Department of Medicine and Public Health, Section of Psychiatry, University of Verona, Italy
Mental Health Center of Boulder County, Boulder, Colorado, USA
Correspondence: Professor Mirella Ruggeri, Dipartimento di Medicina e Sanità Pubblica, Sezione di Psichiatria, Università di Verona, Ospedale Policlinico, 37134 Verona, Italy. Tel: +39 045 807 4441; Fax: +39 045 58 5871; E-mail: mruggeri{at}borgoroma.univr.it
Declaration of interest This study was supported by the Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), Roma, Progetto Nazionale Salute Mentale, with a grant (no. 96/QT/50) to M.R.
![]() |
ABSTRACT |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Aims To explore the role of subjective and objective QOL dimensions and their cross-sectional and longitudinal predictors.
Method The relationship between QOL, as measured by the Lancashire Quality of Life Profile (LQL), and demographic variables, diagnosis, psychopathology, disability, functioning, affect balance, self-esteem, service use and service satisfaction was investigated at two points in time, using factor analysis and multiple regression techniques.
Results One subjective and two objective LQL factors with strong face validity were identified. Cross-sectional predictors of the subjective factor were primarily subjective measures; longitudinally, few predictors of this factor were identified. The cross-sectional and longitudinal predictors of the objective factors were primarily demographic and observer-rated measures.
Conclusions Subjective and objective data are distinct types of information. Objective measures may be more suitable in detecting treatment effects. Subjective information is necessary to complete the QOL picture and to enhance the interpretation of objective data.
![]() |
INTRODUCTION |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Subjective and objective quality of life
There is no single, universally accepted definition of QOL
(Lauer, 1999). The World Health
Organization definition, for example, focuses on the subjective perspective
(WHOQOL Group, 1993), whereas
other constructs are broader and include objective indicators of health,
housing and other material circumstances. According to recent reviews
(Lauer, 1999), most researchers
believe that both subjective and objective information is necessary to the
construct.
Complications arise, however, from the finding that the subjective appraisal of life often bears little or no relation to objective life circumstances (Barry & Crosby, 1996; Warner, 1999). The same objective event may result in opposite evaluations by the same subject depending on his/her perspective at the time of interview (Skantze et al, 1994). Objective improvements in life circumstances may produce negative subjective responses (Lehman, 1996). Subjective QOL ratings are often higher in people with schizophrenia than affective disorder, although objective circumstances indicate the reverse (Atkinson et al, 1997; Katschnig & Angermeyer, 1997). A weak or moderate association between observer-rated mental health indicators, such as psychopathology, and subjective QOL has been found in various studies (Corrigan & Buican, 1995; Lehman, 1996; Oliver et al, 1996; Kaiser et al, 1997; Ruggeri et al, 1999).
With such concerns in mind, this study was designed to investigate the relationship between QOL and key mental health indicators both cross-sectionally and over time, with a particular focus on the differential role of subjective and objective QOL dimensions. Specifically, the study investigates the relationship between these two dimensions, as measured by the Lancashire Quality of Life Profile and demographic variables, diagnosis, psychopathology, disability, functioning, service use, service satisfaction, affect balance and self-esteem at two points in time.
![]() |
METHOD |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Area and mental health service
South Verona is a relatively affluent urban area of north-east Italy, with
a population of 75 000. The community mental health service (CMHS) provides
the main source of care to area residents, and includes in-patient,
out-patient, day care and emergency and rehabilitation services. The South
Verona PCR, established in 1978 to collect data on all patients seen by the
service, includes demographic, diagnostic and service utilisation information
(Tansella, 1991).
Subjects
The analysis reported here is based on 285 patients, over age 15, attending
the CMHS who completed the assessments of the South Verona Outcome Project
(Ruggeri et al, 1998)
in October-December 1994; of these, 183 were followed up in 1996/97, including
54 who were no longer in treatment with the agency. Decrease in cohort size
was due to death of subjects (n=11), subjects' refusal to participate
(n=20) or to complete the interview (n=28) and failure to
locate the subject (n=43). After complete description of the study to
the patients, written informed consent was obtained.
