Department of Anaesthesia, Victoria Hospital, Kirkcaldy, Fife, Scotland, UK
*Present address: Department of Intensive Care The St George Hospital, Kogarah, Sydney, Australia. E-mail: grantcprice@hotmail.com
Accepted for publication: July 9, 2003
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Abstract |
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Br J Anaesth 2003; 91: 90910
Keywords: complications, acute renal failure; non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
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Introduction |
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The following describes a patient with acute renal failure and lactic acidosis as a result of concurrent treatment with metformin. Rofecoxib may have been a precipitating factor.
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Case report |
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On arrival at the Accident and Emergency department she was severely agitated (GCS E3V3M4), ventilatory frequency 45, arterial pressure 130/70 mm Hg, heart rate 110 beats min1, peripheral oxygen saturation 95% on air and blood sugar 6.2 mmol litre1. Physical examination was unreliable because of patient agitation but abdominal palpation revealed a tender abdomen. Arterial blood gases were: pH 6.8, PaCO2 2.6 kPa, PO2 10.2 kPa, plasma bicarbonate 5 mmol litre1, base deficit 27.4 mmol litre1, and plasma lactate 19.8 mmol litre1. Her biochemical profile revealed a sodium of 140 mmol litre1, potassium 4.4 mmol litre1, urea 27.4 mmol litre1 and creatinine 796 mmol litre1. In view of her metabolic status and to allow further investigation and treatment she was intubated and ventilated. An abdominal CT scan was performed to rule out mesenteric ischaemia and to exclude obstructive causes of renal failure. A provisional diagnosis of type B lactic acidosis was made.
The cause of the renal failure was not apparent at this time. She was transferred to the Intensive Care Unit and underwent lactate-free continuous veno-venous haemofiltration (CVVH) and sodium bicarbonate therapy, but after 1 h of CVVH she required inotropic support with epinephrine and norepinephrine, which continued for 48 h. She was extubated after 2 days and required renal replacement therapy for 14 days in total.
A review of the patients notes confirmed the clinical history and her most recent pre-morbid biochemical profile from 2 months before admission revealed normal renal function. This patient was commenced on rofecoxib 1 month before hospital admission for painful arthritis. She made a full recovery and did not require further renal support.
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Discussion |
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Metformins mechanism of action is thought to be by increasing glucose transport into glucose utilizing cells and by decreasing hepatic gluconeogenisis.3 Biguanide therapy decreases the activity of the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase and the transport of mitochondrial reducing agents, and thus enhances anaerobic metabolism.6 This shift to anaerobic metabolism is therefore not dependant on a lack of oxygen and, in the presence of reduced insulin, increases production of precursors for the tricarboxylic acid cycle.6 As inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase leads to a decreased ability to channel these precursors into aerobic metabolism this causes increased metabolism of pyruvate to lactate and an increase in lactic acid production. Any renal impairment will result in a reduced clearance of lactic acid and metformin.
Rofecoxib is a new COX 2 inhibitor. Various inflammatory mediators are derived from the phospholipid cell membrane via the cyclo-oxygenase and the lipoxygenase pathways to produce prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes. Prostaglandins are not only involved in inflammation but also in the maintenance of gastric mucosal integrity, and renal microvascular homeostasis.7 Prostaglandins are particularly important for maintaining glomerular filtration rate under conditions of suboptimal perfusion. Interference with this homeostatic mechanism can lead to nephrotoxicity; it is a well-described complication of NSAID therapy.8 9
There are two forms of the cyclo-oxygenase enzyme; COX 1 and COX 2.10 11 COX 1 is present in many tissues and is responsible for the maintenance of the physiologically protective functions such as renal blood flow and gastric mucosal protection. COX 2 is found in brain, kidney, and gravid uterus. However, it is usually undetectable in most tissues and expresses during inflammation.
COX 2 inhibitors have comparable analgesic efficacy when compared with traditional NSAIDS and are claimed to have additional benefits, especially a marked reduction in gastric toxicity. The large trials have focused mainly on the gastric safety profiles of these compounds rather than the renal safety.12 More recently, doubt has been cast on the findings of these trials,13-15 on the renal toxicity of these new agents suggesting a pattern of nephrotoxicity similar to the traditional non-selective NSAIDs. One study found a transient deterioration in renal function in patients treated with celecoxib and rofecoxib. Of importance was the age of these patients (6373 yr old) and the fact that they had co-morbidity including cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, and chronic renal failure.16
Many patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus are overweight and arthritis, as well as other musculoskeletal disorders, is common. The COX 2 inhibitors may have an improved side-effect profile with regard to gastric side effects, but their renal safety profile has not been established.
The risk of renal failure with the use of traditional NSAIDs is well known. What is less well appreciated is the role that the COX 2 inhibitors may play in the development of renal failure which, when it occurs in a patient on metformin, can lead to a potentially disastrous outcome.
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References |
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