1 Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
2 Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Utah, School of Medicine Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA
3 Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado, Denver, CO 80262, USA
4 Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
* The first two authors contributed equally to this work
Author for correspondence (e-mail: m0qiu001{at}louisville.edu)
Accepted April 21, 2001
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SUMMARY |
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Key words: Oligodendrocytes, Nkx2.2, Expression pattern, Differentiation, Mutation, Rat, Mouse
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INTRODUCTION |
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Although it is generally accepted that oligodendrocytes are derived from the ventral neuroepithelium in response to SHH signals, the exact domain of their origin is still controversial and the molecular control of oligodendrogenesis remains to be defined. Richardson and colleagues have suggested that expression of the gene for platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR
) defines the oligodendroglial precursor as a single column of cells in the ventral neural tube along the entire rostrocaudal axis (Pringle and Richardson, 1993; Yu et al., 1994). Cell isolation experiments have suggested that PDGFR
-expressing cells are indeed oligoglial precursors (Ellison and de Vellis, 1994; Grinspan and Franceschini, 1995) and that A2B5 immunoreactivity coupled with PDGFR
expression defines an oligodendroglial precursor (Hall et al., 1996). Recent studies have shown that two additional glial genes, Olig1 and Olig2, are also expressed in an overlapping domain (Lu et al., 2000; Zhou et al., 2000), suggesting that Pdgfra/Olig1/Olig2 expression defines a glial precursor cell domain. This domain has been subsequently mapped to the ventral border of the Pax6 expression domain but dorsal to the Nkx2.2 expression domain (Ericson et al., 1997; Sun et al., 1998; Lu et al., 2000; Zhou et al., 2000).
However, our recent studies in chicken embryos have shown that oligodendrocytes might also be generated from the Nkx2.2 domain of the ventral neuroepithelium in both the spinal cord and the forebrain (Xu et al., 2000). In the developing chicken spinal cord, Nkx2.2 expression is initially confined to a narrow stripe of neuroepithelium that flanks the floor plate but ventral to the Pdgfra/Olig1/Olig2 domain. Starting at embryonic day (E) 6, Nkx2.2-positive cells migrate radially and tangentially into the surrounding gray and white matter regions where they actively proliferate. Double labeling experiments demonstrate that a majority of the Nkx2.2-positive migratory cells co-express oligodendrocyte markers. These results strongly suggest that oligodendrocytes can also be generated from the Nkx2.2-positive neuroepithelium and that Nkx2.2 may directly control oligodendrocyte specification and differentiation.
To investigate the role of Nkx2.2 in oligodendrocyte lineage specification and differentiation, we have examined the expression of Nkx2.2 in mouse oligodendrocyte progenitors and investigated the development of oligodendrocytes in the Nkx2.2-null mutants (Sussel et al., 1998). We show that Nkx2.2 is also expressed in oligodendrocyte progenitor cells in mouse spinal cord. In Nkx2.2 knockout mice, the number of myelin basic protein (MBP)-positive and proteolipid protein (PLP-DM-20)-positive oligodendrocytes is dramatically reduced and delayed in both the spinal cord and the brain. However, the number of Pdgfra-positive and Olig1/Olig2-positive oligodendrocyte progenitors is slightly increased, and the Olig1/Olig2 expression in neuroepithelial cells also expands ventrally into the Nkx2.2 domain. These results confirm that Nkx2.2 controls the identity of the ventral neuroepithelium and provide direct evidence that the Nkx2.2 transcription factor regulates oligodendrocyte differentiation.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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In situ RNA hybridization
Spinal cord and brain tissues from mouse embryos and postnatal pups were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde at 4°C overnight. Tissue preparation and in situ hybridization with digoxigenin-labeled riboprobes were performed as previously described (Cai et al., 1999), according to Schaeren-Wiemers and Gerfin-Moser (Schaeren-Wiemers and Gerfin-Moser, 1993) with minor modifications.
