1 Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA, 2 Department of Neurobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA, 3 Departments of Medical Informatics and Radiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 4 Department of Radiology, University of California, San Francisco, 505 Parnassus Avenue, Box 0628, San Francisco, CA 94143-0628, USA, 5 Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA, 6 Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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Abstract |
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Key Words: brainstem, consciousness, hypothalamus, seizures, single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), thalamus
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Introduction |
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Temporal lobe seizures typically begin with more focal phenomena such as fear, rising epigastric sensation, indescribable premonitions, or lip smacking automatisms (Park et al., 2001; Janszky et al., 2003
). Seizures that terminate without impaired consciousness are classified as simple partial, while those that impair consciousness are classified as complex partial. Impaired consciousness in complex partial seizures is usually most profound late in the seizure and persists for up to several minutes after the end of the seizure, during the post-ictal period. Is this impaired consciousness related to spread of abnormal activity to networks beyond the temporal lobe?
To address this question, we sought to image temporal lobe seizures in a well defined group of patients with surgically confirmed mesial temporal sclerosis. Cerebral blood flow (CBF) imaging is only indirectly related to neuronal activity, but has been validated, based on comparison to electrophysiological studies, as a method for localizing seizure activity in humans (Spanaki et al., 1999). We used single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) ictalinterictal imaging because of its unique capacity to take a snapshot of CBF during human seizures. The SPECT radioisotope, injected during a seizure, is rapidly taken up by the brain and does not redistribute (Andersen, 1989
). Imaging can then be carried out 6090 min later, eliminating serious problems with movement artifact and the patients clinical stability. Other imaging modalities (e.g. fMRI or O-15 PET) would require the actual imaging to be performed during seizures, not feasible in temporal lobe epilepsy. SPECT analysis has been greatly facilitated in recent years by difference methods, comparing ictal scans to baseline interictal images in the same patient (Zubal et al., 1995
; O'Brien et al., 1998
; Spanaki et al., 1999
; Chang et al., 2002
), and by statistical parametric mapping (SPM), facilitating quantitative analysis of changes in groups of patients (Lee et al., 2000
; Chang et al., 2002
; Blumenfeld et al., 2003
).
Using this approach, we found widespread bilateral cortical and subcortical CBF increases and decreases during, and immediately following complex partial seizures. In contrast, simple partial seizures caused much more limited regions of involvement primarily confined to the temporal lobe. Correlation analyses demonstrated a strong relationship between CBF increases in the upper brainstem and medial thalamus and CBF decreases in higher order association cortex. This suggests that long range network effects may play an important functional role in temporal lobe seizures.
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Materials and Methods |
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All procedures were in accordance with Yale Human Investigations Committee and NIH guidelines. Informed consent was obtained from all subjects. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were chosen to identify a relatively homogeneous group of patients with surgically proven mesial temporal lobe epilepsy for SPECT analysis. Consecutive patients with the following inclusion criteria were used: ictal SPECT performed during video and scalp EEG monitoring; interictal SPECT performed at least 24 h after the most recent seizure; verbal questions or commands were addressed to patient during the seizure and recorded on video; combination of tests supporting left or right mesial temporal lobe seizure onset (MRI, FGD-PET, neuropsychology testing, angiogram Wada test, scalp EEG, intracranial EEG); surgical pathology demonstrating hippocampal sclerosis; and successful surgery with no seizures during a minimum follow-up period of 1 year following antero-medial temporal lobe resection. Exclusion criteria were as follows: significant anatomical lesion outside the temporal lobe; previous intracranial surgery; inadequate (less than 1 year) follow-up; seizures which secondarily generalized; or SPECT images acquired during intracranial EEG monitoring (Studholme et al., 2001). A total of 24 ictalinterictal image pairs from 21 patients were included in the study, nine males, 12 females with mean age at the time of SPECT imaging of 35 years (range 1557 years).
Videotape and EEG Review
Videotape and EEG of seizures for all SPECT injections were reviewed by two readers, blinded to the results of the imaging studies. Seizure onset time was defined as the earliest, and seizure end time was defined as the latest EEG or clinical evidence of seizure activity. SPECT injection time was defined as when the syringe plunger was fully depressed. The readers also rated patients behavior during seizures for evidence of impaired responsiveness, using a simple two-level classification, modified from Lee et al. (2002). Seizures in which patients had impaired responsiveness to verbal questions or commands or amnesia were classified as complex partial. Seizures in which patients remained fully alert and interactive throughout were classified as simple partial. All patients included in the study were presented with questions or commands during seizures by either medical staff or family members. EEG localization and frequency patterns were read by consensus of the two reviewers.
