Departamento de Morfología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28029 Madrid, Spain
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Abstract |
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Introduction |
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As knowledge of the connectional links of the OfC is necessary to advance our understanding of its participation in brain function and dysfunction, we review its major afferent and efferent connections with the cortex and with subcortical structures. This review is based on our own work (Cavada and Reinoso-Suárez, 1989, 1990
; Cavada et al., 1991
, 1992
; Compañy et al., 1993
; Cruz-Rizzolo et al., 1993
; Cavada, 1995
, 1998
) and on data from literature concerning the brains of adult macaque monkeys. The authoritative contributions by H. Barbas, R.J. Morecraft and J.L. Price, and their colleagues, over the last decade deserve special mention (Barbas, 1988
; Barbas and Pandya, 1989
; Barbas and De Olmos, 1990
; Barbas et al., 1991
; Morecraft et al., 1992
; Barbas, 1993
; Morecraft and Van Hoesen, 1993
, 1998
; Ray and Price, 1993
; Carmichael et al., 1994
; Carmichael and Price, 1994
, 1995a
,b
, 1996
; Barbas and Blatt, 1995
; An et al., 1998
; Öngür et al., 1998
; Rempel-Clower and Barbas, 1998
).
Following a brief description of the experimental procedures employed, we present first an overview of the cortical and subcortical connections of the OfC as a whole, emphasizing the structures the OfC is connected with. After presenting the evidence for parcellation of the OfC, we focus on the main differential connections of its subdivisions. We finally discuss the selective connections of the OfC with diverse brain regions with a perspective on memory and other integrative functions attributed to the OfC.
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Materials and Methods |
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Sections were studied with a Zeiss Axiophot microscope using appropriate bright-field, dark-field or fluorescent illumination. Labeled neurons or terminals were plotted onto photographs or drawings of the sections using color codes and taking references from the boundaries of the section, blood vessels and other tissue elements. The labeling located in the cortex was subsequently transferred onto lateral, medial and orbital surface views of the hemispheres (Figs 1, 7). With the exception of Figures 1B' and 2F
, only labeling present in the hemispheres ipsilateral to the injections is illustrated.
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Overview of the Connections of the OfC |
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The OfC is reciprocally connected with extensive cortical territories of prefrontal, motor, limbic and sensory affiliation. These connections will be discussed in some detail in the following paragraphs. Figure 1 illustrates them and compares the overall pattern of OfC corticocortical connections (M1, Fig. 1B
) with those of other prefrontal sectors (M2M4, Fig. 1CE
). The OfC is the prefrontal sector that has the strongest links with the temporal cortex, notably with medial areas, the temporal pole, the superior temporal gyrus and with the cortex buried in the Sylvian sulcus. With minor exceptions, most OfC corticocortical connections are reciprocal, because retrogradely labeled neurons were consistently observed overlapping anterogradely labeled terminals. For this reason, generally no attempt to distinguish between afferent and efferent cortical connections will be made. Figure 7
illustrates the patterns of retrograde labeling in the ipsilateral hemispheres after injections of fluorescent tracers in specific territories of the OfC.
Connections with Prefrontal and Motor Areas
As depicted in Figures 1A,B and 7, intraprefrontal connections are heavy and include both lateral and medial prefrontal areas: 9, 46, 8A, 8B, 45, 12, 10 and 32. In the motor domain, anterior premotor area F7 (the supplementary eye field) and cingulate area 24c are the most distinctly connected with the OfC. Thus, areas involved in eye [8A, 8B, 45, F7 (Schlag and Schlag-Rey, 1987
; Mitz and Godschalk, 1989
)], face and forelimb movement control [24c (Luppino et al., 1991
, 1994
; He et al., 1995
; Picard and Strick, 1996
; Morecraft et al., 1996
, 1997
)] are linked to the OfC. Recent anatomical evidence suggests that area 24c mostly controls distal arm muscles (Morecraft et al., 1997
).
Connections of the OfC with other prefrontal regions have been studied in detail by Barbas and Pandya (Barbas and Pandya, 1989), and Carmichael and Price (Carmichael and Price, 1996
). The former proposed organized patterns of connections within and between areas belonging to the two prefrontal cyto-architectonic trends they distinguished, the basoventral and the mediodorsal. The basoventral trend includes the caudal non-isocortical regions of the OfC, orbital areas 13, 12, 11, 14, 10, lateral area 12 and the rostral part of ventral area 46. The mediodorsal trend includes the periallocortex next to the rostral corpus callosum, medial areas 24, 25, 32, 9, 10 and 14, lateral areas 10 and 9, and dorsal areas 46 and 8 (Barbas and Pandya, 1989
). Carmichael and Price distinguished two corticocortical networks, one linking caudal and lateral parts of the OfC, and the other involving medial prefrontal, and medial and rostral orbital areas (Carmichael and Price, 1996
); the two networks communicate through specific subareas. Regardless of whether the interconnections of prefrontal territories are interpreted within the frameworks adopted by either Barbas and Pandya (Barbas and Pandya, 1989
), or Carmichael and Price (Carmichael and Price, 1996
), it is obvious that complex intrinsic interconnections heavily tie orbital, lateral and medial prefrontal territories (Figs 1BE, 7
).