Measures
Demographic, diagnostic and service utilisation data for the prior year
were extracted from the PCR. Diagnoses were based on ICD-10
(World Health Organization,
1992) and grouped in six categories as follows: schizophrenia,
severe affective disorder, depression without psychotic symptoms, neurotic and
somatoform disorder, personality disorder and other diagnoses. In some
analyses a dichotomous classification of psychotic disorder (including
schizophrenia and severe affective disorder) versus not psychotic was used
(see Table 1 for more details).
The clinicians making the diagnoses were specially trained in ICD coding. An
exercise performed with the staff of four European case register centres
demonstrated this grouping system to be reliable across centres
(Sytema et al,
1989).
|
Service utilisation data included the number, type and place of out-patient contacts, in-patient admissions and day care contacts. Assessments of psychopathology, disability and functioning were made by the primary clinican, a psychiatrist or psychologist, using the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS) expanded version (Ventura et al, 1993), eight items from the Social Roles section of the Disability Assessment Schedule (DASII; World Health Organization, 1988) and the Global Assessment of Functioning Scale (GAF; Endicott et al, 1976). Patients were asked to complete the Lancashire Quality of Life Profile (LQL; Oliver et al, 1997) and the Verona Service Satisfaction Scale (VSSS; Ruggeri et al, 1994). All scales were the official Italian versions. Primary clinicians were trained in the use of the observer-rated scales and achieved interrater reliability of at least 0.70. In the case of self-administered scales, test-retest was performed in a subsample of subjects and this showed good levels of stability. A research worker assisted the patient in completing questionnaires when necessary.
The LQL, developed from Lehman's QOL scale (Oliver et al, 1997), is a researcher-led questionnaire enquiring about objective life circumstances and subjective life satisfaction in nine domain work/education, leisure, religion, finances, living situation, legal/safety, family relations, social relations and health and it includes subjective ratings of overall well-being. The subjective satisfaction ratings are recorded on sevenpoint delightedterrible Likert scales (see Table 2). The measure includes affect balance and self-esteem scales. Construct, content and criterion validity, reliability and internal consistency of the LQL have been demonstrated to be satisfactory (Oliver et al, 1996, 1997). To reduce the number of variables in the factor analysis, some objective items in the domains of leisure, social relations and health were combined in three single scales. Where there was more than one satisfaction item in a domain, a mean of all such scores in the domain was completed.
|
Statistical analysis
An exploratory factor analysis (Cattell,
1978) was conducted on the LQL scores for 285 patients in the 1994
(Time 1) cohort. The full sample was used in order to maximise the possibility
of detecting latent QOL constructs while maintaining an adequate balance of
test items to subjects. Twenty-seven items (or subscales) from the LQL (17
objective and 10 subjective) were factor analysed using principal component
analysis. To determine how many factors to select, we used the scree test in
conjunction with the criterion of interpretability of the factor solution.
Three factors were found and rotated using the Varimax method to obtain a
clearer pattern of factor loadings (see
Table 3). An identical factor
analysis was conducted on Time 1 and Time 2 data for the 183 subjects with
complete evaluations.
|
A multivariate regression analysis of the QOL factor scores from Time 1 was performed and revealed no correlation between the residuals of the three factors, indicating that separate regression of each factor on potential determinants was appropriate.
Three successive block-stratified multiple regression models were constructed with one QOL factor score from Time 1 as dependent variable and a series of Time 1 variables (see Table 1) as independent variables. In the block-stratified procedure, putative determinants, organised into blocks denoting logically homogeneous sets of increasing complexity, were analysed in sequence; a similar method has been used in other studies (UK700 Group, 1999). In each block variables were selected using a stepwise procedure, retaining those variables that were significant in the previous blocks. First, the determinants summarising each block were included as trunk variables (e.g. BPRS as a total mean score). Subsequently, each trunk in turn, taking into account the trunk determinants of the previous blocks, was exploded into its branches to assess the contribution of each branch: diagnostic groups were assessed separately, BPRS, DAS and VSSS were split into their subscales (BPRS: Anxiety/Depression, Positive symptoms, Negative symptoms, Mania, Cognitive symptoms; DAS: Participation in household, Relationship with partner, Parental role, Friction with social contacts, Occupational role performances/interest, Interest and information, Behavior in emergencies; VSSS: Professional skills and behavior, Information, Access, Efficacy, Type of intervention, Relatives' involvement) and aspects related to the type (community support, clinical assessment or psychotherapy) and the place (out-patient or casualty department, patient's home, community) of contacts were assessed. This procedure allowed the exploration of the role of the branch variables as determinants, while preserving a satisfactory ratio between the number of cases and variables included in the analysis.