Image Acquisition
Ictal SPECT injections were performed during continuous scalp EEG and video recordings. Upon noting seizure onset, a technologist performed an intravenous injection of Tc-99m labeled hexamethylpropylene-amine-oxime (HMPAO) (Medi-Physics, Amersham Healthcare, Arlington Heights, IL). Patients were asked to close their eyes during the injection. Interictal injections were performed in these same patients after at least 24 h of no seizure activity, in a quiet room, while patients were at rest, awake, but with their eyes closed.
SPECT images were acquired within 90 min after injection. Projection data were acquired on a Picker PRISM 3000 (Philips Medical Systems, Best, Netherlands) and transverse slices were reconstructed as described previously (Zubal et al., 1995; Chang et al., 2002
). SPECT image data were transferred to personal computer with Linux operating system (Red Hat Software, Inc. Raleigh, NC), and saved in Analyze format using MedX (Sensor Systems, Inc. Sterling, VA).
Image Analysis
Images were analyzed using statistical parametric mapping (SPM99, Wellcome Department of Cognitive Neurology, London, UK http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/) on a MATLAB 6.5 (The MathWorks, Inc. Natick, MA) platform, as described previously (Chang et al., 2002; Blumenfeld et al., 2003
). Prior to analysis, images from patients with right temporal onset seizures were flipped right to left to enable group analysis of ipsilateral and contralateral changes. Images were realigned, spatially normalized and smoothed using a Gaussian kernel (16 x 16 x 16 mm). Global intensity normalization to correct for differences in total brain counts between ictal and interictal scans was performed using proportional scaling with an analysis threshold of 0.8 (Friston et al., 1996
; Acton and Friston, 1998
). A paired t-test model was then used in SPM to compare the ictal versus interictal images for groups of patients. Intergroup comparisons were also made among the different subgroups studied with the multi-group conditions and covariates model in SPM. The extent threshold (k) below which clusters were rejected was 125 voxels. This is equivalent to a volume of 1 cc (with SPM voxel dimensions of 2 x 2 x 2 mm). Individual voxel-level significance threshold p was 0.01, corresponding to a Z score of 2.33. Clusters of voxels showing changes were then identified at a significance level P = 0.05, after correction for multiple comparisons for the entire brain.
Volumetric Analysis of SPECT Changes in Individual Patients
To enable inter-region correlation analyses, we first performed a volumetric analysis of mean per cent ictalinterictal changes in anatomically defined cortical and subcortical brain regions. The SPM MRI template Colin27 (see http://www.mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk/Imaging/mnispace.html and ftp://ftp.mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk/pub/imaging/Colin/) was manually segmented into 15 anatomical regions on each side of the brain using a three-dimensional multi-modal image registration viewer written by C.S. (http://rview.colin-studholme.net/): frontal association cortex, perirolandic cortex, parietal cortex, mesial temporal cortex, lateral temporal cortex, occipital cortex, basal ganglia, medial thalamus, lateral thalamus, hypothalamus, midbraindiencephalic junction and pretectal areas (subthalamus), midbrain tegmentum, midbrain substantia nigra, pontine tegmentum, and cerebellum (see Supplementary Data online for details). Although the insular cortex has important limbic and multimodal connections, we did not include it in this analysis because insular cortex is not clearly demarcated from frontal and parietal operculum on SPECT imaging. We next calculated the per cent changes between interictal and ictal SPECT for each volumetric region in each individual patient by taking the mean of [(ictal interictal)/interictal] x 100% for all voxels in each region. Spatial normalization of SPECT images to the MRI template, and global intensity normalization of ictal and interictal images was as described above for the SPM analysis.
Correlation Analyses
Statistical analysis of the per cent changes in the identified volumes was performed using SPSS 11.5 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). We first calculated Pearson correlation coefficients between all possible combinations of cortical and subcortical regions on the side ipsilateral to seizure onset. Principal components analysis was next used to identify groupings of related variables. Three components were identified based on concordance of both the Cattell scree test and the Kaiser rule, retaining only components with eigenvalues > 1.0 without rotations (Tabachnick and Fidell, 1989).