The OfC connections with the periarcuate areas 8A, 8B, and with the supplementary eye field have been reported by a number of researchers (Barbas and Mesulam, 1981; Huerta and Kaas, 1990
; Morecraft et al., 1992
; Carmichael and Price, 1995b
), and they seem to be rather meager. It should be noted that Huerta et al. (Huerta et al., 1987
) and Stanton et al. (Stanton et al., 1993
) did not trace a connection between the cortex of the frontal eye field buried in the rostral bank of the arcuate sulcus, as defined by microstimulation, and the OfC. Nevertheless, even though labeling was never heavy in the rostral bank of the arcuate sulcus following tracer injections in the OfC, we have consistently observed it, and also after restricted OfC injections (Figs 1B, 7
).
The cortical connections of medial motor areas have been studied in recent years, but different studies do not agree on the links with the OfC. Our findings, pointing to motor cingulate area 24c as the one most heavily connected with the OfC, agree with those reported by Carmichael and Price (Carmichael and Price, 1995b). Morecraft and Van Hoesen (Morecraft and Van Hoesen, 1993
, 1998
) also observed OfC connections with 24c (which they name M3), but they, like Bates and Goldman-Rakic (Bates and Goldman-Rakic, 1993
), also described orbital connections with the supplementary [also called M2 (Morecraft and Van Hoesen 1993
), F3 (Matelli et al., 1985
, 1991
) and 6M (Preuss and Goldman-Rakic, 1991
)] and the pre-supplementary [F6 (Matelli et al., 1991
)] motor areas, and with posterior cingulate area 23c [M4 (Morecraft et al., 1996
, 1997
)]. However, Luppino et al. (Luppino et al., 1993
) did not find direct connections by F3 or F6 with the OfC, although both areas, in particular F6, were connected with 24c, which therefore appears to be a main gateway for the OfC, as well as for other prefrontal sectors, to the skeletomotor system (Fig. 1BE
). Regarding OfC connections with more posterior cingulate motor areas, we agree with Bates and Goldman-Rakic (Bates and Goldman-Rakic, 1993
), and Morecraft and Van Hoesen (Morecraft and Van Hoesen, 1998
) that such a connection may exist, since we observed weak labeling in 24d and 23c in several experimental cases (Figs 1B, 7
).
There is another connection between the ventral portion of premotor area F5 [or ventral area 6 (Barbas and Pandya, 1987)] and precentral operculum (PrCO) with the nearby lateral and caudal OfC (Barbas and Pandya, 1987
; Morecraft et al., 1992
; Carmichael and Price, 1995b
) (Figs 1B, 7C
). Interestingly, distal arm movements are represented in F5 and its neurons fire in response to motivationally meaningful visual stimuli and goal-related motor acts (Gentilucci et al., 1988
; Rizzolatti et al., 1988
).
Connections with Limbic Areas
The limbic cortical areas connected with the OfC are multiple and diverse, and include the insular cortex (areas Iag, Idg and Ig), temporopolar cortex (areas Tpag, Tpdg and Tpg), cingulate areas 25, 24a, 24b, 23a, 23b, 23v [area 23v is the isocortical component of the caudomedial lobule of Goldman-Rakic et al. (Goldman-Rakic et al., 1984)], retrosplenial areas 29 and 30, and medial temporal areas, including the entorhinal and perirhinal cortices (areas 28, 35 and 36), parahippocampal areas TF and TH, and the hippocampus (Figs 1A,B, 7, 11
) (Morecraft et al., 1992
; Barbas, 1993
; Barbas and Blatt, 1995
; Carmichael and Price, 1995a
).
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There are several parallel channels that link the OfC with the hippocampal formation (Figs 1A,B, 2A,B, 3, 7, 11): first, the connections with the entorhinal cortex, which engage mainly rostral, intermediate and lateral entorhinal subdivisions (Van Hoesen and Pandya, 1975b
; Van Hoesen et al., 1975
; Insausti et al., 1987
; Morecraft et al., 1992
; Carmichael and Price, 1995a
); second, the connections with the perirhinal cortex and posterior parahippocampal areas TF and TH (Van Hoesen and Pandya, 1975b
; Van Hoesen et al., 1975
; Morecraft et al., 1992
; Suzuki and Amaral, 1994
; Carmichael and Price, 1995a
), all of which are reciprocal; and third, direct connections from the hippocampus. The hippocampalOfC projection is ipsilateral and arises principally from fields CA1 and CA1'. The prosubiculum, adjacent to CA1, also projects to the OfC (Figs 2A,B, A',B', 3
). The existence of a reciprocal OfChippocampal projection is unclear: Carmichael and Price mentioned a very weak return projection (Carmichael and Price, 1995a
), and we observed fine punctate labeling in the regions holding the retrogradely labeled neurons, but definite demonstration of an OfChippocampal projection requires further study.
Morecraft and co-workers traced projections from CA1 and the prosubiculum to the OfC (Morecraft et al., 1992), and later others (Barbas and Blatt, 1995
; Carmichael and Price, 1995a
) reported more extensively on the projections from the hippocampus and subicular complex to the medial and orbital sectors of the prefrontal cortex. Their conclusions do not concur: while Barbas and Blatt asserted that the main sources of the projection are the rostral part of field CA1 and field CA1', Carmichael and Price concluded that the rostral subiculum is the main origin of the projection, with the prosubiculum also holding projecting neurons, and hippocampal fields CA1 and CA3 would only hold scattered projecting neurons. A main reason for these discrepancies is presumably the different field assignments the authors gave to the labeling located in the dorsomedial part of the genu of the hippocampus: Barbas and Blatt ascribed this labeling to CA1' and Carmichael and Price ascribed it to the rostral subiculum.
