1 UMR 6175 Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Centre National de Recherche Scientifique, Université de Tours, Haras Nationaux Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, 37380 Nouzilly and 2 Unité dExpression des Gènes Eucaryotes, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
3 To whom correspondence should be addressed. e-mail: guillou{at}tours.inra.fr
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Abstract |
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Key words: PAC/regulation/Sertoli/transferrin/transgenic mice
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Introduction |
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Today, with the completion of the human genome project and the facility for handling it using long genomic DNA fragments contained in yeast artificial chromosome (YAC), phage P1-derived artificial chromosome (PAC) or bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) vectors (Burke et al., 1987), human gene function and regulation can be studied in transgenic mouse models. Actually, these artificial chromosomes offer the opportunity potentially to capture all regulatory elements of a gene, and some studies have reported a tissue specificity of transgene expression (Nielsen et al., 1997
; Sinn et al., 1999
). This technology could provide an alternative means for studying the regulation of human genes involved in Sertoli cell functions. To address this point, we have chosen the human transferrin (hTf) gene as a model. The Tf gene contains 17 exons, included in 33.5 kbp, and encodes a 79 kDa glycoprotein. In all species studied, the protein is synthesized by the liver and by oligodendrocytes in the brain, and in rodents it is additionally synthesized by epithelial cells of the choroid plexus (Tu et al., 1991
) and of the mammary gland (Lee et al., 1987
). In all species, Tf is also expressed by Sertoli cells of the testis (Skinner and Griswold, 1980
). In humans, many studies show that the Tf level in the seminal plasma is correlated with sperm yield (Sueldo et al., 1984
; Orlando et al., 1985
). A low concentration of Tf in the seminal plasma has been correlated with severity of oligospermia. Thus, Tf in the seminal plasma appears to be an important marker of the functional integrity of Sertoli cells. However, little is known on Tf gene regulation in human Sertoli cells (Holmes et al., 1984
; Foucault et al., 1992
). On the other hand, regulation of Tf gene expression has been studied extensively in rat Sertoli cell cultures. The regulation of Tf secretion has been shown to vary under a complex control involving hormones (FSH, insulin and testosterone), retinoids, cytokines and the surrounding germ cells (Skinner and Griswold, 1982
; Perez-Infante et al., 1986
; Sigillo et al., 1999
). The cis-activating elements involved in Tf gene expression have been identified in human and mouse 3.6 kbp promoters by transient transfection in rat primary Sertoli cell cultures (Chaudhary and Skinner, 1998
; Guillou et al., 1991
; Schaeffer et al., 1993
). The major response elements involved in regulating the hTf gene are conserved in the proximal mouse transferrin (mTf) promoter. In particular, proximal region I (PRI), proximal region II (PRII), a C/EBP-binding site, distal region I (DRI) and distal region II (DRII) are conserved and functional in the mTf promoter. The transcription factors necessary for the basal activity of these promoters may be similar. The work of Chaudhary and Skinner (1998
) suggests that regulation of Tf transcription in response to various stimuli may be more complex and may require additional sequences upstream of the 3.0 kbp 5'-regulatory region as well as a combination of different transcription factors for the regulation of mouse or human Tf promoters.
On this basis, we have generated transgenic mice using a phage P1 containing 80 kbp of human DNA sequences encompassing the complete hTf gene. First, the expression pattern of the hTf gene was assayed. Furthermore, regulation of the human and mouse Tf genes by hormones, retinoids and cytokines in Sertoli cells purified from transgenic mice was studied.
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Materials and methods |
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Animals
Transgenic mice for the hTf gene were generated in the C57/Bl6-SJL and C57/Bl6-DBA2 genetic backgrounds. A PAC containing the hTf gene used as a transgene was obtained from Genome Systems. The transgenic animals were screened for the presence of hTf in the blood. All transgenic mice used in this study were hemizygous for the hTf gene. Animals were fed with a standard laboratory diet and tap water ad libitum, and maintained on a half light:half dark photoperiod in a temperature-controlled room at 2123°C. All animal studies were conducted in agreement with the Guides for Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (NIH Guide).
In situ hybridization
Mice were perfused intracardially with 4% paraformaldehyde. The livers, testes and brains were dissected in cold phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) (137 mmol/l NaCl, 2.7 mmol/l KCl, 1.4 mmol/l KH2PO4, 4.3 mmol/l Na2HPO4), post-fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde overnight at 4°C and embedded in paraffin. Slices were hybridized to an antisense riboprobe specific for the hTf gene that does not cross-react with endogenous mTf, or to a hTf sense riboprobe. The probes were labelled with [-35S]UTP using SP6 and T7 polymerase or with digoxigenin-11-UTP (Roche Diagnostics, Meyla, France). The hybridization procedure using radioactive riboprobes has been described previously in detail (Saleh et al., 2003
). The hybridization using digoxigenin riboprobes was carried out according to the manufacturers instructions.
