Meta- and pooled analyses of the effects of glutathione S-transferase M1 polymorphisms and smoking on lung cancer risk
Simone Benhamou1,27,
Won Jin Lee2,
Anna-Karin Alexandrie3,
Paolo Boffetta2,
Christine Bouchardy4,
Dorota Butkiewicz5,
Jurgen Brockmöller6,
Margie L. Clapper7,
Ann Daly8,
Vita Dolzan9,
Jean Ford10,
Laura Gaspari11,
Aage Haugen12,
Ari Hirvonen13,
Kirsti Husgafvel-Pursiainen13,
Magnus Ingelman-Sundberg3,
Ivan Kalina14,
Masahiro Kihara15,
Pierre Kremers16,
Loïc Le Marchand17,
Stephanie J. London18,
Valle Nazar-Stewart19,
Masako Onon-Kihara20,
Agneta Rannug3,
Marjorie Romkes21,
David Ryberg12,
Janeric Seidegard22,
Peter Shields23,
Richard C. Strange24,
Isabelle Stücker25,
Jordi To-Figueras26,
Paul Brennan2 and
Emanuela Taioli11
1 INSERM U521, EMI 0006, Evry, France,
2 International Agency for Cancer Research, Lyon, France,
3 Karolinska Institutet and National Institute for Working Life, Stockholm, Sweden,
4 Geneva Cancer Registry, Switzerland,
5 Centre of Oncology, Gliwice, Poland,
6 Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany,
7 Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA,
8 University of Newcastle, UK,
9 University of Ljubljana, Slovenia,
10 Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, USA,
11 Ospedale Maggiore IRCCS, Milan, Italy,
12 National Institute of Occupational Health, Oslo, Norway,
13 Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland,
14 P.J. Safarik University, Kosice, Slovakia,
15 Kyoto University School of Public Health, Kyoto, Japan,
16 Institut de Pathologie, Liège, Belgium,
17 University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii USA,
18 National Institute for Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA,
19 Oregon Health Sciences University, Oregon, USA,
20 Nagasaki University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagasaki, Japan,
21 University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA,
22 Lund University, Lund, Sweden,
23 Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA,
24 Keele University, Staffordshire, UK,
25 INSERM U170, Villejuif, France and
26 Hospital Clinic Provincial, Barcelona, Spain
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Abstract
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Susceptibility to lung cancer may in part be attributable to inter-individual variability in metabolic activation or detoxification of tobacco carcinogens. The glutathione S-transferase M1 (GSTM1) genetic polymorphism has been extensively studied in this context; two recent meta-analyses of case-control studies suggested an association between GSTM1 deletion and lung cancer. At least 15 studies have been published after these overviews. We undertook a new meta-analysis to summarize the results of 43 published case-control studies including >18 000 individuals. A slight excess of risk of lung cancer for individuals with the GSTM1 null genotype was found (odds ratio (OR) = 1.17, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.071.27). No evidence of publication bias was found (P = 0.4), however, it is not easy to estimate the extent of such bias and we cannot rule out some degree of publication bias in our results. A pooled analysis of the original data of about 9500 subjects involved in 21 case-control studies from the International Collaborative Study on Genetic Susceptibility to Environmental Carcinogens (GSEC) data set was performed to assess the role of GSTM1 genotype as a modifier of the effect of smoking on lung cancer risk with adequate power. Analyses revealed no evidence of increased risk of lung cancer among carriers of the GSTM1 null genotype (age-, gender- and center-adjusted OR = 1.08, 95% CI 0.981.18) and no evidence of interaction between GSTM1 genotype and either smoking status or cumulative tobacco consumption.
Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; GST, glutathione S-transferase; OR, odds ratio
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Introduction
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Numerous tobacco carcinogens are activated or detoxified by xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes (XMEs). Inherited differences in the XME-related metabolic capacity are potentially important sources of inter-individual variation in the susceptibility to development of smoking-related cancers. To date, five glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) classes have been described in humans, of which enzymes belonging to three of the classes, i.e. GST-M (µ) class, GST-P (
) class and GST-T (
) class, are involved in the detoxification of electrophilic metabolites of several potential carcinogens present in tobacco smoke, including benzo[a]pyrene and other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (1). The homozygous deletion of GSTM1 gene (null genotype) results in a total lack of enzyme and is present in
50% of Caucasian and Asian populations, and 25% of African populations (Garte et al., personal communication). It is therefore conceivable that carriers of the null genotype are at increased risk of lung cancer because of a reduced ability to detoxify environmental carcinogens.
