13 Mile End Lane, Davenport, Stockport, Cheshire SK2 6BN, UK.
Correspondence: E-mail: gwils{at}btopenworld.com
See editorial, pp.
193194, this
issue.
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ABSTRACT |
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Aims To investigate any evidence of psychopathology in a group of eminent jazz musicians.
Method Biographical material relating to 40 eminent American modern jazz musicians was reviewed and an attempt was made to formulate diagnoses using DSMIV.
Results Evidence was provided of levels of psychopathology in the sample of jazz musicians similar to those found in other previously investigated creative groups, with the exception of substance related problems. An interesting connection between creativity and sensation-seeking was highlighted.
Conclusions The link between psychopathology and creativity in the arts was given further weight. Future studies of jazz musicians using larger samples and making comparison with groups from different eras of music would give greater clarification to this area.
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INTRODUCTION |
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Jamison, Post and Ludwig studied biographies of eminent creative persons in order to carry out their assessments. In the largest of these studies, Ludwig (1995) gathered biographical data on 1004 famous men and women and concluded:
My findings show consistently that members of the artistic professions or creative arts as a whole... suffer from more types of mental difficulties and do so over longer periods of their lives than members of the other professions.
Eysenck (1995), in his overview of creativity, felt that a number of studies supported the theory that:
... there is a common genetic basis for great potential in creativity and for psychopathological deviation... it appears to be psychopathology in the absence of psychosis that is the vital element in creativity.
A recent book by Nettle (2001) explores these themes further.
Between them, the workers mentioned above have studied psychopathology in fine artists, architects, classical musicians (composers and performers), entertainers, actors, playwrights and writers of fiction and poetry. One area of creative endeavour that has been given scant attention is jazz, even though Jamison (1993) mentioned three jazz musicians in her study and Ludwig (1995) included seven in his. This is unfortunate because, as DeVeaux (1997) says:
... there is little doubt that in recent years it (jazz) has made substantive leaps toward becoming "Americas classical music"... it may well be... that jazz is in the same position as another vernacular art form, film, was a generation ago: on the verge of becoming absorbed into official academic culture.
And Shipton (2001) states, quite simply, that Of all the musical forms to emerge in the twentieth century, jazz was by far the most significant. In order to increase the comprehensiveness of the study of artistic creative persons, therefore, it seems timely to focus on jazz musicians.
Present study
In the present study I have not been as ambitious as Jamison, Post and
Ludwig in terms of the size of the sample. I have targeted a particular period
of jazz, which it is possible to refer to as the classic era of American
modern jazz, that lasted from about 1945 to about 1960. Bebop, the first
manifestation of modern jazz, Lies at the midpoint of what has become
known as the jazz tradition... bebop is the point at which our contemporary
ideas of jazz come into focus
(DeVeaux, 1997). By the early
1960s, the music was changing again, largely as a result of what was known as
The New Thing, The New Wave, or Free Jazz. In targeting a particular era of
jazz, I am nevertheless mindful of the words of Harrison et al
(2000) when they say that
In reality, the parameters according to which periods are demarcated
are so manifold and overlapping that valid periodization may be almost
impossible to achieve. Still, the period 19451960 gave
prominence to a large group of innovative and virtuosic jazz musicians who
form a convenient and compelling group for study. Jazz musicians from other
eras will form comparison groups who may or may not reveal similar personal
characteristics.
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METHOD |
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Following the approach of previous researchers, biographical material was reviewed. Twenty-two musicians had biographies devoted to them, in some cases more than one. Where biographies per se did not exist, whole chapters devoted to individual musicians in jazz histories and reference works were referred to, supplemented by jazz magazine interviews and articles, providing extensive information on personality, health and other details.
Ratings
Where possible, I attempted to transform the biographical data into
psychiatric diagnoses by using classifications and criteria from DSMIV
(American Psychiatric Association,
1994). The categories used were: heroin-related disorder,
disorder, alcohol-related disorder, cocaine-related disorder, schizophrenia
and other psychotic disorders, mood disorders and anxiety disorders. The
categories of family background, sensation-seeking, late-life deteriorations
and suicides also were added. Although the use of cannabis by jazz musicians
has been a topic for discussion (e.g.
Shapiro, 1988), the category
of cannabis-related disorder was omitted owing to a lack of information in the
biographical material.