Isolation and characterization of A2B5 cells by immunopanning and immunofluorescence
Spinal cords from E14 rats were dissected and dissociated by EDTA-trypsin. NCAM cells were depleted by immunopanning. Cells in supernatant were cultured in NEP basal medium with 35 ng/ml basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and 10 ng/ml PDGF for 2 days. A2B5 cells were purified by immunopanning and cultured in NEP basal media with 35 ng/ml bFGF and 10 ng/ml PDGFA. After one day in culture, bFGF was withdrawn and T3 was added. Two days later, cells were stained with anti-A2B5 supernatant (1:1) for an hour and then FITC-anti-mouse IgM (1:100) for 15 minutes at room temperature. Then the cells were fixed by 2% PFA. Cells were preblocked in blocking buffer for 1 hour and then incubated in anti-Nkx2.2 supernatant overnight (100%) at 4°C. Cy3-anti-IgG, Fc specific, (1:100), was used to stain the second day.
Nkx2.2 expression in oligodendrocyte progenitors was further confirmed in A2B5 cell line (P6) cells, which were cultured in NEP basal media with 35 ng/ml bFGF and 10 ng/ml PDGF for 2 days. The bFGF concentration was reduced to 10 ng/ml and cells were cultured for 4 more days before being fixed and stained by anti-Nkx2.2 and DAPI.
Dissociated cell culture of rat embryonic spinal cord
E14 rat spinal cords were dissected and dissociated by EDTA-trypsin. Cells were cultured in NEP basal with 35 ng/ml bFGF for 5 days. Then cells were fixed with 2% PFA. Cells were blocked in blocking buffer for 1 hour and then incubated in anti-Nkx2.2 (100%) supernatant overnight at 4°C. Cells were stained by anti-mouse-IgG (H+L) 568 (Alexa) (1:500) on the next day. Cells were then re-fixed in 2% paraformaldehyde for 1 minute. Anti-ß III tubulin (1:100) was added and incubated overnight at 4°C. Cells were stained by FITC-anti-mouse IgG2b (1:100) on the second day.
Transient transfection assay
The following constructs were used to transiently transfect NIH 3T3 cells using Fugene 6 (Boehringer Mannheim): (1) pEGFP alone as a control; (2) pLNCX-NKX2.2/FLAG alone; (3) PLP-GFP alone; (4) GFAP-GFP alone; (5) pLNCX-NKX2.2/FLAG and PLP-GFP; and (6) pLNCX-NKX2.2/FLAG and GFAP-GFP. Each plasmid (1 µg) was transfected into each dish according to the manufacturers protocol. Cells were fixed in 2% paraformaldehyde for 30 minutes at room temperature 2-3 days after transfection and stained with either the anti-FLAG tag (1:1000; Sigma) or anti-NKX2.2 (1:1; DSHB) overnight at 4°C followed by TRITC IgG1 (1:200; Southern) or Alexafluor 568 (1:500; Molecular Probes), respectively. The number of GFP-positive and Nkx2.2-positive cells was counted from 50 random fields under a Nikon fluorescent microscope.
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RESULTS |
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As reported previously, before embryonic day 10.5 (E10.5), Nkx2.2 transcription in the spinal cord is restricted to a narrow ventromedial column flanking the floor plate (Fig. 1A). At E13.5, a small number of Nkx2.2-positive cells start to migrate dorsally (arrow) and ventrally (arrowhead) (Fig. 1B). By E15.5, Nkx2.2 signal can be clearly detected in the ventral white matter (arrowhead, Fig. 1C). At postnatal day 0 (P0), the Nkx2.2-expressing cells are detected throughout the entire spinal cord, including the lateral and dorsal white matter (Fig. 1D). The expression of Nkx2.2 in the white matter continues to accumulate during postnatal development (Fig. 1E-H). The dispersion of Nkx2.2-positive cells in the white matter resembles that seen for Nkx2.2-positive oligodendrocyte progenitors in the embryonic chicken spinal cord (Xu et al., 2000). In fact, closer examination of Nkx2.2-positive cells under high magnification in the white matter (Fig. 1G,H) revealed that they had an oligodendrocyte-like morphology with numerous branching processes. Interestingly, the number of Nkx2.2-positive cells in the perinatal mouse spinal cord appears to be smaller than that observed in the embryonic chicken spinal cord at equivalent stages (chicken E14; Xu et al., 2000; Richardson et al., 1997).
