough et al., 2000
). There have been four further studies published since 2000 looking at pregnancy outcomes among women with cystic fibrosis in developed countries (Gilljam et al., 2000
; Gillet et al., 2002
; Odergaard et al., 2002a
,b
). The numbers of pregnancies in all the groups are similar but some of the studies have recorded data over a large number of years. The findings are remarkably consistent. Our study has the advantage of placing pregnancies achieved and their outcomes within the context of an entire cohort of CF women. It was also possible for us to establish reproductive outcomes for men, which has been an under-researched area to date (Sawyer, 1996
; Sawyer et al., 1998
).
Confusion can arise when comparing different study populations, as women in the UK database have genetic characteristics and possibly phenotypic features that are different from the North American and European CF Registries (Gillet et al., 2002; McCormick et al., 2002
). The pattern of DF508 expression in the study population reflects what would be expected in a predominantly Caucasian population in the UK (McCormick et al., 2002
). Women who achieved a pregnancy were significantly less likely to be homozygous for DF508. This is in keeping with the findings of a US study that demonstrated milder clinical manifestations of CF and lower mortality with distinct genetic subgroups heterozygous for DF508 compared with those homozygous for DF508 (McKone et al., 2003
). The implication is that it may be possible to predict fertility and reproductive outcomes in terms of the individual's genotype. This may be particularly relevant to those patients diagnosed by neonatal screening (Farrell et al., 2001
; Merelle et al., 2001
; Mehta et al., 2004
).
There are no data available on the CF status of partners, which may have some bearing on whether a couple would embark on a pregnancy. Attitudes to this have been explored by Sawyer et al. (1998). Looking more closely at the health status of individuals with CF in relation to reproductive outcome, there appears to be little relationship between health status and parenting among men. However, having a pregnancy was associated with a lower prevalence of poor respiratory health (FEV1 <50%) among women. The median age at diagnosis of CF was also lower among women who had a pregnancy than among those who had not. It is presently controversial whether early diagnosis of CF or advances in antimicrobial therapy and nutritional support have led to the dramatic improvement in health, and therefore, life expectancy. Our findings suggest that there may be additional advantages of early diagnosis in terms of reproductive health outcomes. It remains to be seen whether neonatal screening for CF will further improve these outcomes. The numbers of men and women in full or part-time work was chosen as a marker of health, however whilst more men who have parented are in employment, fewer women who have had a pregnancy are working. This probably reflects a preference among women with CF to stay at home caring for their children.
The UKCF database is a growing resource allowing longitudinal follow-up of over 5000 individuals with cystic fibrosis. Regular updates on current health status and annual reviews allow analysis of disease progression as well as accuracy checks of baseline data. The analyses described here represent a snapshot view of the current profile of CF sufferers in the UK. The current generation of CF children are the next potential generation of sexually active adults who will have reproductive health care needs. It has been possible to evaluate the reproductive health and pregnancy outcomes of the current adults within a population-based setting and to relate this to CF features and health status. However, it was not possible to compare health before and after pregnancies or to address the detailed aspects of obstetric and postnatal care. There may also be under-reporting of sensitive information relating to sexual activity, infertility and termination of pregnancy (Henneman et al., 2001; Nixon et al., 2003
). Future studies with prospective follow-up of adolescent cohorts should allow evaluation of contraceptive practices, pre-pregnancy counselling and multi-disciplinary approaches to planning and achieving safe pregnancy outcomes.
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Conclusions |
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Acknowledgements |
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References |
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Submitted on April 13, 2004; accepted on June 15, 2004.