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RESULTS |
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Heroin-related disorder
Twenty-one subjects (52.5% of the sample) were addicted to heroin at some
time during their lives. It must be noted that heroin use was widespread among
modern jazz musicians in the period after the Second World War and there were
a number of reasons for this. After the war there was a dramatic increase in
the availability of heroin because supply routes from the Far East and Turkey
were re-opened by the Mafia. Heroin travelled via Marseilles directly to New
York and was made easily accessible
(Shapiro, 1988). It
flooded urban black neighbourhoods to plague the lives of average
working-class African-Americans
(DeVeaux, 1997). Modern jazz
was a revolutionary music that was rejected by the general public, and heroin,
like the music, was defiantly anti-establishment
(Hentoff, 1978). It thus
tended to be adopted by disaffected musicians.
Heroin addiction was felt to be a contributing factor to early death in five of the subjects. A further subject, Chet Baker, lived until the age of 58 years but remained a lifelong addict. Fourteen subjects overcame their addiction but five relied on other substances, such as alcohol, cocaine and methadone, to sustain them.
Alcohol-related disorder
Eleven subjects (27.5%) were dependent on alcohol and six (15%) abused
alcohol at some stage during their lives. Eleven subjects (27.5%) were
comorbid for other disorders, such as heroin and/or cocaine dependence at
certain times in their lives. Five of the alcohol-dependent subjects
eventually overcame their dependence.
Cocaine-related disorder
Three musicians (Miles Davis, Art Pepper and Bill Evans) developed a
dependence on cocaine. In each case it followed the cessation of heroin use.
In the case of Bill Evans, there was a 10-year abstinence before the
commencement of cocaine use. Other musicians known to use cocaine were
Thelonious Monk and Chet Baker.
Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders
Three subjects (7.5%) had psychotic disorders.
Schizophrenia
Bud Powell had numerous admissions to psychiatric hospitals and was
diagnosed as having schizophrenia. Many musician colleagues believed that his
illness was triggered after he was beaten over the head by police when he was
21 years old. Although he exhibited schizophrenia-like symptoms such as
possible paranoid delusions (fear of being attacked and murdered), possible
auditory hallucinations (laughing inappropriately to himself) and
inappropriate affect (fatuous smile, grimace, fixed stare), throughout a
10-month hospital admission in 1945 it was reported that he talked
garrulously to all who would listen and was generally over-active... his
thoughts were flying away with him
(Gitler, 1966) and, therefore,
a more accurate diagnosis may be one of schizoaffective disorder, because
schizophrenia was grossly overdiagnosed and mania was under-diagnosed around
the middle of the 20th century. To complicate the picture further, one medical
researcher suggested that Powell might have developed epilepsy as a result of
his beating. These issues will not be resolved fully until the Powell estate
releases the medical records.
Substance intoxication delirium
Thelonious Monk experimented freely with a variety of drugs and appeared to
experience a particularly adverse reaction to amphetamines. There were regular
episodes when he went without sleep for several days, pacing up and down and
not appearing to recognise anyone. After taking to his bed for a few days he
would then return to normal. This presentation conforms to a diagnosis of
substance intoxication delirium, as described in DSMIV.
Substance-induced psychotic disorder
Miles Davis developed sickle-cell anaemia and used excessive amounts of
cocaine and barbiturates to control the arthritic pain. As a result, he
developed paranoid delusions and auditory hallucinations, searching in his
house for imaginary people whose voices he thought he heard.
Mood disorders
Eleven subjects (28.5%) definitely or probably fell into this category
(Table 2). Four subjects
received in-patient treatment for a depressive disorder and one subject, Frank
Rosolino, although not diagnosed as having depression, died by suicide after
attempting (successfully, in one case) to kill his two sons.
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Mood disorder due to a general medical condition
Two subjects fell into this category: Miles Davis had depression as a
result of pain caused by sickle-cell anaemia, whereas Gerry Mulligan
experienced mood swings caused by hypoglycaemia.
Dysthymic disorder
Two subjects, Paul Desmond and Bill Evans, appeared to have dysthymic
disorder. Both experienced low self-esteem, guilty ruminations and a
pessimistic outlook. In the case of Desmond, dysthymia was related to alcohol
dependence, whereas with Evans it was related to heroin dependence.