To explore longitudinal effects, a block-straitified multiple regression model, similar to that used for the cross-sectional analyses, was constructed with one QOL factor score from Time 2 as the dependent variable and adding the factor scores from Time 1 to the set of independent variables used in the previous analyses. This model permitted the extraction of the effect of the QOL factor at Time 1 so that its residual could be analysed to explore what variables are associated with the change in QOL, given the baseline levels.
![]() |
RESULTS |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Changes over 2 years in subjective and objective domains of the LQL are reported in Table 3. Overall, an improvement in LQL total mean score of subjective items was found in 26.4% of patients, and a worsening in 19.8%. Over 2 years, an improvement in BPRS total mean score was found in 11.5% of patients, and a worsening in 13.2% (change exceeding ±1/10 of the five-point Likert scale); an improvement in DAS total mean score was found in 26.4% of patients, and a worsening in 16.5% (change exceeding ±1/10 of the ten-point interval scale); an improvement in GAF total score was found in 25.3% of patients, and a worsening in 46.2% (change exceeding ±1/10 of the five-point Likert scale); an improvement in VSSS overall satisfaction score was found in 19.2% of patients, and a worsening in 24.9% (change exceeding ±1/10 of the five-point Likert scale).
Factor analysis
In the factor analysis of the Time 1 sample (n=285), the scree
plot confirmed the initial hypothesis that the LQL was multidimensional and
revealed three factors with relatively high eigenvalues; with Varimax
rotation, three interpretable QOL factors were obtained (see
Table 4: subjective
satisfaction; objective work/income; and objective living situation/safety.
The subjective factor accounted for 17% of the item variance, the objective
work/income factor for 9% and the objective living-situation factor for 7%. No
items loaded on more than one factor, 22 of the 27 items loaded onto one or
another of the three factors. A factor analysis of the Time 1 data for the
cohort followed up at Time 2 (n=183) established that the same latent
constructs were present in the smaller cohort. Factor analysis of the Time 2
data identified the same three factors, with minor changes.
|
Cross-sectional analysis
Subjective satisfaction factor
As shown in Table 5, in the
regression analysis with trunk variables, older age (3% delta variance),
higher satisfaction with services (22%), positive affect (25%) and greater
self-esteem (6%) were associated with a higher subjective QOL satisfaction
score, accounting for 55% of the variance. When branch variables were entered
into the equation, anxiety/depression (BPRS) was found to be negatively
associated (7%), mania positively associated (4%), and satisfaction with
service efficacy (23%) and access (2%) positively correlated.
|
Objective work/income/leisure factor
Trunk variables retained after stepwise regression were younger age (14%
delta variance), higher education (8%), being married (3%), lower disability
(7%) and not attending day care (4%), accounting for 33% of the variance. When
branch variables were entered into the equation, not having a diagnosis of
personality disorder (2%), low negative symptoms (8%), higher level of
interest/information (DAS) (6%), and receiving fewer home visits (4%) were
found to be correlated with greater QOL in the work/income factor.
Objective living-situation/safety factor
In the analysis with trunk variables, a more stable, safe and unsheltered
living situation was associated with being married (12% delta variance), lower
total symptomatology (2%) and not being admitted to hospital (3%), explaining
17% of the variance. When branch variables were introduced into the equation,
lower positive symptoms (3%) and lower satisfaction with service efficacy (2%)
were correlated with greater QOL in living situation.
Longitudinal analysis
Subjective satisfaction factor
As shown in Table 5, in the
regression with trunk variables, the subjective satisfaction factor at Time 1
accounted for 42% of the variance in the same factor at Time 2. Un-employment
at Time 1 accounted for an additional 1% of the variance. No branch variable
was retained in any of the analyses.
Objective work/income/leisure factor
The score for the work/income factor at Time 1, in the trunk regression
analysis, accounted for 40% of the variance in the factor at Time 2. The
amount of variance contributed by other variables retained in the model was as
follows: living situation factor, 1%; male gender, 4%; lower age, 2%; being
employed, 2%; being without psychosis, 2%; and higher functioning, 1%. Branch
variables contributing to the variance in subsequent analyses were: not having
schizophrenia (3%) or a personality disorder (1%), low cognitive symptoms (1%)
and higher work performance or interest in work (DAS) (1%).