We concur with Barbas and Blatt (Barbas and Blatt, 1995) in that CA1 and CA1' are the main sources of the hippocampalOfC projection. Our delineation of the hippocampal and subicular fields mostly relies on AChE staining, also used by Barbas and Blatt, which gives nearly unequivocal information for most of the anteroposterior extent of the hippocampal formation (Fig. 2B'
). The CA1 hippocampal field has moderate cholinesterase activity, is more lightly stained than fields CA2 and CA3, and has a paler band of staining in the middle of the pyramidal cell layer; the prosubiculum (P in Figs 2A',B' and 3
), which is at the border between CA1 and the subiculum, shows a high uniform cholinesterase activity; finally, the subiculum (Sb in Figs 2A',B'
) is virtually unstained, and only has two thin positive bands located superficial and deep to the pyramidal cell layer (Bakst and Amaral, 1984
; Rosene and Van Hoesen, 1987
). Identification of the hippocampal fields at the genu is more difficult. Based on the AChE staining patterns at more posterior levels, we identified the subiculum, the prosubiculum, CA1, and field CA1' dorsomedially (Rosene and Van Hoesen, 1987
) (Fig. 2A'
), and subsequently concluded that virtually all the neurons labeled after the large injection in case M1 are in fields CA1' and CA1. Most of the neurons have a pyramidal shape and in CA1 occupy the deepest part of the pyramidal cell layer (Fig. 2B
, inset). Neuronal labeling in the prosubiculum often extended more superficially and stopped abruptly at the oblique border of this field with the subiculum. The various subicular fields, where we found hardly any labeling after OfC injections, appear to project mostly to lateral and medial prefrontal sectors (Rosene and Van Hoesen, 1977
; Goldman-Rakic et al., 1984
; Barbas and Blatt, 1995
).
A marked rostrocaudal gradient is present in the projections from CA1, CA1' and the prosubiculum to the OfC: ~70% of all the labeled neurons were located in the rostral third of the hippocampal formation [n = 20 600 in M1; 23 584 in M5 (left hippocampus); 24 464 and 27 640 in M6 (right and left hippocampus respectively)], with 20% and 10% located in the middle and caudal thirds respectively (Fig. 3). More precisely, the rostral 2 mm of the hippocampus holds about half (5056%) of the total population of hippocampal neurons that project to the OfC (the rostrocaudal length of the hippocampus in M. nemestrina is ~14 mm). Topographic specificity is also maintained within the OfC surface, with the medial areas as the specific targets of the hippocampal projection (Fig. 3
, and further discussion below). The axons of the projecting neurons run through the fimbria fornix, where we observed HRP-labeled axons in case M1 (not illustrated). However, we cannot discard the possibility of an additional temporofrontal route followed by the hippocampal OfC axons.
The hippocampalOfC projection is remarkable for its origin, magnitude and precise topographic organization. The hippocampus is a critical structure in declarative memory consolidation (Squire and Zola, 1996). Field CA1, in particular, has been shown to be selectively damaged in cases of human anterograde amnesia (Zola-Morgan et al., 1986
; Rempel-Clower et al., 1996
); also, CA1 is the hippocampal sector that is affected the soonest and most severely by neurodegenerative lesions in Alzheimer's disease (Price, 1986
; Braak and Braak, 1993
). In monkeys, selective hippocampal damage also results in memory impairment (Zola-Morgan et al., 1992
; Alvarez et al., 1995
), and field CA1 exhibits marked functional activation in macaques engaged on working-memory tests (Friedman and Goldman-Rakic, 1988
). The robust projection from the hippocampus, as well as from the other hippocampal formation structures described above, which also contribute significantly to memory function (Zola-Morgan et al., 1989
; 1993
; Rempel-Clower et al., 1996
), strongly suggests that the OfC is a pivotal cortical link within the neural networks that are active in learning and memory.
The striking rostrocaudal topographic organization of the hippocampal projecting neurons is enigmatic. Recent functional studies in humans give an interesting clue which suggests that the rostral hippocampal region is mainly active during episodic memory encoding, while the caudal regions are associated with memory retrieval (Lepage et al., 1998; Dolan and Fletcher, 1999
). Extrapolating between species, and on the assumption that connections and function are related, one would expect the OfC to be engaged in encoding operations. Interestingly, Haxby and co-workers have reported activation of the human left OfC, as measured by regional cerebral blood flow with positron emission tomography, during face encoding (Haxby et al., 1996
).
Connections with Sensory Areas
The OfC is connected with a constellation of areas affiliated to various sensory modalities: olfactory, gustatory, visceral, somatic, auditory and visual. The olfactory areas include both primary and secondary areas. The anterior olfactory nucleus, olfactory tubercle and piriform cortex receive connections from the olfactory bulb, so they are considered primary olfactory cortices, and project to the OfC (Morecraft et al., 1992; Barbas, 1993
; Carmichael et al., 1994
). In addition, the OfC is connected with the anterior insular area Iag, and with the olfactory field of the entorhinal cortex, both of which receive input from primary olfactory areas (Insausti et al., 1987
; Morecraft et al., 1992
; Barbas, 1993
; Carmichael et al., 1994
). The primary gustatory areas of the orbitofrontal operculum (OFO), adjacent insular field Idg and ventral area 3 are connected with the OfC (Figs 1A,B, 7
) (Morecraft et al., 1992
; Barbas, 1993
; Baylis et al., 1995
; Carmichael and Price, 1995b
; Cipolloni and Pandya, 1999
). These three areas receive projections from the thalamic relay nucleus for taste, i.e. the parvicellular subdivision of the ventral posteromedial nucleus (Pritchard et al., 1986
). Carmichael and Price (Carmichael and Price, 1995b
) have called attention to an additional type of sensory input reaching this thalamic nucleus: the vagal visceral, which would be relayed to subfields within the agranular insular field Iag. Since these subfields project to the OfC, visceral information could reach the OfC through this route.