Cyclothymic disorder
Charles Mingus displayed symptoms of a cyclothymic mood disorder, being
mainly hypomanic with irascible, paranoid and grandiose features. Oscar
Pettiford presented a similar picture, being irascible, grandiose and
unrealistic in his business dealings. When alcohol-free, he was reported as
appearing depressed.
Anxiety disorders
Two subjects (5%), Art Pepper and John Coltrane, appeared to have anxiety
disorders. Art Pepper carried out obsessivecompulsive washing rituals
and had phobic anxiety regarding the sight of blood, hospital operations and
answering the telephone. John Coltrane exhibited obsessivecompulsive
features related to excessive practising, consumption of sweet foods, dieting,
searching for the perfect mouthpiece and constantly exploring various
religions. In relation to Coltrane, it is interesting to note that
obsessionality can have an adaptive function in creativity, and Storr
(1972) discusses the use of
ritual to induce a suitable state of mind.
Sensation-seeking
Zuckerman (1994) has
described sensation seeking as the tendency to seek novel, varied,
complex, and intense sensations and experiences and the willingness to take
risks for the sake of such experience. It seems to be a
necessary but not sufficient ingredient of an antisocial personality
(Zuckerman, 1994) and has been
linked to borderline personality disorder
(Reist et al, 1990).
It seems possible, therefore, that sensation-seeking is a characteristic of
all DSM cluster B (dramatic type) personality disorders. Sensation-seeking
also has been linked to creativity, in the form of divergent thinking
(McCrae, 1987), and to a
preference for complexity and abstraction in art
(Furnham & Bunyan,
1988).
In terms of the sample as a whole being rated as exceptionally creative, I felt that it would be interesting to look at the documentation of sensation-seeking tendencies in biographical material.
Disinhibition
One of the sensation-seeking factors identified by Zuckerman
(1994) is disinhibition.
This is typified by a liking for parties, social drinking, sex with many partners, new and often illegal experiences and experimentation with drugs. Five of the subjects (12.5%) shared a remarkably similar profile regarding disinhibition. These were Chet Baker, Charlie Parker, Art Pepper, Stan Getz and Serge Chaloff. Chet Bakers favourite drug experience was the kind of high that scares other people to death a speedball. Its a mixture of cocaine and heroin. Charlie Parker consumed enormous quantities of food, used heroin in increasing amounts, was known to drink 16 double whiskies in a 2-hour period and entered into hundreds of affairs with women. Art Pepper described his appetites thus: I always prided myself on being able to stay up longer than anybody else, drink more than anybody else, take more pills, shoot more stuff, or whatever. Stan Getz was dependent on heroin and alcohol and was a prolific womaniser. Serge Chaloff was described by a colleague as being like Charlie Parker: He had such an amazing tolerance for doing whatever he did to himself that he hardly ever knew it was a problem... never got enough of anything.
Miles Davis appeared to exhibit extreme disinhibition. He misused a variety of substances, including heroin, alcohol, barbiturates and cocaine. He had many sexual relationships, sometimes simultaneously, and he had a liking for orgies and voyeurism. Other subjects, including Dexter Gordon, Paul Chambers and Philly Joe Jones, demonstrated voracious multiple appetites.
Thrill- and adventure-seeking
Thrill- and adventure-seeking is another sensation-seeking factor
identified by Zuckerman
(1994). In the present sample,
Chet Baker and Miles Davis had a love of fast sports cars, and Scott La Faro,
a notoriously reckless driver, died in a car accident at the age of 25 years.
On one occasion after a drinking session, Stan Getz successfully swam across
Londons River Thames.
Late-life deteriorations and suicides
It was felt that from the age of 54 years Thelonious Monk had a dementing
process caused by excessive drug usage. He died from a cerebral aneurysm, aged
64 years.
At the age of 52 years Frank Rosolino shot his two sons (killing one and seriously wounding the other) and then killed himself. J. J. Johnson, having been ill for a number of months, died by suicide at the age of 77 years.
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DISCUSSION |
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Statistical comparisons with other studies
It was interesting to compare and contrast rates and types of mental health
problems in the sample of jazz musicians with those of previously documented
creative groups.