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Development of brain oligodendrocytes is also affected by the Nkx2.2 mutation
Previous studies have suggested that oligodendrocytes in the rostral regions of the neural tube might also arise from the ventral CNS, similar to those in the spinal cord (Pringle and Richardson, 1993; Spassky et al., 1998; Perez Villegas et al., 1999). We have recently shown that in the developing chicken brain, Nkx2.2-positive oligodendrocyte progenitors migrate into all parts of the embryonic brains, including hindbrain and forebrain at later stages (Xu et al., 2000). To study the effects of Nkx2.2 mutation on the brain oligodendrocyte development, we examined the expression of MBP in the hindbrain/midbrain tissues at E17.5 (Fig. 4A,B) and in the forebrain at postnatal day 7 (P7; Fig. 4C-F). At E17.5, many MBP-positive oligodendrocytes can be detected in the ventral half of the medulla in the wild-type animals (Fig. 4A). In the mutants, only a small number of oligodendrocytes are found the ventromedial white matter (Fig. 4B).
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Nkx2.2 mutation does not affect astrocyte development
As oligodendrocytes and astrocytes can be generated from common glial precursor cells, at least in vitro (Rao et al., 1998), we investigated the development of astrocytes by immunostaining embryonic spinal cord with an anti-GFAP polyclonal antibody. The earliest expression of GFAP could be detected at around E15.5 in the ventral white matter regions (Fig. 5A-B). By E18.5, strong GFAP immunoreactivity was observed in the entire white matter (Fig. 5C,D). No significant difference between GFAP staining in the wild-type and mutant embryos was detected at either stage (Fig. 5).
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Pdgfra is another well-characterized marker of oligodendrocyte progenitors whose expression is also initially observed in the ventral neuroepithelium at E13.5, similar to that of Olig1 and Olig2 (Fig. 8A,B). The Pdgfra-positive cells subsequently spread dorsally and laterally into the entire spinal cord (Fig. 8C-F). The appearance of Pdgfra-positive cells was not delayed, and the number of Pdgfra-positive cells was not reduced in the Nkx2.2 mutants. Instead, there is a significance increase (30-50%) in the number of Pdgfra-positive progenitors throughout embryonic development, possibly owing to the ventral expansion of the Olig1/Olig2-positive neuroepithelium from which most Pdgfra-positive cells arise.
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When the Nkx2.2-FLAG construct was transfected into 3T3 cells, the Nkx2.2 protein can be clearly detected in both nuclei and cytoplasm with anti-Flag or anti-Nkx2.2 antibody (Fig. 10A), but no GFP-positive cells were observed. When the PLP-GFP construct was transfected alone, virtually no GFP expression was detected (Fig. 10B'). Cells were also negative for immunostaining with anti-Flag or anti-Nkx2.2 (data not shown). However, when both constructs were co-transfected into 3T3 cells, GFP expression was observed (Fig. 10B,D). Induction was seen 48 hours after transfection and increased over the next 24 hours. Nkx2.2 staining on the co-transfected dishes clearly demonstrated GFP expression in the Nkx2.2-expressing cells.
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These transient transfection assays demonstrate that Nkx2.2 can drive gene expression from the PLP promoter but not from the GFAP promoter in transient transfection assays, suggesting that Nkx2.2 expression in glial precursors can drive expression of oligodendrocyte-specific genes.