The somatic sensory areas connected with the OfC principally include the ventral part of primary areas 12, secondary area S2, insular area Ig and parietal area 7b (Figs 1A,B, 7) (Morecraft et al., 1992
; Barbas, 1993
; Carmichael and Price, 1995b
). Trigeminal and hand representations predominate in these areas (Cavada and Goldman-Rakic, 1989a
; Carmichael and Price, 1995b
). With regard to the auditory modality, a constellation of recently identified belt and parabelt areas are connected to the OfC. Of the seven belt areas which surround, and are connected with, the three core primary auditory areas A1, R and RT (Hackett et al., 1998
), mainly the rostral areas are connected with the OfC: RM, RTM, RTL and AL (Fig. 1A,B
) (Romanski et al., 1999
). The parabelt auditory areas in the superior temporal gyrus RPB and CPB, which are connected to belt areas (Hackett et al., 1998
), are more heavily connected with the OfC than the belt areas, in particular the rostral RPB area (Figs 1A,B, 7
) (Hackett et al., 1999
; Romanski et al., 1999
). In addition, auditory association areas TS1 and TS2 are connected to the OfC, as well as the superior temporal polysensory area STP (Figs 1A,B, 7
) (Petrides and Pandya, 1988
; Seltzer and Pandya, 1989
; Morecraft et al., 1992
; Barbas, 1993
; Romanski et al., 1999
). In view of the rostrocaudal topography of the connections of the OfC and lateral prefrontal cortex with rostral and caudal belt and parabelt auditory areas, Romanski and co-workers have suggested that functionally distinct streams of auditory processing reach different prefrontal regions (Romanski et al., 1999
). The rostral stream, which preferentially targets the OfC, appears to be primarily engaged in phonetic processing, while the caudal stream, associated preferentially to the periarcuate prefrontal cortex, is mostly involved in auditoryspatial processing. It should be noted, however, that this dichotomy is not strict, and some convergent input from both streams may reach either prefrontal region (Fig. 1A,B
) (Romanski et al., 1999
).
With regard to vision, areas of the ventral processing stream are the most heavily connected with the OfC, although there are connections with dorsal stream areas (Figs 1A,B, 7) (Barbas, 1988
, 1993
; Martin-Elkins and Horel, 1992
; Morecraft et al., 1992
; Webster et al., 1994
; Carmichael and Price, 1995b
). Among the former, the inferior temporal areas TEa and TEp, in particular their portions within the lower bank of the superior temporal sulcus, are prominently connected with the OfC. These inferior temporal areas receive visual input principally from ventral stream prestriate areas containing central field representations (Baizer et al., 1991
) and are involved in object vision (Mishkin et al., 1983
; Van Essen and Maunsell, 1983
). In addition, area TEv, located medial to the anteromedial temporal sulcus and identified by Horel as an additional inferior temporal area (Horel, 1996
), sustains a particularly heavy connection with the OfC. TEv appears to belong to a parallel ventral visual stream that includes ventral prestriate areas and area TF (Martin-Elkins and Horel, 1992
), and, unlike areas TEa and TEp, is critical for performing delayed match-to-sample tasks (Horel, 1996
). Within the dorsal stream areas, 7a and 7ip (in particular its posterior part 7ip[p]) are connected to the OfC (Fig. 1A,B
) (Cavada and Goldman-Rakic, 1989b
; Morecraft et al., 1992
). These parietal areas are connected to visual areas where the periphery of the visual field is represented, and are involved in spatial vision and eye movement control (Mishkin et al., 1983
; Van Essen and Maunsell, 1983
; Shibutani et al., 1984
; Cavada and Goldman-Rakic, 1989a
; Andersen et al., 1992
).
In addition to the connections with areas of the ventral and dorsal visual streams, the OfC is heavily linked with area STP, located in the upper bank of the superior temporal sulcus (Figs 1A,B, 7) (Barbas, 1988
; Seltzer and Pandya, 1989
; Morecraft et al., 1992
; Barbas, 1993
). As its name indicates, STP is a polysensory region, but visual responses predominate there (Bruce et al., 1981
; Baylis et al., 1987
), and it has been proposed as a site of integration for spatial and object information (Morel and Bullier, 1990
; Baizer et al., 1991
).
Finally, the OfC is also connected with a poorly understood area, called the prostriata (ProS; Figs 1A,B, 7A,B) (Barbas, 1993
). ProS is located in the upper bank of the rostral calcarine sulcus, at the junction of the medial visual cortex and the retrosplenial region (Fig. 1A
), and has been thought to have a visual function (Sousa et al., 1991
; Rosa et al., 1997
).
Connections with Contralateral Areas
As illustrated in Figure 1B', the OfC is notably connected with the cortex of the opposite hemisphere, to both homotopic and to heterotopic regions. The latter principally include the loci sustaining the heaviest intrahemispheric connections. The extensive contralateral connections of the OfC suggest that it may participate in interhemispheric integration on a broad scale. The axons of the contralaterally projecting neurons course through the anterior portion of the genu and the rostrum of the corpus callosum (Barbas and Pandya, 1984
).