Living-situation/safety factor
In the trunk regression analysis, the score for the living-situation/safety
factor at Time 1 accounted for 43% of the variance in this factor at Time 2.
The amount of variance contributed by other variables retained in the model
was as follows: objective work/income factor, 5%; subjective satisfaction
factor, 2%; older age, 2%; no hospital admissions, 1%. Branch variables
contributing to the variance in subsequent analyses were low cognitive
symptoms (2%) and low satisfaction with access (2%).
![]() |
DISCUSSION |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Latent constructs of quality of life
We identified three latent constructs of QOL in the LQL: subjective
satisfaction, objective work/income/leisure and objective living
situation/safety. There is face validity to the construction of these factors
and to their patterns of prediction by other variables. For example, every
satisfaction and well-being item was included in the subjective factor, and
its predictors were other subjective measures, such as service satisfaction
and affect balance. However, previous work
(Kaiser et al, 1997)
has shown that the factorial structure of subjective QOL might differ between
schizophrenia out- and in-patients, and, in the group of in-patients, might
depend on the length of the hospitalisation; thus, our results should be taken
with caution when applied to psychiatric patients who are not living in the
community.
Further research is needed in order to understand better why a remarkable amount of variance (67%) remains unaccounted for; however, the robustness of the factor solution is supported by the identification of the same factor for the cohort at two points in time. Previous research, moreover, has shown that subjective QOL is distinct from objective QOL (Skantze et al, 1994; Atkinson et al, 1997; Warner et al, 1998). In our study, in the work/income factor, employment was grouped with such anticipated consequences as increased earnings and total income, and it is credible that working and increased income can lead to a greater focus on, and capacity for, leisure activities. Family living for people with mental illness has been shown to be associated with objective QOL benefits (Warner et al, 1998). In this study, we found it to be linked, in the living-situation factor, to increased stability of housing, increased family contact and greater personal safety. The predictors of both objective QOL factors were such dimensions as demographics, disability and pathology, operating in the expected direction.
Predictive power of the regression models
There was more predictive power in the cross-sectional regression model for
the subjective factor than for either objective factor. Three measures
explained more than half of the variance in the subjective factor, whereas
only 33% of the variance in the work/income factor and 16% in the
living-situation factor were explained. This may be because the objective
factors were influenced by social and economic variables, such as the
availability of work or housing, which are not in our model
(Warner, 1994). On the other
hand, in the longitudinal model, after the baseline effect of the factor was
taken into account, the models explained more variance in the objective
factors than the subjective factor. Only a further 1% of the variance in the
subjective factor was explained, in contrast to 11% and 9%, respectively, in
the work/income and living-situation factors. Changes in psychopathology,
disability, functioning and satisfaction with services over 2 years have taken
place in many subjects. As shown in Table
3, improvement or worsening over 2 years in both subjective and
objective QOL have been found in high percentages of subjects, with a trend
for higher stability in objective than in subjective QOL. It appears that the
usual mental health predictors do not explain much of the change in QOL over
time. Either there are no consistent predictors or those that exist are not in
our model.
Predictors of subjective quality of life
The fact that subjective and objective components of QOL cluster separately
on factor analysis suggests that they measure different underlying constructs.
The distinct nature of subjective QOL is highlighted by the fact that most of
the predictors of the subjective factor in this study were subjective
variables such as service satisfaction, affect balance and self-esteem. In
agreement with previous studies (Lehman,
1996; Oliver et al,
1996; Kaiser et al,
1997; Ruggeri et al,
1999) we found subjective QOL to be weekly influenced by the usual
observer-rated predictors used in mental health assessment, either
cross-sectionally or longitudinally. A few measures of psychopathology were
predictors in the cross-sectional analysis, and employment contributed a small
proportion (1%) of the variance to the longitudinal model, but the baseline
objective factors were not longitudinal predictors of subjective QOL.
It is reasonable to expect, as we found in this study, that affect state and other subjective elements will influence subjective assessment of QOL. Patients with depression, for example, rate their well-being, functioning and living conditions worse than an independent observer and worse than they do themselves when recovered (Morgado et al, 1991). In our longitudinal model, however, the influence of affect state and other subjective variables was much reduced. Although affect balance and self-esteem were important determinants of subjective QOL cross-sectionally, they had no further effect on subjective or objective factors longitudinally.