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DISCUSSION |
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Interestingly, although Nkx2.2 is specifically expressed in oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, the expression pattern of Nkx2.2 is not identical to that of Olig1/Olig2 and Pdgfra in the developing mouse spinal cord. For example, at E13.5, Nkx2.2 expression is restricted to a small cluster of cells immediately adjacent to the ventral ventricular zone, whereas the Olig1/Olig2-positive cells and Pdgfra-positive are already dispersed into the dorsal and lateral spinal cord (Figs 1, 8, 9). Expression of Nkx2.2 in the dorsal and lateral white matter is not apparent until postnatal day 0 (Fig. 1). Thus, unlike in the embryonic chicken spinal cord (Xu et al., 2000), expression of Nkx2.2 in migratory oligodendrocyte progenitor cells is significantly later than Olig1/Olig2 and Pdgfra in the developing mouse spinal cord.
One possible explanation for the differential expression of Nkx2.2 and Olig1/Olig2 in mouse oligodendrocyte progenitors is that Nkx2.2-positive cells and Olig1/Olig2/Pdgfra-positive cells may arise from different ventral neural progenitor domains and thus represent distinct populations of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells. It is conceivable that the Nkx2.2-positive oligodendrocyte progenitors may be derived from the Nkx2.2 domain (p3 domain; Briscoe et al., 2000), while the Olig1/Olig2-positive oligodendrocyte progenitors originate from the more dorsally located motoneuron domain (pMN domain; Briscoe, et al., 2000). However, our recent studies demonstrate that Nkx2.2 oligodendrocyte progenitors co-express Pdgfra and Olig2 in postnatal mouse spinal cord (Y. Q. and M. Q., unpublished). Thus, we favor the alternative possibility that Nkx2.2 is upregulated in Olig1/Olig2-positive/ Pdgfra-positive oligodendrocyte progenitors after they emigrate into the surrounding spinal cord parenchyma. In other words, Nkx2.2, Olig1/Olig2 and Pdgfra are expressed in the same population of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells but at different time windows. There are several lines of evidence to support this proposal. First, Pdgfra-positive/Olig1/Olig2-positive cells appear to represent the only population of spinal oligodendrocyte progenitor cells in rodents. Immunodepletion of Pdgfra-positive cells completely eliminates oligodendrocyte cells (Hall et al., 1996). Similarly, reduction of Pdgfra-positive cells in PDGF-A knockout mice dramatically suppresses the development of MBP-positive/PLP-positive oligodendrocytes (Fruttiger et al., 1999). Second, the percentage of Nkx2.2-positive cells in immunopurified A2B5-positive cells and dissociated spinal cord culture appears to increase with time in vitro (data not shown), consistent with the in vivo observation that Nkx2.2 expression increases in postnatal animals (Fig. 1). Third, as discussed above, Nkx2.2-positive oligodendrocyte progenitor cells co-express Pdgfra (Xu et al., 2000) and Olig2 in both chicken and mouse (data not shown). In P1 mouse spinal cord, nearly every Nkx2.2-positive cell expresses Olig2, whereas many Olig2-positive progenitors express no or little Nkx2.2 (Y. Q. and M. Q., unpublished). Therefore, Nkx2.2 appears to be upregulated in Olig1/Olig2-positive progenitors in the developing mouse CNS. As a matter of fact, the Nkx2.2 domain and Olig1/Olig2 domain start to merge together soon after oligodendrocyte progenitor cells are produced, as the Olig1/Olig2 domain gradually sinks into the Nkx2.2 domain in both chicken (H. F. and M. Q., unpublished) and rat (Woodruff et al., 2001), suggesting that Nkx2.2 and Olig1/Olig2 could be co-expressed in same oligodendrocyte precursor cells, even before they start to migrate away from the ventricular zone. However, the precise lineage relationship of the Nkx2.2-positive, Olig1/Olig2-positive and Pdgfra-positive oligodendrocyte progenitors requires further molecular and immunological characterization and in vivo lineage analysis using transgenic approaches.