Subcortical Connections
Cholinergic and Aminergic Subcortical Nuclei
The OfC, like other cortical regions, is innervated by cholinergic and aminergic subcortical fibers. The cholinergic innervation is similar in distribution and density to that of the medial and lateral prefrontal sectors (Lewis, 1991), and principally comes from the nucleus basalis of Meynert (Nb in Fig. 2D
), in particular from the intermediate and anterior subdivisions Ch4id, Ch4iv, Ch4am and Ch4al (Mesulam et al., 1983
; Morecraft et al., 1992
). It is also possible that some of the cholinergic innervation of the OfC may arise from cholinergic neurons in the septal area, the diagonal band and brainstem (Morecraft et al., 1992
). It is interesting that the OfC is one of the few structures that project into the nucleus basalis, and therefore is in a position to control the cholinergic innervation of the entire cerebral cortex (Mesulam and Mufson, 1984
; Öngür et al., 1998
) (note the anterograde labeling in Fig. 2D
). The other regions sending axons to the nucleus basalis are limbic cortices interconnected with the OfC (piriform cortex, anterior insula, temporal pole, entorhinal and posterior parahippocampal cortex), the septal nuclei, the nucleus accumbens-ventral pallidum complex and the hypothalamus (Mesulam and Mufson, 1984
).
Unlike the cholinergic innervation, the catecholaminergic innervation of the macaque prefrontal cortex is heterogeneous. The density of dopaminergic and noradrenergic axons in the OfC is intermediate to that of the medial and lateral prefrontal sectors (Lewis et al., 1987, 1988
; Lewis and Morrison, 1989
). The dopaminergic axons originate in mesencephalic neurons, most of which are presumably in the ventral tegmental area and the retrorubral area, while the noradrenergic axons originate bilaterally in the locus coeruleus (LC in Fig. 2E
) (Porrino and Goldman-Rakic, 1982
; Morecraft et al., 1992
; Williams and Goldman-Rakic, 1998
).
Serotoninergic innervation of the OfC, which appears similar in distribution and density throughout the prefrontal cortex (Lewis, 1990), is thought to originate bilaterally in the dorsal raphe (DR in Fig. 2F
) and central superior raphe nuclei (Porrino and Goldman-Rakic, 1982
; Morecraft et al., 1992
).
Amygdala
The OfC, together with the medial prefrontal sector, is heavily connected with the amygdala. The following amygdaloid nuclei project to the OfC: basal (principally from the magnocellular and intermediate subdivisions), accessory basal (principally from the magnocellular and ventromedial subdivisions), lateral, anterior cortical, medial and periamygdaloid cortex (Porrino and Goldman-Rakic, 1981; Amaral and Price, 1984
; Barbas and De Olmos, 1990
; Morecraft et al., 1992
; Baylis et al., 1995
; Carmichael and Price, 1995a
). The basal and accessory basal nuclei hold the densest concentrations of neurons projecting to the OfC (Figs 2C,C', 8
). In turn, the OfC projects to the following amygdaloid nuclei: basal, accessory basal, lateral, central, paralaminar, anterior cortical, periamygdaloid cortex and amygdalo-hippocampal area (Fig. 2C,C'
) (Van Hoesen, 1981
). Our observations from M1 indicate that the incoming axons from the OfC cover a wider amygdalar surface than the territories occupied by the amygdalo-OfC projecting neurons, and include nuclei, like the paralaminar and central, that are devoid of neurons projecting to the OfC (Fig. 2C,C'
, and additional non-illustrated observations).
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Thalamus
The organization of the thalamic connections of the OfC is quite complex. The following nuclei or group of nuclei of the ipsilateral hemithalamus are connected with the OfC: midline, anteromedial (AM), anteroventral (AV), ventral anterior (VA), area X, paracentral (Pcn), central medial (CeM), centromedian-parafascicular (CnMd-Pf), mediodorsal (MD) [particularly the medial and posterior sectors (MDm and MDp), but also medial parts of the lateral and ventral sectors (MDl, MDv)], medial pulvinar (Pul M), limitans (Li) and suprageniculate (SG; Figs 4, 5, 9) (Goldman-Rakic and Porrino, 1985
; Giguere and Goldman-Rakic, 1988
; Barbas et al., 1991
; Siwek and Pandya, 1991
; Morecraft et al., 1992
; Ray and Price, 1993
; Romanski et al., 1997
). In addition, the following contralateral hemithalamus nuclei are connected with the OfC: paratenial (Pt), AM, MDm, ventromedial sector of VA (VAvm) and CeM (Figs 4, 5
) (Dermon and Barbas, 1994
) (the neurons assigned to the contralateral Pcn nucleus by Dermon and Barbas are probably analogous to those we assigned to the CeM). For the most part the thalamic territories receiving the OfC axons overlap the territories containing the neurons projecting to the OfC in the ipsilateral thalamus. Admittedly, the corticothalamic projection often seems to extend beyond the territories occupied by the thalamocortical neurons, but overall the ipsilateral thalamo-OfC connection may be considered reciprocal (Figs 4A, 5C
). In the contralateral hemithalamus the cortical-recipient territory is clearly larger than the sites occupied by the contralaterally projecting neurons (Figs 4A,B, 5
), an observation that is in keeping with earlier observations regarding other prefrontal territories (Preuss and Goldman-Rakic, 1987
). It has been suggested that the crossed corticothalamic and thalamocortical connections may subserve integrative functions, that might be related to memory (Preuss and Goldman-Rakic, 1987
).