The association between GSTM1 polymorphism, determined by genotyping methods, and lung cancer has been investigated in numerous epidemiological studies. Two recent meta-analyses of case-control studies which had been published until May 1997 (2) and for the years 19851998 (3), suggested an association between GSTM1 null genotype and lung cancer; the risks seemed to be higher among Asians and for squamous cell and small cell carcinomas (4). Since these overviews, at least 15 additional case-control studies have examined the relationship of GSTM1 genotype and lung cancer. We have therefore undertaken a new meta-analysis to summarize the results of 43 published studies. Because the GSTM1 genotype is presumed to affect lung cancer risk by influencing detoxification of activated tobacco carcinogens, the potential modifying effect of GSTM1 genotype on the relationship between tobacco smoking and lung cancer is of particular interest. Differences in associations for the GSTM1 null genotype by level of smoking were investigated in some previous studies; however, the statistical power to detect them was generally limited. We therefore investigated the role of GSTM1 genotype as a modifier of the effect of smoking exposure on lung cancer risk in a pooled analysis of individual data from 21 separate studies provided to the International Collaborative Study on Genetic Susceptibility to Environmental Carcinogens (GSEC) (5).
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Materials and methods
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Data collection
A literature search for case-control studies on the association between lung cancer and GSTM1 genotype was conducted using citations in two previous review articles (2,3). For a given study, we retained the most recent results in the case of more than one publication on approximately the same data set. When results of a study were stratified by ethnicity, we treated data of each ethnic group as separate studies. A total of 20 genotype-based case-control studies were identified. We did not retain one study (6) because of outlying results [odds ratio (OR) = 6.7, 95% confidence intervals (CI) 3.015.3].
A search using MEDLINE was conducted to identify additional studies published before February 2001, without restriction on language. The results of this search brought the total number of published case-control studies to 43, with a total of 7463 lung cancer patients and 10 789 control individuals (see Appendix
for details of individual studies).
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Appendix Summary of the 43 published case-control studies of lung cancer and GSTM1 genotype included in the meta-analysis
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Furthermore, we used the original data of 21 case-control studies on GSTM1 genotype and lung cancer, with a total of 3940 lung cancer patients and 5515 controls, which were provided by the investigators to the GSEC study, a collaborative project investigating the relationships of several genetic polymorphisms and cancers at different sites (5). Investigators who had previously published case-control studies up to June 2000 were identified through MEDLINE. They were contacted by letter and asked to provide published or unpublished original data on all subjects included in their study(s). The results were published (or partly published) for 17 of the 21 studies on lung cancer and GSTM1 genotype and unpublished for the four remaining studies. For some of the studies, the number of subjects or of genotypes tested provided to the GSEC database differed slightly from those in the published reports.
Statistical analyses
Crude ORs and their 95% CIs associated with GSTM1 null genotype were estimated for each individual study. Meta-analytic techniques that weight the logarithm of the OR of each study by a function of its variance were used to calculate a summary estimate. Both fixed- and random-effects models were used and results of the latter are presented in case of heterogeneity between studies, defined as Q-statistics with P < 0.05 (7). Meta-analyses were performed on the total data set and separately for the major ethnic groups, and after restriction to studies involving population controls. Results of meta-analyses may be biased if not all available studies are included (8). We assessed potential publication bias (tendency for authors to submit or of journals to accept preferentially papers reporting an association over papers reporting no association) by examining funnel plots (9) and using Eggers test (10). This statistical test detects whether the intercept deviates significantly from zero in a regression of the standardized effect estimates against their precision.
Individual data of lung cancer patients and controls included in the GSEC database were used to investigate the potential modifying effect of GSTM1 genotype on the relationship between smoking and lung cancer, and to test if the association between GSTM1 and lung cancer varies with histology, ethnicity or gender. Individuals were categorized as never- versus ever-smokers; for ever-smokers, smoking exposure was further categorized as <20, 2039 and
40 pack-years (years smoked times the packs of cigarettes/day) according to the tertile distribution in the control population. Analyses were conducted using unconditional logistic regression models taking into account the potential confounding effects of age (in tertiles), gender, and center on the pooled data set, and after stratification by lung cancer histology, ethnicity and gender; however, the sample sizes were large enough on cross-classification to allow these analyses only for squamous cell carcinoma, small cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma, and for Caucasian and Asian individuals. Individuals with the GSTM1 present genotype were used as reference category in each category of smoking exposure. Statistical analyses were performed using STATA software (version 6.0).