Nkx2.2 activity is required for the normal development of oligodendrocytes in both the spinal cord and the brain
Persistent expression of Nkx2.2 in oligodendrocyte progenitors strongly suggests that Nkx2.2 may directly control oligodendrocyte development. Consistently, Nkx2.2 is required for the normal differentiation of oligodendrocytes. In the mutant spinal cord, the production of the MBP-positive and PLP-DM20-positive differentiated oligodendrocytes in the mutants is drastically reduced; those that are detected are significantly delayed. For example, MBP-positive oligodendrocytes can be detected in the wild type as early as E15.5, whereas they can not be seen in the mutants until E18.5 (Fig. 3). A similar defect in oligodendrocyte development was also observed in the brain (Fig. 4), in agreement with our recent observations that Nkx2.2 is also expressed in brain oligodendrocytes in embryonic chicken CNS (Xu et al., 2000). The ventral origin of brain oligodendrocytes was previously proposed based on the dorsal spreading of the Pdgfra-positive and O4-positive oligodendrocyte progenitors from the ventral diencephalon and rhombencephalon (Pringle and Richardson, 1993; Ono et al., 1997; Perez Villegas et al., 1999; Spassky et al., 1998), and was further confirmed by the absence of Pdgfra-positive progenitors in the forebrain of the Nkx2.1 mutants (Nery et al., 2001).
The defective oligodendrocyte differentiation in the Nkx2.2 mutants is not caused by the reduced production or proliferation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, as the number of Olig-positive/Pdgfra-positive progenitors is significantly increased in the mutant spinal cord and brain throughout embryogenesis (Figs 7-9). The enhanced generation of oligodendrocyte progenitors appears to result from a ventral expansion of the Olig1/Olig2-positive domain into the Nkx2.2 domain. Previous studies have demonstrated that Nkx2.2 directly controls the identity of p3 ventral neuroepithelium (Briscoe et al., 1999; Briscoe et al., 2000). Consistently, in the Nkx2.2 mutants, expression of the Olig1/Olig2 genes in the ventricular neuroepithelial cells is ventrally expanded into the Nkx2.2 domain, suggesting that the p3 domain is transformed into the pMN domain, and Nkx2.2 is not required for the initial specification of oligodendrocyte lineage.
The increased production of Olig1/Olig2-positive/Pdgfra-positive progenitors would predict an increase in oligodendrocyte number in the Nkx2.2 mutants, given that the Olig1/Olig2 genes regulate the expression of some oligodendrocyte-specific genes (Lu et al., 2000; Zhou et al., 2000). In contrast, we observed a significant reduction in the number of differentiated MBP-positive/PLP-positive oligodendrocytes throughout the entire CNS of the Nkx2.2 mutants (Figs 3, 5), indicating that expression of Olig1/Olig2 is not sufficient for the normal differentiation of oligodendrocytes in vivo. Nkx2.2 may be required downstream of, or co-operates with, Olig1/Olig2 in controlling oligodendrocyte differentiation.
To this end, it is not clear at what stage oligodendrocyte differentiation is blocked in the mutants, owing to the lack of molecular or immunological probes that can determine intermediate stages between Olig/Pdgfra and MBP expression in mouse tissue sections. The undifferentiated progenitor cells did not appear to undergo apoptosis, as we detected no significant differences in cell death in the normal and mutant spinal cords by TUNEL labeling (data not shown). The cells also did not appear to switch their fates into astrocytes, as we did not see a premature expression or increase in the domain of GFAP expression. Nor was there an obvious specific increase in levels of a neuronal marker in the white matter (data not shown). Given the increase in Olig1/Olig2 and Pdgfra expression throughout embryogenesis, we believe that cells that do not differentiate persist at least till P1 and may be lost later. However, in vivo lineage analysis in the Nkx2.2 knockout animals is needed to confirm this hypothesis.