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The reason for analyzing connectional territories in parallel with chemoarchitectonic ones is the possibility of gaining functional insight. Thus, the poor cholinergic innervation of the large MDm territory connected with the OfC, when compared to the rich cholinergic innervation of the MDl territory connected with the lateral prefrontal cortex (Schwartz and Mrzljak, 1993, Cavada et al., 1995
), indicates that the OfC, unlike the lateral prefrontal cortex, is largely free of acetylcholine influence acting on MD. If one considers the complex chemical architecture of the many thalamic nuclei connected with the OfC, the emerging picture is extremely complex. For instance, VAvm is a subdivision of VA defined by its particular AChE staining pattern, which is intense and uniformly distributed; VAvm is heavily connected with the OfC (Fig. 4
, sections #1 and #2, Fig. 5A,A'
). An additional salient example of correspondence between connectional and chemoarchitectonic territories is in the dorsomedial part of Pul M, where a patch of high AChE activity appears to be selectively linked with the OfC (Fig. 5C,C'
) (Cavada et al., 1995
). Finally, following recent and ongoing studies on the catecholaminergic innervation of the thalamus, we have concluded that the OfC may be subject to specific modulation by dopamine, noradrenaline and adrenaline acting on several thalamic nuclei that project to the OfC, in particular midline nuclei, Pf, and medial MD regions (Rico and Cavada, 1998
) (also B. Rico and C. Cavada, submitted, and additional unpublished observations).
Other Subcortical Connections
In the telencephalon, the claustrum and the striatum are linked with the OfC. The claustrum projects to the OfC (Morecraft et al., 1992), and the OfC projects densely to the striatum, specifically to ventromedial regions of the caudate nucleus and putamen, over an extensive longitudinal dimension that includes head, body and tail of the caudate nucleus (Selemon and Goldman-Rakic, 1985
). Whether the OfC projects to the nucleus accumbens or not is controversial: Haber and colleagues proposed that the OfC projected to the medial edge of the ventral striatum and to the core of the nucleus accumbens (Haber et al., 1995
), while Eblen and Graybiel reported that the densest projections from the OfC ended just dorsal to the nucleus accumbens, in a transition zone they named prelimbic striatum that lies between the dorsal caudate-putamen and the nucleus accumbens (Eblen and Graybiel, 1995
). The latter authors further observed that both striosomal and matrix compartments of the anterior and ventromedial striatum are innervated by OfC axons, and that different regions of the OfC preferentially target the striosomes, the matrix or both (see below).
The OfC is markedly connected with autonomic centers in the hypothalamus and periaqueductal gray matter (Morecraft et al., 1992; An et al., 1998
; Öngür et al., 1998
; Rempel-Clower and Barbas, 1998
). The lateral and medial preoptic areas, zona incerta, pars compacta of the substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area and interpeduncular nucleus are additional targets of the OfC, and also of medial prefrontal areas (Öngür et al., 1998
).
Like other prefrontal sectors, the OfC is the target of conspicuous bilateral projections from the hypothalamus, with the posterior hypothalamus being the main source for the OfC projection. The following hypothalamic areas or nuclei hold neurons projecting to the OfC: posterior hypothalamic area, perifornical nucleus, supramammillary and perimammillary nuclei, dorsal and lateral hypothalamic areas, tuberomammillary and paramammillary nuclei, anterior hypothalamic area and area of the tuber cinereum (Rempel-Clower and Barbas, 1998). Contrary to the widespread origins of the hypothalamic projections to the OfC, and prefrontal cortex in general, the return projection shows much more topographic specificity: the medial prefrontal sector is the main source of projections to the hypothalamus, followed by the OfC; the lateral prefrontal cortex only sends a weak projection to the hypothalamus (Öngür et al., 1998
; Rempel-Clower and Barbas, 1998
). The posterior hypothalamus is again the main target of the descending prefrontal axons. Overall, the main hypothalamic territories receiving descending OfC projections are the lateral and posterior hypothalamic areas, perifornical nucleus, dorsal hypothalamic area, and the supramammillary, tuberomammillary and paramammillary nuclei (Rempel-Clower and Barbas, 1998
). In the periaqueductal gray matter, descending projections from the OfC mainly target the ventrolateral column (An et al., 1998
). By means of their projections into the hypothalamus and periaqueductal gray matter the OfC and medial prefrontal areas are thought to initiate or control autonomic responses associated with emotional events (An et al., 1998
; Öngür et al., 1998
; Rempel-Clower and Barbas, 1998
).