To analyze the partial correlation between medial thalamic changes and changes in all other brain regions, we performed an SPM analysis using the multi-subject, conditions and variates model, entering the ictalinterictal per cent change in the medial thalamus ipsilateral to seizure onset as the covariate. For this analysis, we again used an extent threshold k = 125 voxels, voxel-level significance threshold P = 0.01, followed by a cluster-level significance level P = 0.05 corrected for multiple comparisons for the entire brain.
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Results |
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We analyzed SPECT images from groups of patients with complex partial seizures during two time epochs, at 6090 s after seizure onset, or >90 s after seizure onset (Figs 13). Seizure onset time was used to define patient groups because onset can usually be determined more precisely based on EEG and behavior than seizure end. An injection time of 90 s was chosen as the cut-off because this was approximately equal to mean seizure duration. For the 6090 s group (n = 8), and >90 s group (n = 10), respectively, the mean seizure durations were 94 ± 17.7 s (mean ± SEM), and 91 ± 12.8 s; mean injection times after seizure onset were 73 ± 8.9 s, and 130 + 10.1 s. Thus, the 6090 s group consists of patients injected 30 s before the end of the seizure (28 ± 21.4 s), representing the late ictal period, while the >90 s group consists of patients injected
40 s after seizure termination (40 ± 13.4 s), representing the early post-ictal period.
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Complex partial seizures were associated with functional imaging changes in widespread cortical and subcortical networks (Fig. 1). In the 6090 s group, the most significant CBF increases were present in the temporal lobe of seizure onset, maximal in the anterior, or pes hippocampus (Figs 1a and 2; Table 1). More minor increases were present in other ipsilateral and contralateral neocortical areas but did not reach statistical significance at the cluster level. Significant subcortical increases in the 6090 s group were present in the ventral basal ganglia on the side of seizure onset, particularly in the region of the ventral pallidum (Fig. 2c,e).
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In the >90 s group, representing the early post-ictal period, the temporal lobe is no longer activated (Fig. 1b). Interestingly, however, marked increases occur in this group in a variety of subcortical structures with known limbic connections: the bilateral medial thalamus, hypothalamus, subthalamus (midbraindiencephalic junction), midbrain, and upper pons (Figs 1b and 3; Table 1). In addition, the bilateral cerebellar vermis is activated.
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Simple Partial Seizures
We also analyzed SPECT images from a group of simple partial temporal lobe seizures with no impaired consciousness based on independent review of seizure videotapes (n = 6). Mean seizure duration was 67 ± 18.5 s (mean ± SEM), mean injection time after seizure onset was 78 ± 6.7 s, and mean time from the end of the seizure until the injection was 11 ± 17.1 s. Thus, injection times after onset were very similar to the 6090 s complex partial group (78 versus 73 s), while the seizure durations were slightly shorter in the simple partial group (67 versus 94 s), although not significantly so (P = 0.32, two-tailed t-test). EEG during the seizures in which the SPECT scans were performed showed unilateral rhythmic theta frequency slowing over the temporal lobe on the side of seizure onset in three patients, mild diffuse slowing in one patient, and no EEG changes in two patients. Behavior during seizures consisted of sitting in bed and responding to questions and commands from family or staff.
Individual patients in the simple partial group analyzed by SPECT difference imaging (Zubal et al., 1995; Chang et al., 2002
) showed focal CBF increases in the temporal lobe either on the side of seizure onset, or bilaterally in five of six patients (data not shown). However, due to individual variations in the anatomic locations and magnitude of these changes, the group data showed only small increases in the contralateral temporal lobe and cerebral peduncle, none of which reached statistical significance at the cluster level (Fig. 4). Even more strikingly, the widespread bilateral CBF decreases seen in the higher order association cortex with complex partial seizures (Fig. 1) were absent in the simple partial seizures, both in the individual (not shown) and group data (Fig. 4).