Nkx2.2 has a direct effect on oligodendrocyte lineage development
The mechanism that underlies the defective oligodendrogenesis in the Nkx2.2 knockout animals remains unknown at this stage. The simplest explanation for the reduction and delay of oligodendrocytes in the Nkx2.2 mutants is a general developmental delay of the CNS development. However, no discernible differences in size and shape of the neural tube can be observed between the wild-type and Nkx2.2 mutant embryos. The development of astrocytes and motoneurons is not delayed by the Nkx2.2 mutation (Fig. 4; Briscoe et al., 1999), and the production of Pdgfra-positive and Olig1/Olig2-positive oligodendrocyte progenitor cells is neither delayed nor reduced in the mutant embryos (Fig. 4). Thus, the oligodendrocyte phenotype is cell type specific and stage dependent, instead of a general developmental perturbation.
An alternative explanation is that the defective oligodendrocyte development is a secondary defect in the production of extracellular signals. Previous studies have demonstrated that oligodendrocyte progenitor cell specification, proliferation and differentiation are regulated by a variety of extracellular signal molecules, particularly SHH (Trousse et al., 1995; Poncet et al., 1996; Pringle et al., 1996), PDGF (Barres and Raff, 1994; Calver et al., 1998) and neuregulin (Canoll et al., 1996). Inactivation of the genes for these proteins leads to deletion or severe reduction of oligodendrocytes (Orentas et al., 1999; Fruttiger et al., 1999; Vartanian et al., 1999). However, expression of Shh (Briscoe et al., 1999; Fig. 7G-H) and neuregulin (Fig. 6) is not affected in the Nkx2.2 mutants. Expression of PDGF also appears to be normal based on the uncompromised production of Pdgfra-positive oligodendrocyte progenitors in the mutant CNS (Figs 8, 9; Calver et al., 1998). Nevertheless, it should be noted that Nkx2.2 mutants display defective pancreatic ß-cell differentiation and consequent insulin production (Sussel et al., 1998), raising the possibility that insulin deficiency might be responsible for the defective oligodendrocyte development. Although insulin is known to be an important extracellular signal for neuronal culture in vitro (Robinson et al., 1994), there is no in vivo evidence that insulin influences the early development of the CNS (Bruning et al., 2000). To address this possibility directly, we examined the differentiation of MBP-positive oligodendrocytes in the spinal cords of both the insulin receptor knockout (Accili et al., 1996), and the insulin 1 and insulin 2 double knockout (Duvillie et al., 1997). We found no defects in oligodendrocyte differentiation in these mutants (M. Q. and R. Schechter, unpublished). More directly, a similar reduction of MBP-positive/PLP-positive oligodendrocytes in the mutants was observed in spinal cord explants that were isolated from E13.5 and cultured in vitro for 6 days (data not shown). These results indicate that insulin and in vitro culture conditions cannot rescue defective oligodendrocyte differentiation in the mutant cord.
Although we cannot formally rule out the possibility that Nkx2.2 might regulate oligodendrocyte differentiation through an unidentified intercellular signaling molecule, we propose that Nkx2.2 has a direct role in the control of expression of myelin structure genes and oligodendrocyte differentiation. It is plausible that the Nkx2.2 homeodomain transcription factor may directly bind to the promoters of structural myelin genes and subsequently regulate their expression. In support of this hypothesis, Nkx2.2 expression is gradually increased in oligodendrocyte progenitors during midgestion and postnatal spinal cord (Figs 1, 2), preceding the expression of MBP and PLP. More directly, consensus binding sites for Nkx2.2 are found in PLP and MBP promoters (J. L. and M. Rao, unpublished), and overexpression of Nkx2.2 transcription factor can induce gene expression from the PLP promoter in transient transfection assays (Fig. 10). Intriguingly, deletion of the Nkx2.2 only leads to a reduction and delay, but not a complete inhibition, of transcription of MBP and PLP in the developing spinal cord (Fig. 3B), implying that Nkx2.2 may have a partially redundant function with other transcription factors such as Olig1/Olig2 or Sox10 that are co-expressed in oligodendrocyte progenitors. It is possible that Nkx2.2 may enhance or modulate the activities of these transcription factors. It would be of interest to determine how the Nkx2.2 and Olig1/Olig2 transcription factors interact genetically or biochemically in orchestrating oligodendrocyte development.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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