Service satisfaction, which was associated with QOL cross-sectionally, did not predict change in subjective or objective QOL over time. Its most important association, as in previous studies by this group (Ruggeri et al, 1998, 1999) was with current satisfaction with life, indicating that both constructs may measure a common attitude towards satisfaction.
Predictors of objective quality of life
Few subjective variables were predictors of the objective factors, either
cross-sectionally or longitudinally. We did find that the subjective
satisfaction factor at Time 1 was associated with the living-situation factor
in the longitudinal model, but observer-rated and demographic variables
explained most of the variance in this factor and all of the variance in the
other objective factor in both the longitudinal and cross-sectional
models.
As noted, most of the determinants of the objective QOL factors, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally, were demographic factors, functioning level and other variables such as diagnosis, psychopathology and admissions to psychiatric hospitals that might be considered proxy measures of severity of illness. Because severity of illness and functional capacity are common targets of mental health services, objective QOL measures may prove to be more responsive than current subjective measures in the assessment of the effect of these interventions. We may find, for example, that variables in the work/income factor (e.g. hours of work, earnings and number of leisure activities) and in the living-situation factor (e.g. freedom from victimisation and tenure of accommodation) will be valuable in the assessment of rehabilitation outcome.
Implications of this study
Given the distinct nature of subjective QOL and its lack of association
with standard mental health predictors and outcomes, what is to be its role in
outcome assessment? Some QOL researchers consider the individual's perception
of his/her circumstances to be the central component of QOL. Their approach
has the merit of empowering the consumer and giving him/her a central role in
the development of treatment services. Others, frustrated by the lack of
correspondence between subjective and objective information, would abandon
subjective evaluation (Atkinson et
al, 1997). Warner
(1999) has addressed this
issue using an analogy with an equivalent area in anthropology, the issue of
emics and etics, which deals with similar
complexities of informants' perceptions of reality v. the views of
outside observers. He argues that subjective and objective appraisals are
different kinds of data and that both have a role in QOL assessment. We
suggest that the subjective dimension is essential in painting a complete
picture of the person's life, in explaining patterns of behaviour and in
providing the subject's interpretation of the personal impact of objective
circumstances. It is clear that various factors make it difficult to build
predictive models around subjective outcomes: these include the tendency
towards psychological adaptation or response shift that can
occur over time in the subjective appraisal of a person's current state (and
this might explain why in our study the strong association of service's
satisfaction with QOL did not hold up for change at Time 2), the
multifactorial determinance of subjective outcomes and the diverse reaction of
different individuals to the same circumstances.
The predictors used in our study (largely demographic and observer-rated variables) are associated with change in objective circumstances rather than in subjective QOL. A possible explanation for this is that objective measures may prove to be more suitable in detecting the effects of treatment interventions because many interventions are not targeted at improving the subjective QOL of patients. Although the severity of symptoms and functional capacity remains the principal target of mental health services (rather than the patient's subjective QOL), objective information may be more suitable for building predictive models and in the longitudinal assessment of chronic illness.
![]() |
Clinical Implications and Limitations |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
LIMITATIONS
![]() |
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
![]() |
REFERENCES |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Barry, M. M. & Crosby, C. (1996) Quality of life as an evaluative measure in assessing the impact of community care on people with long-term psychiatric disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 210 -216.[Abstract]
Barry, M. M. & Zissi, A. (1997) Quality of life as an outcome measure in evaluating mental health services: a review of the empirical evidence. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 32, 38 -47.[Medline]
Cattell, R., B (1978) The Scientific Use of Factor Analysis in Behavior and Life Sciences. New York: Plenum Press.
Corrigan, P.W. & Buican, B. (1995) The construct validity of subjective quality of life for the severely mentally ill. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 183, 281 -285.[Medline]
Endicott, J., Spitzer, R. L., Fleiss, J. L., et al (1976) The Global Assessment Scale: a procedure for measuring overall severity of psychiatric disturbance. Archives of General Pscyhiatry, 33, 766 -771.