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Architectonic Parcellation of the OfC |
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Walker's 1940 cytoarchitectonic study of the macaque pre-frontal cortex sought to define areas as nearly homologous to the similarly designated areas in the human brain as possible (Walker, 1940). Thus, Walker used the numerical terminology introduced by Brodmann, and defined areas 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 in the OfC (Fig. 6
). More recent studies have analyzed the cytoarchitecture (Barbas and Pandya, 1989
; Preuss and Goldman-Rakic, 1991
; Morecraft et al., 1992
; Carmichael and Price, 1994
), myeloarchitecture (Barbas and Pandya, 1989
; Preuss and Goldman-Rakic, 1991
; Carmichael and Price, 1994
) and chemoarchitecture (Carmichael and Price, 1994
) of the macaque OfC. These studies generally maintain Walker's numerical terminology, but the location of areal boundaries may be modified or further subdivisions added. In our opinion, the parcellation proposed and illustrated by Morecraft and colleagues is particularly significant because, in addition to defining the main architectonic features of the OfC, it also allows consistent correlation between architectonic subdivisions and specific connectional patterns (Morecraft et al., 1992
). In addition, other studies (Barbas and Pandya, 1989
; Preuss and Goldman-Rakic, 1991
; Carmichael and Price, 1994
) broadly agree with the scheme proposed by Morecraft et al.
|
In consideration of historical precedents and also to facilitate comparison with the human brain, we retain Walker's numerical nomenclature here. It should be born in mind that rostral areas 10, 11 and 12 are mostly isocortical, and that caudal areas 14 and 13, as well as the most posterior part of area 12, are non-isocortical, and mostly dysgranular. The medial OfC is constituted by areas 10 and 14, and the lateral OfC by areas 11, 12 and 13.
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Specific Connections of the OfC Subdivisions |
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Corticocortical connections are densest among areas with comparable architecture in the frontal, parietal, temporal and insular cortices. In other words, the connections of the granular, dysgranular and agranular sectors of the OfC are densest with granular, dysgranular and agranular cortical regions respectively (Mesulam and Mufson, 1982b; Morán et al., 1987
; Barbas and Pandya, 1989
; Morecraft et al., 1992
; Barbas, 1993
). Thus, while the isocortical OfC is mostly linked with isocortical prefrontal, premotor and sensory (somatic, auditory and visual) cortical areas (Fig. 7AC
), the non-isocortical sectors of the OfC are mainly connected with non-isocortical areas of the insula and temporal lobe (Fig. 7AC
), and with primary olfactory and gustatory cortices. The distinctive corticocortical connections of the isocortical areas 10, 11 and 12 with sensory and motor cortices are discussed below in the context of mediolateral topography. Here, other specific cortical and subcortical connections of the non-isocortical areas of the OfC are addressed and compared, if pertinent, with the corresponding connections of the isocortical sector of the OfC.
The non-isocortical component of the OfC receives input from olfactory and gustatory cortical areas. Specifically, primary olfactory cortices mostly target the adjacent agranular cortex and less strongly the dysgranular areas 13 and 14, which receive additional connections from the agranular cortex (Morecraft et al., 1992; Barbas, 1993
; Carmichael et al., 1994
; Carmichael and Price, 1995b
). The primary gustatory areas are principally connected with the dysgranular part of area 12 and with area 13 (Fig. 7B,C
) (Barbas, 1993
; Baylis et al., 1995
; Carmichael and Price, 1995b
; Cipolloni and Pandya, 1999
). Thus, the topography of olfactory and gustatory projections in the caudal, nonisocortical, OfC follows a mediolateral layout with olfaction being more medially represented and taste more laterally. However, and as noted by Carmichael and Price (Carmichael and Price, 1995b
), the caudal orbital cortex, notably area 13, and possibly also the anterior insular cortex, is a site where olfactory, gustatory and visceral inputs converge. It should be additionally remarked, as also observed by others (Barbas, 1993
; Carmichael and Price, 1995b
), that in addition to its characteristic connections with olfactory and gustatory cortices, the non-isocortical OfC sustains connections with premotor, somatosensory, auditory and visual cortices (see DY injection in M8, Fig. 7B
).
Other preferential cortical connections of the non-isocortical sector of the OfC are with the entorhinal cortex, although isocortical areas, notably area 12, also have links with the entorhinal cortex (Figs 7, 11) (Insausti et al., 1987
).
Among the subcortical connections, the amygdaloid projection to the non-isocortical sector of the OfC is denser than the one to the isocortical sector (Fig. 8) (Amaral and Price, 1984
; Barbas and De Olmos, 1990
; Morecraft et al., 1992
; Carmichael and Price, 1995a
). In particular, the projections from the lateral, accessory basal, anterior cortical and medial amygdaloid nuclei are densest to the caudal non-isocortical OfC areas, whereas the basal nucleus projects to both non-isocortical and isocortical OfC sectors (Fig. 8
) (Amaral and Price, 1984
; Barbas and De Olmos, 1990
; Carmichael and Price, 1995a
). Differences also exist in the amygdaloidOfC projection when the medial OfC sector is compared to the lateral one; these are discussed below.
Regarding OfC connections with the thalamus, a rather selective projection arises from the midline nuclei, which mostly target the non-isocortical OfC sector (Fig. 9) (Barbas and De Olmos, 1990
; Morecraft et al., 1992
). It is significant that the midline thalamic nuclei are heavily innervated by dopamine, noradrenaline and adrenaline (Rico and Cavada, 1998
) (also B. Rico and C. Cavada, submitted, and additional unpublished observations). In addition, the non-isocortical OfC areas are connected with the most medial part of the rostral three-fourths of MDm, the part that corresponds to the poorly myelinated MD pars paramediana of Ray and Price (Ray and Price, 1993
) (Figs 9, 10
). In turn, the MDm territory connected with the isocortical OfC is more lateral than the one connected with the non-isocortical OfC, and corresponds to the MD pars fibrosa of Ray and Price (Ray and Price, 1993
) (Figs 9, 10
).
|
For the sake of completeness, we must also point out that the striosomal compartment is a specific, but not the only, target of the caudolateral OfC in the striatum; the matrix compartment also receives dense projections, in particular the ventromedial region of the caudate nucleus and putamen situated dorsal to the nucleus accumbens and previously designated prelimbic striatum (Eblen and Graybiel, 1995). These authors have also shown that the isocortical OfC and other prefrontal regions preferentially target the matrix compartment of the striatum.