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Results
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The ethnicity of cases and controls was detailed in 40 of the studies; most of the subjects in the pooled data set were either Caucasians (55%) or Asians (25%) (Table I
). Individual study results of lung cancer risk associated with GSTM1 null genotype are presented in Figure 1
. An OR above 1 was found in 31 studies, but the increase in risk was statistically significant in only five of them. The summary OR generated by all the 43 published case-control studies suggested a weak association between GSTM1 null genotype and lung cancer (OR = 1.17, 95% CI 1.071.27), but the estimates lacked homogeneity (P = 0.007) (Table I
). Stratification by ethnicity showed lack of heterogeneity in the estimates for Caucasians (20 studies, P = 0.5, summary OR = 1.10, 95% CI 1.011.19) and heterogeneity for Asians (12 studies, P = 0.001, summary OR = 1.33, 95% CI 1.061.67). No significant associations were found in other ethnic groups (Table I
). We found no evidence of publication bias based on Beggs funnel plot (Figure 2
) and Eggers tests on all studies (P = 0.4), or separately for Caucasian (P = 0.8) or Asian (P = 0.7) populations (funnel plots not shown). Additional analyses on 14 studies published in 19992000 and not included in the previous overviews yielded a OR = 1.16 (95% CI 1.001.33); heterogeneity in the estimates was of borderline significance (P = 0.056).

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Fig. 1. ORs (95% CI) of lung cancer associated with GSTM1 null genotype. Results of meta-analysis of 43 published case-control studies. Note: the study by Saarikoski et al. (17) was published on 208 cases and 294 controls (OR = 1.06, 95% CI 0.731.54); 138 lung cancer cases included in a previous study (29) were removed from the present analysis.
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Selected characteristics of the 21 case-control studies from the GSEC database used to assess the association between GSTM1 genotype and lung cancer across groups of individuals with different smoking exposures are shown in Table II
. Substantial amounts of data were available for studies including population controls and for Caucasian individuals (78 and 77% of the pooled data set, respectively). Information on age was provided for 99% of lung cancer patients (mean age ranged from 5469 years) and 89% of controls (mean age ranged from 3666 years). Data on smoking status (ever/never) was available for 91% of cases and 82% of controls, and information on pack-years was provided for the majority of ever-smokers (93% of cases and 86% of controls). Smoking was a matching criterion in some studies or was not available in other studies; we were therefore unable to properly examine the associations between lung cancer and smoking in the total database. Logistic regression analysis restricted to studies without selection on smoking habits and with available information on smoking (11,12,1315,1622; unpublished data from Clapper et al. and Romkes et al.) yielded, as expected, a significant increase in lung cancer risks with increasing levels of smoking: compared with never-smokers, the risk estimates were 5.50 (95% CI 4.177.26) for smokers of
20 pack-years, 22.29 (95% CI 17.0029.22) for smokers of 2039 pack-years and 35.01 (95% CI: 26.7645.79) for smokers of
40 pack-years.
Analyses on the total set of 21 studies in the GSEC database revealed no evidence for increased risk of lung cancer among carriers of GSTM1 null genotype (age-, sex- and center-adjusted OR = 1.08, 95% CI 0.981.18) overall or separately for Caucasians (OR = 1.03, 95% CI 0.931.14) or Asians (OR = 1.09, 95% CI 0.821.45) (Table III
). Risk estimates from the pooling of individual data were similar for published (OR = 1.08, 95% CI 0.981.18) and unpublished (OR = 1.06, 95% CI 0.791.43) studies. Restriction to studies with population controls or hospital controls yielded OR = 1.08 (95% CI 0.971.21) and OR = 1.03 (95% CI 0.861.23), respectively.
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Table III. ORa of lung cancer (95% CI) associated with GSTM1 null genotype according to smoking status (GSEC database)
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Adjusted lung cancer risks associated with the GSTM1 genotype according to smoking status are shown in Table III
. We found no evidence of interaction between GSTM1 genotype and smoking status. Relative to the GSTM1 positive genotype, the OR for the GSTM1 null genotype were 1.09 (95% CI 0.841.42) among never-smokers and 1.09 (95% CI 0.981.22) among ever-smokers. Further categorization of smokers by lifetime tobacco consumption (Table IV
) did not produce any appreciable increase in risks for carriers of GSTM1 null genotype: OR = 0.94 (95% CI 0.741.21) for smokers of
20 pack-years, OR = 1.21 (95% CI 0.971.50) for smokers of 2039 pack-years, and OR = 1.20 (95% CI 1.001.45) for smokers of
40 pack-years (Table IV
). Likewise, stratification by sex, histology (squamous cell, small cell or adenocarcinoma) or ethnicity (Caucasians or Asians) did not reveal differences in risks associated with GSTM1 genotypes (Table IV
).