Immunohistochemistry
Mice were perfused intracardially with 4% paraformaldehyde, then the brains were post-fixed for 1 h. The brains were included in tissue-tek (Sakura, The Netherlands) and immediately frozen. Cryostat sections (8 µm) were air-dried, then incubated in PBS containing 4% bovine serum albumin (BSA) for 1 h. Anti-mTf or anti-hTf antibodies (1:10 000) were incubated at 4°C overnight with 1 µg of human or mouse Tf, respectively. After saturation of unspecific sites by BSA, the sections were incubated with Tf antibodies overnight in a humid chamber at 4°C. After washes with PBS, and incubation with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated rabbit IgG (Jackson ImmunoResearch, Pennsylvania, PA) for 1 h at room temperature, the sections were counterstained with Evans blue and examined with a Leica microscope.
Cell preparation and culture
Tubular cells were isolated from 12- to 14-day-old mice. All steps of cell preparation were performed in L15 medium (Gibco-INVITROGEN, Cergy-Pontoise, France) with 100 µg/ml streptomycin, 100 U/ml penicillin G (Sarbach, Suresnes, France). Testes were decapsulated and digested by trypsin (2.5 mg/ml) and DNase (10 µg/ml) (Sigma-Aldrich Chimie S.AR.L.) for 25 min at 34°C under continuous shaking. Trypsin action was stopped by the addition of 2.5 mg/ml soybean trypsin inhibitor (Sigma-Aldrich Chimie S.AR.L.). The tubular fragments were allowed to sediment and the supernatant containing the interstitial cells was eliminated. The sedimented fragments were washed once before being disrupted by a glass potter. Finally, the cell clusters were washed and filtered through sterile surgical gauze. Sertoli cell preparations were plated in Petri dishes at 0.5 x 106 cells per 2 cm2 in Dulbeccos modified Eagles medium (DMEM; Gibco-INVITROGEN) supplemented with 100 U/ml penicillin G, 2.5 µg/ml amphotericin B (fungizone), 100 µg/ml streptomycin, 2 mmol/l glutamine and 200 ng/ml vitamin E. Cells were cultured at 34°C in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2. The medium was replaced after 24 h to remove unattached cells, and plated tubular cells were treated with the different products as described in the Results. After 48 h of stimulation, culture media were collected, and mouse and human Tfs were measured.
The Sertoli cell preparation contains 3% peritubular cells and 20% germ cells. The peritubular cells were identified by alkaline phosphatase reaction, as previously described (Chapin et al., 1987). The germ cells were identified by classical histological methods.
Preparation of cellular extracts
One unit of organ weight was disrupted in 2 volumes of lysis buffer [15 mmol/l Tris pH 7.9, 60 mmol/l KCl, 15 mmol/l NaCl, 2 mmol/l EDTA, 0.4 mmol/l phenylmethylsulphonyl fluoride (PMSF)]. After four freeze/thaw cycles, the lysates were centrifuged at 6000 g for 10 min at 4°C and the supernatants were stored at 20°C.
Transferrin quantification
HTf was quantified by an antibody-sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), using two polyclonal antibodies directed against hTf, as previously described (de Arriba Zerpa et al., 2000). The detection limit was 0.1 ng/ml. HTf antibodies cross-reacted at <0.05% with mTf.
MTf was measured by radioimmunoassay. The method was performed as described previously (Cassia et al., 1997). The detection limit was 1 ng/ml. All standards and samples were assayed in triplicate. The specificity of the antibody was tested. MTf antibodies cross-reacted at <0.0001% with hTf.
Contamination of the brain with serum Tf was estimated by measuring the IgG level in the brain and the blood as described (Saleh et al., 2003).
Isolation of RNA and northern blot
Total RNAs were extracted from organs using acid guanidinium thiocyanatephenolchloroform extraction as previously reported (Chomczynski and Sacchi, 1987) and quantified by absorbance at 260 nm.