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Network Correlations
What is the mechanism for the hypoperfusion in frontal and parietal association cortex seen during complex partial seizures? To begin to investigate this, we divided the brain into anatomical regions and calculated the Pearson correlation between perfusion changes in each region and all the others ipsilateral to seizure onset (Table 2). We used the ictalinterictal SPECT scan pairs from all temporal lobe patients at all injection times (n = 24). Although this analysis must be considered exploratory, several clear trends can be seen after roughly correcting for multiple comparisons by increasing the significance threshold to 0.001 (Table 2). There was a strong positive correlation between several midline subcortical structures (medial thalamus, lateral thalamus, subthalamus, hypothalamus, midbrain tegmentum, midbrain substantia nigra, and pontine tegmentum), suggesting that changes in these structures tend to occur in the same direction. Perhaps most interestingly, there was a strong negative correlation between changes in the frontal and parietal cortex and these subcortical structures, especially the medial thalamus (P < 0.001, P = 0.008 for frontal and parietal cortex, respectively), as well as a strong positive correlation between the frontal and parietal cortex (P = 0.001, Table 2). This suggests an inverse relationship between changes in perfusion in the midline subcortical structures and the association cortex during temporal lobe seizures. Perfusion changes in the mesial and lateral temporal lobe, on the other hand, were not correlated with changes in the association cortex, but were strongly positively correlated with the ipsilateral basal ganglia (P < 0.001) (Table 2), a finding that has previously been related to dystonic limb movements during temporal lobe seizures (Newton et al., 1992).
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Discussion |
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Our results should be considered in light of investigations from normal subjects showing cerebral activation during tasks involving aspects of consciousness. For example, several studies have shown that the same lateral frontal and parietal regions which were hypoperfused during complex partial seizures, are normally activated during tasks that require visual perceptual awareness and discrimination (Lumer et al., 1998; Rees and Lavey, 2001
; Rees et al., 2002
). Similarly, the anterior cingulate is important in response selection (Bunge et al., 2002
), orbital frontal cortex participates in attaching emotional valency to decision making (Moll et al., 2002
), and the upper brainstem and thalamus also play a role in normal attention (Kinomura et al., 1996
).
What is the mechanism for decreased CBF in fronto-parietal cortex during complex partial seizures? The answer is not definitively known at present, and will need to await further studies. In previous work reporting frontal or parietal hypoperfusion during temporal lobe seizures a mechanism has not been identified (Rabinowicz et al., 1997; Menzel et al., 1998
; Chang et al., 2002
; Van Paesschen et al., 2003
). Interestingly, we found that fronto-parietal hypoperfusion was strongly correlated with hyperperfusion in midline subcortical structures such as the mediodorsal thalamus. We recently proposed a network inhibition hypothesis in which complex partial seizures arising in the temporal lobe propagate to the medial thalamus and upper brainstem reticular formation, disrupting their normal activating functions (Norden and Blumenfeld, 2002
; Blumenfeld and Taylor, 2003
). This, in turn, may lead secondarily to functional inactivation of widespread regions of frontal and parietal association cortex. Thus, both anatomical structures that are abnormally activated and structures that are abnormally inhibited could contribute to impaired function during epileptic seizures. While it is not clear if the CBF decreases we observed were associated with decreased neuronal activity, surround inhibition has been reported previously in regions outside the zone of seizure activity in electrophysiological, metabolic, and neuroimaging studies (Prince and Wilder, 1967
; Collins, 1978
; Engel et al., 1982
, 1983; Handforth and Ackermann, 1988
; VanLandingham and Lothman, 1991a
; Schwartz and Bonhoeffer, 2001
) and there is some evidence based on animal work that subcortical structures may play a role (VanLandingham and Lothman, 1991b
; Ostrand and Cooper, 1994
; Redecker et al., 1997
; Bruehl et al., 1998
). Data from a number of intracranial EEG studies show slow waves in frontal cortex during temporal lobe seizures resembling the EEG activity of sleep (Lieb et al., 1991
; Mayanagi et al., 1996
; Rivera et al., 2004
). One possibility is that regions of surround inhibition outside the seizure onset zone may serve an adaptive function to reduce the likelihood of seizure spread to other cortical regions (Schwartz and Bonhoeffer, 2001
; Van Paesschen et al., 2003
). Indeed, temporal lobe seizures are particularly prone to remain confined to limbic cortex, and rarely generalize.