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Table IV. ORsa of lung cancer (95% CI) associated with GSTM1 null genotype according to smoking exposure (GSEC database)
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Discussion
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GSTM1 null genotype conferred a 1.17-fold statistically significant increased risk of lung cancer in our meta-analysis of 43 published case-control studies involving >18 000 subjects. Our findings are consistent with the summary meta-analysis ORs of 1.13 and 1.20 reported by Houlston (3) and Vineis et al. (4), respectively. They also suggest that the association might be stronger among Asians. Results of meta-analyses may depend on control selection procedures; however, restriction of the analyses to studies with population controls did not materially alter the present observations on association between the GSTM1 genotype and lung cancer. Meta-analysis based on only published reports will yield biased results if publication bias is operating (8). In the absence of publication bias, funnel plot will resemble a symmetrical inverted funnel. In our analyses, both the funnel plots and statistical tests, although not very powerful, suggest absence of substantial publication bias. However, it is not easy to estimate the extent of publication bias and we cannot rule out that such bias could explain the slight excess risk of lung cancer observed in our meta-analysis.
Lung cancer risk was not significantly associated with GSTM1 null genotype in our analyses of individual data of a subset of 21 case-control studies. Meta-analyses of published results and pooled analyses of original data have advantages and limitations. More valid and precise conclusions regarding a particular exposuredisease relation are expected in pooled analyses because of use of common definitions, coding, cut-points for variables and adjustment for the same confounders. Given that adjustment for age, sex and center was included in the present pooled analysis, it is probable that our results, if anything, are only modestly confounded by these factors. However, other genetic factors (e.g. CYP1A1 genetic polymorphisms), not taken into account in our analyses, may confound the association between lung cancer and GSTM1 genotype. Errors in assigned GSTM1 genotype may also bias the risk estimates; as long as this misclassification is non-differential with respect to case-control status, the bias is toward the null. Frequencies of GSTM1 null genotype in the controls of the major ethnic groups were consistent with that estimated in a very large control series (Garte et al., personal communication), which however comprises our controls. It seems also unlikely that the lack of association between GSTM1 polymorphism and lung cancer may be due to differential misclassifications in GSTM1 genotype among cases and controls. Further analyses were also performed for comparison of results from the 14 studies included in both the meta-analysis and the pooled analysis (11,12,1321,2325). The lung cancer risk associated with the GSTM1 null genotype was higher, although not significantly, in the meta-analysis (OR = 1.12, 95% CI 1.021.24) than in the pooled analysis (OR = 1.05, 95% CI 0.961.16). Control for the effects of age and gender could explain the attenuated lung cancer risk estimate observed in the pooled analysis.
The large amount of available data on smoking-related variables in the GSEC database (
87% of all subjects) allowed us to study the potential modifying effect of GSTM1 genotype on the relationship between tobacco smoking and lung cancer. In the pooled analysis of 21 studies, we found no evidence of interaction between GSTM1 genotype and either smoking status or smoking consumption. Analyses of geneenvironment interactions raise concerns about adequate statistical power. To date, most of the reported studies on lung cancer had limited power to detect interactions between GSTM1 polymorphism and smoking. In the present analyses, based on over 9000 individuals, we had 80% power to detect an OR for interaction of between 1.5 and 1.6, based on an OR of 10.0 for ever smoking, and an OR of 1.2 for having the GSTM1 null genotype (26). Therefore, lack of differences in risks associated with GSTM1 genotypes across categories of smoking are likely not explained by insufficient power.
In the present study, GSTM1 genotype did not appear to interact with smoking; however, it is possible that genegene interactions (e.g. between different types of GSTs) and interactions between genes and other environmental factors may play a role. For instance, recent data from studies in China (27) and the US (28) suggest that dietary isothiocyanates may modify the effect of GSTM1, which catalyzes the rapid elimination of these beneficial compounds. Few of the published studies contain dietary information and thus we were not able to consider this potential dietgene interaction.
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Notes
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27 To whom correspondence should be addressed Email: benhamou{at}evry.inserm.fr 
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Received November 19, 2001;
revised April 29, 2002;
accepted April 30, 2002.