A 10 µg aliquot of total RNA was size-fractionated on 1% (w/v) agarose gels containing 1.1 mol/l formaldehyde, 20 mmol/l MOPS, 5 mmol/l sodium acetate and 1 mmol/l EDTA. After electrophoresis, the RNA was transferred overnight by capillary action to a nylon membrane (Nytran Super Charge, Schleicher and Schuell, Dassel, Germany) and covalently bound to the membrane by baking at 80°C for 2 h. Pre-hybridization of the membranes was performed in rotating bottles for 2 h at 42°C, in NorthernMax Prehybridization/Hybridization Buffer (Ambion, Inc., Austin, TX). The northern blots were hybridized with the following probes: (i) a 1.5 kbp DNA fragment of the mTf cDNA obtained after EcoRI hydrolysis of the clone named pMTF-5 (Chen and Bissell, 1987); (ii) a 494 bp 3' sequence of the human Tf gene; and (iii) a region of mouse cDNA 18S from Ambion, Inc. These probes were radiolabelled previously by a random-primed labelling reaction (Amersham, Buckinghamshire, UK) and [
-32P]dATP. Unincorporated nucleotides were removed by gel filtration chromatography on a Sepharose G50 column (Amersham Biosciences-Pharmacia, Saclay, France) and the probes were heat denatured. Hybridization was performed by adding 106 d.p.m./ml of the respective probes to the pre-hybridization mixture and by incubating overnight at 42°C. Membranes were washed twice for 5 min at room temperature in 2x SSC (0.3 mol/l NaCl, 30 mmol/l tri-sodium citrate pH 7.0), and twice for 15 min in NorthernMax High Stringency Wash buffer (Ambion, Inc.) at 42°C. Membranes were exposed to a PhosphorImager screen (Molecular Dynamics, Sunnyvale, CA) at room temperature for 24 h before quantification using the ImageQuant software (Molecular Dynamics).
Statistics
Results are presented as means ± SD. Data analyses were performed using MannWhitney U-test for evaluation of differences between treated and control cells and between treated mTf/hTf ratios and control mTf/hTf ratios. The statistical computer program StatXact6 was used. All tests were performed two-sided and P < 0.05 was considered as statistically significant.
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Results |
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FSH is known to mediate its effects by increasing the production of cAMP in Sertoli cells. Hence, we have tested whether forskolin and db-cAMP stimulate FSH-induced hTf expression. In both lines, the stimulatory effects of FSH on hTf secretion can be mimicked by forskolin (1 µmol/l) or by db-cAMP (104 mol/l) (Table II). Moreover, FSH, db-cAMP or forskolin also stimulated significantly mTf secretion in wild-type C57/Bl6-DBA2 and C57/Bl6-SJL or in transgenic mice. In line 803, db-cAMP stimulated hTf secretion more efficiently than mTf.
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Discussion |
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This gene is the 80 kbp long Tf gene comprising its long 5'- and 3'-regulatory sequences. We obtained two lines of transgenic mice that both exhibited the expected tissue-specific pattern of hTf expression in the liver and in the testis. In the brain, the human gene was expressed solely in oligodendrocytes, while the expression of the mTf gene was detected in the oligodendrocytes and also in the choroid plexus. These observations are in agreement with a previous report indicating that the Tf mRNA from mouse, but not from human, is weakly expressed in the choroid plexus (Tu et al., 1991). In addition, we have found a high concentration of mTf and a weak concentration of hTf in milk. High quantities of Tf in the milk of rodents in contrast to human were reported previously (Masson and Heremans, 1971
). More recently, it has been shown that Tf was expressed by glial Müller cells of human and macaque retinas. In transgenic mice, hTf was also detected in glial Müller cells (Y.Courtois and J.C.Jeanny, personal communication). Thus, and probably due to its size, the transgene seems to have maintained most characteristics of human tissue specificity despite being embedded in a murine genome. This was not observed in previous experiments using 3.9 kbp of Tf 5'-regulatory sequences upstream of the LacZ gene (Cassia et al., 1997
), although the proximal regulatory region of the transferrin gene is highly conserved in human and mouse. Thus, our present results strongly suggest that the species specificity of Tf expression is likely to be born by cis-elements included in the 80 kbp fragment, confirming that BACs, PACs or YACs are useful tools in transgenesis to obtain tissue specificity of a gene, because they permit the manipulation of long DNA fragments.
Although tissue specificity of the hTf gene expression in both lines of transgenic mice was conserved by using 80 kbp of human DNA, we observed that in both lines and in all organs or fluids except the brain, the hTf gene was expressed at lower levels than the mTf gene (only 1040% of mTf levels) and was also reduced when compared with normal levels in human plasma (2.5 mg/ml) (Bowman et al., 1988). Several hypotheses can be proposed to explain this observation: first, the neighbouring genes in which the transgene was inserted could reduce the expression of hTf. This, however, is unlikely since the level of expression was reproducibly weaker in both transgenic lines which were generated independently, with probably different insertion sites. Secondly, the DNA fragment inserted may not contain all regulatory elements controlling the level of expression, such as long distance enhancers. Thirdly, some species-specific regulatory elements, present in the 80 kbp fragment and controlling the level of expression, may not be recognized as efficiently by mouse factors. Fourthly, a maximal level of Tf could be reached and mTf could regulate the hTf level. We could address this question by generating mice with a knocked-out mTf gene and expressing the hTf gene.