We cannot fully exclude the possibility that the decreases in CBF seen in the frontal and parietal cortex are due primarily to a hemodynamic mechanism. However, we do not believe that the decreases in CBF outside the temporal lobe represent a simple steal phenomenon for several reasons. First of all, the vascular supply of the frontal and parietal cortex (anterior and middle cerebral arteries) differs from the temporal lobe (middle and posterior cerebral arteries) and midline subcortical structures (posterior circulation), making vascular steal an unlikely explanation for the observed hypoperfusion pattern. Of note, some regions within the middle cerebral artery territory are almost entirely spared by the hypoperfusion, most notably the peri-Rolandic cortex (see Fig. 1). In addition, we saw no correlation between the amount of increased CBF in the temporal lobe and decreased CBF in the fronto-parietal association cortex (Table 2). While a simple steal phenomenon is unlikely, other hemodynamic mechanisms could play a role, such as regional vasoconstriction similar to that seen in migraine, triggered by the ictal discharge. Post-ictal migraine is a well known phenomenon, and similar mechanisms may be activated during seizures as well.
Strong involvement of the bilateral medial diencephalon and upper brainstem has important functional implications for understanding temporal lobe seizures. Previous work (reviewed in Norden and Blumenfeld, 2002) and preliminary SPECT studies (Mayanagi et al., 1996
; Blumenfeld et al., 2000
; Bradley et al., 2000
; Paige et al., 2000
; Lee et al., 2002
) support the importance of medial temporal and medial diencephalic connections in generating limbic seizures. Intense hypothalamic involvement of the kind reported here may play an important role in neuroendocrine changes (Bauer, 2001
; Quigg et al., 2002
), medial diencephalic changes may contribute to memory impairment, and upper brainstemdiencephalic involvement to impaired consciousness. A recent SPECT imaging study found an association between medial thalamic and upper brainstem involvement during seizures, and loss of consciousness (Lee et al., 2002
). However, another recent SPECT imaging study which investigated the early part of temporal lobe seizures, within 30 s of onset, found decreased CBF in the frontal association cortex without significant changes in the brainstem and diencephalon (Van Paesschen et al., 2003
). We found that in complex partial, but not simple partial seizures, there is marked hypoperfusion of fronto-parietal association cortex correlated with hyperperfusion of midline subcortical structures late in seizures, progressively intensifying in the post-ictal period. Further studies will be needed to elucidate whether fronto-parietal hypoperfusion early in seizures is related to subtle midline subcortical changes not easily detected by SPECT, or is generated through other mechanisms.
One possible limitation of this study is the small sample size (n = 24), particularly in the simple partial group (n = 6). Thus, further investigation with a larger sample is warranted. It could be argued that the lack of changes in the simple partial group may be due to the smaller sample size (n = 6) compared to the two complex partial groups (n = 8, n = 10, respectively). However, when we directly compared each complex partial group to the simple partial group we found significantly more decreased perfusion in the frontal lobes in both complex partial groups compared to the simple partial group. Since this effect was detectable despite the reduced sensitivity of between-subject analyses (compared to within-subject analyses), this suggests that the robust hypoperfusion in the complex partial groups was not simply due to larger sample size than in the simple partial group. Another possible concern is that differences other than impaired consciousness may have contributed to the imaging differences between the simple partial and complex partial groups. Although the EEG changes, and overall level of motor activity were similar in the different groups, they were not identical, and we cannot rule out the possibility that additional variables aside from impaired consciousness may contribute to the observed perfusion differences. In addition, the injections times and seizure durations were not identical in the complex partial and simple partial patient groups. Thus, these results must be considered preliminary, particularly with regard to conclusions about mechanisms of consciousness, until they are replicated with larger and more closely matched groups of patients, and with more sophisticated means of assessing patient awareness during seizures.
If these results are confirmed, we tentatively propose the following model: early in temporal lobe seizures the most intense CBF increases occur in the temporal lobe. In simple partial seizures, physiological changes do not extend significantly beyond the temporal lobes, and consciousness is spared. In complex partial seizures, however, abnormal activity extends to a widespread network, reflected by CBF decreases in the fronto-parietal cortex and CBF increases in the medial diencephalon and upper brainstem. This may lead to disruption of normal information flow in multiple systems and loss of consciousness, which is particularly severe late in seizures, and extends to the early post-ictal period. We recently found that generalized tonicclonic seizures are associated with abnormal focal CBF increases in regions similar to those reported here to show CBF decreases (Blumenfeld et al., 2003). Based on this, we propose that abnormal increased activity in fronto-parietal association cortex may cause loss of consciousness in generalized seizures, while abnormal decreased activity in these same networks may cause loss of consciousness in complex partial seizures.
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Notes |
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Address correspondence to Hal Blumenfeld, Yale Departments of Neurology, Neurobiology, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 065208018, USA. Email: hal.blumenfeld{at}yale.edu.
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