Overall, the statistics for jazz musicians were comparable with those of composers and musical performers provided by Post (1994) and Ludwig (1995). For instance, 28.5% of jazz musicians had mood disorders compared with 41% of musical performers (Ludwig) and 34.6% of composers (Post); and 10% of Ludwigs and 1% of Posts composers had a psychotic illness compared with 7.5% of jazz musicians. Figures for alcohol problems were similar, with 40% of Ludwigs musical performers, 21.2% of Posts composers and 27.5% of jazz musicians. Thus, the present study tended to confirm previous findings regarding mood disorders and alcohol problems in creative persons. Comparable statistics for the general population during the time period studied are not easily available. The Midtown Manhattan Study (Srole et al, 1962) did not determine the presence of specific mental disorders, stating only that 23% of the sample population had significant psychiatric impairment. The Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study (Robins & Regier, 1991) found incidences of 6.8% for mood disorders, 1.5% for schizophrenia, 14% for alcohol dependence and misuse and 6% for drug dependence and misuse.
Drug-related problems
There was a much higher rate of drug-related problems in the present sample
than in those of Ludwig and Post, with 52.5% of jazz musicians having heroin
addiction at some time during their lives. As has been noted previously,
heroin use was widespread for a number of reasons among modern jazz musicians
after the Second World War, but as modern jazz gradually became more accepted,
and as younger musicians saw the harm caused to their older colleagues, usage
began to fall off (Hentoff,
1978), so a more recent sample of jazz musicians undoubtedly would
not show the same rate of addiction.
Consideration of occupational stress
In a previous large-scale study (Wills
& Cooper, 1988), the effects of occupational stress on mental
health and substance misuse in popular musicians were explored. Arguably, the
fullest picture is provided by using the diathesisstress model
(Meehl, 1962). One may ask why
Dizzy Gillespie survived to become an elder statesman but his fellow innovator
Charlie Parker died aged 34 years. Research (see
Ludwig, 1995) shows that, with
regard to psychopathology in the arts, for substantial numbers the
predisposition for mental disorder is established long before they launch
their careers. There is also a greater tendency in their families for mental
illness and they show more problems during childhood and adolescence than
members of non-artistic professions.
Wider implications of sensation seeking
Despite the social reasons for drug usage, it is interesting to look at it
in relation to the topic of sensation-seeking.
Sensation-seeking, mainly in the form of disinhibition and thrill- and adventure-seeking, was described in biographical material relating to many of the current sample, suggesting that their substance related problems were part of the wider spectrum of their appetites and not simply the result of the influence of their working environment.
The connection between sensation seeking and creativity is a topic worthy of further investigation. One may speculate that those high in creativity and sensation seeking may represent a subset of persons who are attracted to becoming performers in the field of popular music as a whole, when one also considers the biographies of a number of eminent deceased rock musicians. One can carry this speculation further, for instance when looking at the bohemian artistic world of fin-de-siècle Paris. Januszczak (2002) refers to the ether addiction of the poet Max Jacob, the absinthe addiction of the playwright Alfred Jarry, the opium smoking of Picasso and the alcoholism of Utrillo, Toulouse-Lautrec and Modigliani. The latter also used hashish and cocaine.
At the present time, of course, the connection is pure conjecture. Solely with regard to jazz musicians, there is a need to study larger samples and to make comparisons with groups from different eras of the music.
Non-pathological sample characteristics
To maintain a sense of perspective in the present study, it needs to be
stated that many of the sample were exemplary, well-balanced human beings. For
instance, Clifford Brown was regarded universally as being kind, generous,
conscientious and highly intelligent. Eric Dolphy was known to be gentle,
unassuming, helpful and considerate. John Coltrane, Thelonious Monk and Erroll
Garner generally were liked very well. Pepper Adams was an exceptionally
cultured person who was interested in art history and literature, and his
friends regarded him as an excellent museum guide. Many musicians, such as
Miles Davis, Art Blakey and J. J. Johnson, overcame early problems to become
very successful and highly respected elder statesmen of jazz.
This study offers a further perspective on the link between psychopathology and creativity in the arts, and adds weight to the finding that outstanding workers in the arts can suffer from above-average levels of mental health problems but manage to produce exceptional work despite this. Connections with sensationseeking are highlighted, suggesting an avenue for further exploration.
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Clinical Implications and Limitations |
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LIMITATIONS
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REFERENCES |
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Received for publication October 30, 2002. Revision received February 26, 2003. Accepted for publication March 17, 2003.
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