It has been reported that Sertoli cells from estrogen-treated patients or young men (1647 years) produce Tf (Holmes et al., 1984; Foucault et al., 1992
). We show that primary Sertoli cell cultures from mice transgenic for the hTf gene could express and secrete hTf constitutively. The regulation of hTf and mTf expression by different factors known to control Sertoli cell functions was also analysed in our model. A stimulatory effect of FSH on Tf expression has already been reported in rat (Skinner and Griswold, 1982
), human (Holmes et al., 1984
) and murine (Huleihel and Lulenfeld, 2002
) Sertoli cells. Here we show that FSH as well as db-cAMP or forskolin are able to stimulate hTf and mTf expression in Sertoli cell cultures from both lines of transgenic mice. However, the magnitude of Tf stimulation by FSH we observed is difficult to compare with other data obtained in humans (Holmes et al., 1984
; Foucault et al., 1992
) because of differences in culture conditions (e.g. stimulation time, days in culture).
Regulation of the mTf gene in mouse Sertoli cells has been studied previously only in response to FSH or interleukins (Huleihel and Lunenfeld, 2002). We show here that insulin and retinol can also stimulate mTf while testosterone was ineffective. These results were similar to those obtained in rat (Skinner and Griswold, 1982
; Hoeben et al., 1996
; Sigillo et al., 1999
). Interestingly, some differences between mouse and rat have been highlighted in our study. In mouse, a low concentration of retinol (0.35 µmol/l) had no effect on mTf secretion, 2.5 ng/ml TNF-
stimulated mTf, and a FIRT mix or a combination of TNF-
and 3.3 µmol/l retinol did not have additive effects. Thus, regulation of Tf seems to be different between rat and mouse. Of note, regulation of mTf secretion was not altered by the presence of the hTf gene in transgenic animals. Whatever the factors used, the effects were identical in wild-type or transgenic mice.
Up to now, two studies have analysed the regulation of hTf by insulin, retinol and testosterone in cultured human Sertoli cells (Holmes et al., 1984; Foucault et al., 1992
). Both have shown that insulin and retinol stimulate the secretion of hTf, although the retinol data are not entirely conclusive. In transgenic mice, we confirmed that insulin and retinol stimulate hTf. In contrast, the effects of testosterone are a matter of debate: some authors (Holmes et al., 1984
) did not observe stimulation of hTf, whereas others (Foucault et al., 1992
) did. In our model, no testosterone effect was observed. Thus, we conclude that expression of the hTf gene in mouse Sertoli cells seems to be regulated as in human Sertoli cells. This observation prompted us to analyse the effects of other factors known to regulate Tf secretion in rat Sertoli cells and not yet studied in human Sertoli cells. Our study shows that the hTf gene could be regulated by the same factors as the mTf gene, but we cannot exclude that the effects observed are due to the murine context. It would be interesting to verify these effects on human Sertoli cells in culture, but such a study is difficult for ethical reasons. Another way to evaluate the influence of the murine context in regulation of gene expression could be to study mice transgenic for the rat Tf gene. Nevertheless, we can observe that the hTf gene is regulated in transgenic mice by the same factors as the mTf gene, but a difference in the magnitude of the response exists as the hTf gene is stimulated more potently than the mTf gene by 3.3 µmol/l retinol.
The model of hTf transgenic mice can bring new enlightenment on the regulation of this gene in Sertoli cells. Moreover, transgenic mice offer the opportunity to study the impact of factors during different events of testis development, for example the fetal period or before and after the bloodtestis barrier has formed.
In summary, we demonstrate here that the use of hTf transgenic mice constructed with a large fragment from the human genome allows study of the spatial specificity of transgene expression and its regulation. Secondly, since hTf gene expression seems to be regulated differently from that of the rat Tf gene, it is possible to envisage using these humanized mice to study the impact of pharmacological agents on this expression. In Sertoli cells, expression of a human transgene in a murine context may mimic the human physiology more closely than the rat model.
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Acknowledgements |
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References |
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Submitted on February 9, 2004; accepted on April 8, 2004.
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