Some topographical specificity is present in the ascending projections from the hypothalamus to the OfC, where the isocortical sector mainly receives projections from the medial and lateral divisions of the posterior hypothalamus, and the non-isocortical OfC from a wider rostrocaudal extent of the hypothalamus but mainly from lateral divisions (Rempel-Clower and Barbas, 1998). In addition, the non-isocortical OfC sector sends a heavier descending projection to the hypothalamus than the isocortical sector (Öngür et al., 1998
; Rempel-Clower and Barbas, 1998
). The descending projection to the periaqueductal gray matter from the OfC also originates in the non-isocortical OfC (An et al., 1998
).
Medial versus Lateral OfC
The corticocortical connections of the medial and lateral OfC sectors are quite distinct. Medial OfC areas are the most heavily connected with posterior cingulate areas 23a, 23b and 23v, with the retrosplenial cortex, area prostriata, parahippocampal areas TF and TH, and the hippocampus (Figs 3A,B, 7). Lateral OfC areas are the most heavily linked with premotor areas 24c, ventral F5 and PrCO, and with sensory areas of the gustatory, somatic and visual modalities in the frontoparietal operculum, insular cortex and inferior temporal cortex (Fig. 7C
). It is notable that polysensory area STP, where vision is the predominant modality, has conspicuous connections with all OfC sectors (Fig. 7AC
), that the connections of visual area TEv predominantly target area 13, and that, although they also reach other orbital areas, the connections from auditory belt and parabelt areas are heaviest with rostromedial area 10 (Fig. 7AC
). These observations confirm and specify various aspects of mediolateral topography in the corticocortical connections of the OfC reported previously (Barbas, 1988
; Seltzer and Pandya, 1989
; Martin-Elkins and Horel, 1992
; Morecraft et al., 1992
; Barbas, 1993
; Bates and Goldman-Rakic, 1993
; Morecraft and Van Hoesen, 1993
; Webster et al., 1994
; Carmichael and Price, 1995a
,b
; Cipolloni and Pandya, 1999
; Hackett et al., 1999
; Romanski et al., 1999
).
As can be inferred from the account in the previous section and above in this section, the cortical connectivity of area 13 indicates that it is a remarkable integrative area. Indeed, area 13 is connected to a wide constellation of areas that include olfactory, gustatory, visceral, premotor, somatosensory, auditory, visual and parahippocampal cortices; thus, area 13 displays connectional features characteristic of the isocortical, non-isocortical, medial and lateral OfC subdivisions.
Mediolateral differences are also present in the subcortical connections of the OfC. Thus, the amygdala projects more heavily to the lateral than to the medial OfC (Fig. 8) (Carmichael and Price, 1995a
). This is in contrast to the hippocampal projection, which targets the medial OfC (Fig. 3
). In the thalamus, the most evident topographic arrangement is observed in the rostral three-fourths of MD, where the neurons projecting to the medial OfC are located more dorsally than those projecting to the lateral OfC (Figs 9, 10
) (Goldman-Rakic and Porrino, 1985
).
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Comments on Function |
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Monkeys with orbital lesions or orbital inactivation show difficulties in memory tests that reflect general, rather than perceptual, memory loss and learning impairment (Bachevalier and Mishkin, 1986; Voytko, 1986
; Meunier et al., 1997
). In contrast, memory disturbances following OfC damage are more ambiguous in humans. There is no amnesic syndrome like the one produced by medial temporal damage. Nonetheless, different reports have suggested selective memory dysfunction after orbitofrontal damage (Stuss et al., 1982
; Eslinger and Damasio, 1985
; Malloy et al., 1993
). Eslinger and Damasio explained the poor motivation of EVR in daily activities by saying that it was as if he "forgot to remember" short-and intermediate term goals, and they attributed the malfunction of the patient in complex social real-life situations to an inability to integrate the whole configuration of those situations to achieve sensible action (Eslinger and Damasio, 1985
). Interestingly, a recent neuropsychological study in patients with frontal brain damage has underscored the importance of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in decision making: patients with ventromedial damage were selectively impaired in a gambling task designed to assess decision making (Bechara et al., 1998
, 2000
). In summary, the critical role of the OfC in human personality and social adjustment may be related to a complex form of integrative memory, one that links personal experience and purpose with contextual external cues in order to produce judicious, adapted behavior. Surely, a brain region that was engaged in such intricate functions would have to orchestrate variegated past and present information, and no single projection or group of projections would suffice to support the resulting complicate function.
Because the OfC has a constellation of selective connections with medial temporal and medial thalamic regions engaged in memory function, an extensive network of connections with diverse sensory and limbic cortices, and links with subcortical structures mediating motivational and emotional behavior, it is plausible to conceive it as a nodal cortical region that is important in assembling and monitoring relevant past and current experiences, including their affective and social values. Its access to the motor system would be mediated by its connections with premotor and lateral prefrontal areas as well as wide striatal territories.
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Notes |
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Address correspondence to Carmen Cavada, Departamento de Morfo-logía, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Arzobispo Morcillo s/n, 28029 Madrid, Spain. Email: carmen.cavada{at}uam.es.
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Footnotes |
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