Kaiser, W., Priebe S., Barr,W., et al (1997) Profiles of subjective quality of life in schizophrenic in- and out-patient samples. Psychiatry Research, 66, 153 -166.[CrossRef][Medline]
Katschnig, H. & Angermeyer, M. C. (1997) Quality of life in depression. In Quality of Life in Mental Disorders (eds H. Katschnig, H. Freeman, & N. Sartorius), pp. 137 -147. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
Lauer, G. (1999) Concepts of quality of life in mental health care. In Quality of Life and Mental Health Care (eds S. Priebe, J. P. J. Oliver & W. Kaiser), pp. 19 -34. Philadelphia, PA: Wrightson Biomedical.
Lehman, A. F. (1996) Measures of quality of life among persons with severe and persistent mental disorders. In Mental Health Outcome Measures (eds G. Thornicroft & M. Tansella), pp. 75-92. Berlin: Springer
Lehman, A. F. (1999) Future research in quality of life in mental health care. In Quality of Life and Mental Health Care (eds S. Priebe, J. P. J. Oliver & W. Kaiser), pp. 1 -18. Philadelphia: Wrightson Biomedical.
Lehman, A. F., Possidente, S. & Hawker, F (1986) The quality of life of chronic patients in a state hospital and in community life. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 37, 901 -907.[Medline]
Morgado, A., Smith, M., Lecrubier, Y., et al (1991) Depressed subjects unwittingly overreport poor social adjustment which they reappraise when recovered. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 179, 614 -619.[Medline]
Oliver, J. P. J., Huxley, P. J., Bridges, K., et al (1996) Quality of Life and Mental Health Services. London: Routledge.
Oliver, J. P. J., Huxley, P. J., Priebe, S., et al (1997) Measuring the quality of life of severely mentally ill people using the Lancashire Quality of Life Profile. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 32, 76-83.[Medline]
Ruggeri, M., Dall'Agnola, R., Agostini, C., et al (1994) Acceptability, sensitivity and content validity of VECS and VSSS in measuring expectation and satisfaction in psychiatric patients and their relatives. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 29, 265 -276.[Medline]
Ruggeri, M., Biggeri, A., Rucci, P., et al (1998) Multivariate analysis of outcome of mental health care using graphical chain models. Psychological Medicine, 28, 1421 -1431.[CrossRef][Medline]
Ruggeri, M., Santolini, N., Stegagano, M., et al (1999) La Qualità di Vita dei Pazienti Psichiatrici. In Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale, Monograph Supplement 4. Roma: II Pensiero Scientifico Editore.
Skantze, K., Wanke, M. & Bless, H. (1994) Subjective assessments and evaluations of change: some lessons from social cognition research. In European Review of Social Psychology (eds W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone), pp. 181 -210. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sytema, S., Giel, R., Ten Horn, G.H.M.M., et al (1989) The reliability of diagnostic coding in psychiatric case registers. Psychological Medicine, 9, 999 -1006.
Tansella, M. (ed.) (1991) Community-based psychiatry. Long-term patterns of care in South Verona. In Psychological Medicine, Monograph Supplement 19. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
UK700 Group (1999) Predictors of quality of life in people with severe mental illness. Study methodology with baseline analysis in the UK700 trial. British Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 426 -432.[Abstract]
Ventura, J., Green, M. F., Shaner, A., et al, (1993) Training and quality assurance with the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale: The drift busters. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 3, 221 -244.
Warner, R. (1994) Recovery from Schizophrenia. London: Routledge.
Warner, R. (1999) The emics and etics of quality of life assessment. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 34, 117 -121.[CrossRef][Medline]
Warner, R. & Huxley, P. (1998) Outcome for
people with schizophrenia before and after Medicaid capitation at a community
mental health center in Colorado. Psychiatric
Services, 49, 802
-807.
Warner, R., de Girolamo, G., Belelli, G., et al (1998) The quality of life of people with schizophrenia in Boulder, Colorado, and Bologna, Italy. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 24, 559 -568.[Medline]
World Health Organization (1988) Disability Assessment Schedule (DASII). Geneva: WHO.
World Health Organization (1992) The ICD10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines. Geneva: WHO
WHOQOL Group (1993) Measuring Quality of Life: The Development of the World Health Organization Quality of Life Instrument (WHOQOL). Geneva: WHO.
Received for publication March 10, 2000. Revision received August 24, 2000. Accepted for publication August 24, 2000.