1 Department of Discovery Research and 2 Department of Neurology, GlaxoSmithKline, New Frontiers Science Park, Third Avenue, Harlow, Essex CM19 5AW, UK jeff_jerman@gsk.com
Accepted for publication: July 29, 2002
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Abstract |
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Methods. Using a Flurometric Imaging Plate Reader (FLIPRTM), calcium imaging has been used to study the effects of several vanilloid and cannabinoid ligands in rat VR1-transfected HEK293 (rVR1-HEK) cells and in DRG cells. The effect of pre-exposure of several vanilloid and cannabinoids has also been compared in DRG cells.
Results. The VR1 agonists capsaicin, olvanil, (N-(4-hydroxyphenyl-arachinoylamide) (AM404) and anandamide caused a concentration-dependent increase in intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i), with similar temporal profiles in both rVR1-HEK and DRG cells, and potency (pEC50) values of 8.25 (SEM 0.11), 8.37 (0.04), 6.96 (0.06), 5.85 (0.01) and 7.45 (0.10), 7.55 (0.07), 6.10 (0.13), approximately 5.5, respectively. These responses were inhibited by the VR1 antagonist capsazepine (1 µM). In contrast, application of synthetic cannabinoid antagonists failed to inhibit the anandamide-induced increase in [Ca2+]i. Reapplication of VR1 agonists significantly inhibited a subsequent challenge to either capsaicin or anandamide in either cell type, whilst pre-exposure to cannabinoid agonists were without effect.
Conclusion. Here we provide evidence that the pharmacology of recombinant rVR1 receptors is similar to those endogenously expressed in DRG cells. Moreover, we have shown that VR1, but not CB1, receptors are involved in anandamide-induced responses in dorsal root primary neurones in vitro. Therefore, the analgesic properties of anandamide are likely to be mediated, at least in part, by VR1 activation in DRG cells in vivo.
Br J Anaesth 2002; 89: 8827
Keywords: analgesics non-opioid, anandamide; spinal cord, dorsal root ganglion; equipment, flurometric imaging plate reader; receptors, cannabinoid; receptors, vanilloid
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Introduction |
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The vanilloid receptor (VR1) is a ligand-gated ion channel expressed on sensory neurones and plays an important role in nociception.9 Prolonged activation of VR1 results in receptor desensitization and analgesia9 and it has recently been reported that anandamide is an agonist at VR1 receptors.10 11 However, it is difficult, and often misleading, to correlate results derived from in vitro assay systems, using recombinant receptors10, with those from isolated tissue preparations,11 especially when trying to model the situation in vivo.
Therefore, in the present study we have used a fluroimetric imaging plate reader (FLIPRTM) to measure changes in intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) and compared the effects of anandamide at recombinant VR1 receptors with those in physiologically relevant dorsal root ganglion (DRG) primary cell cultures.
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Materials and methods |
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Cell culture
HEK293 cells stably expressing the recombinant rVR1 receptor, were maintained in culture in minimum essential medium (MEM) supplemented with non-essential amino acids, 10% fetal calf serum and 2 mM L-glutamine. Cells were grown as monolayers under 95:5% air:CO2 at 37°C and passaged every 34 days. The highest passage used was 20. Dissociated rat neonatal DRG cultures were prepared as described by Skaper and co-workers.13 In brief, DRG cells were prepared from 8-day-old SpragueDawley rats and cultured in microtitre plates in DMEM containing N2 supplements, ß-NGF (50 ng ml1), bovine serum albumin (BSA) (0.05%), penicillin (100 units ml1) and streptomycin (100 units ml1). Cells were cultured for 3 days and maintained under 95:5% air:CO2 at 37°C.
Measurement of [Ca2+]i using the FLIPRTM
rVR1-HEK cells were seeded into black walled clear-base 96-well plates (Costar, UK) at a density of 25 000 cells per well in MEM, supplemented as above and cultured overnight. Cells were then incubated with the cytoplasmic calcium indicator, Fluo-3 in the acetoxylmethyl ester form (4 µM; Teflabs, TX, USA) at 25°C for 2 h. The loaded cells were then washed four times with, and finally incubated in, Tyrodes medium (NaCl, 145 mM; KCl, 2.5 mM; HEPES, 10 mM; glucose, 10 mM; MgCl2, 1.2 mM; CaCl2, 1.5 mM) containing 0.2% BSA, before being incubated for 30 min at 25°C with either buffer alone or buffer containing various antagonists. The plates were then placed into a FLIPRTM (Molecular Devices, UK) to monitor cell fluorescence (ex=488 nm,
EM=540 nm)14 before and after the addition of various vanilloid or cannabinoid agonists.
Dissociated rat neonatal DRG cells were seeded into black walled clear-base 384-well plates (Costar, UK) at a density of 10 000 cells per well and incubated with Tyrodes buffer containing Fluo-4 at 37°C for 1 h. DRG cells were then washed as described previously before incubation with buffer alone of buffer containing antagonists at 25°C for 30 min. Cells were then placed into the FLIPRTM and fluorescence monitored as described above before and after the addition of various vanilloid or cannabinoid agonists. It is noteworthy that the use of Fluo-4 is required in DRG cells in 384-well plate format, compared with Fluo-3 for rVR1-HEK293 cells, to obtain a signal of sufficient magnitude.
Measurement of cyclic AMP production
DRG cells were incubated with cannabinoid agonists (100 nM) for 15 min at 37°C. The cells were then exposed to Forskolin (3 µM) for 20 min and the levels of cAMP determined, using a cAMP enzyme immunoassay kit system (Amersham, cat. no. RPN 225).
Data analysis
Functional responses using FLIPR were measured as peak fluorescence intensity minus basal fluorescence and, where appropriate, expressed as a percentage of a maximum capsaicin-induced response on the same plate. Iterative curve-fitting and parameter estimations were carried out using a four parameter logistic model and Microsoft Excel.15 Antagonist potency values (IC50) were converted to apparent pKB values (functional antagonist affinity equivalent to pKi) using a modified ChengPrusoff correction.16
Data are expressed as mean (SEM) unless otherwise stated. Statistical tests for significance were conducted using two-way analysis of variance.
Materials
Anandamide (arachidonoyl-ethanolamide), AM404 (N-(4-hydroxyphenyl-arachinoylamide) and all other cannabinoids (AM630, AM251, AM281, HU210, WIN55, ZIZ-Z, CP55, G40) were obtained from Tocris (Bristol, UK). Capsaicin, capsazepine, olvanil (N-vanillyl-cis-9-octadecenoamide) and all bulk reagents were obtained from Sigma-Aldridge Ltd (Poole, Dorset, UK). All cell culture media were obtained from Life Technologies (Paisley, UK).
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Results |
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Incubation with capsazepine (10 µM) or ruthenium red (1 µM) significantly inhibited (P<0.01) subsequent responses to capsaicin (300 nM) and anandamide (10 µM) in rat DRG cells (Table 2). In contrast to this, pre-incubation with the cannabinoid antagonists AM630, AM251, AM281,17 or cannabinoid agonists HU210, WIN 55,212-2 or CP 55,9403 18 (10 µM) did not significantly alter the magnitude of subsequent capsaicin- or anandamide-induced responses (Table 2).
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In DRG cells, application of the cannabinoid agonist HU210 or CP 55,940 (1 µM) did not significantly (P<0.01) inhibit forskolin-induced cAMP production, with cAMP levels of 359 (103), 373 (101) and 376 (43) fmol, respectively (n=3).
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Discussion |
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In the present study capsaicin, olvanil, anandamide and AM404 induced a concentration-dependent increase in [Ca2+]i and the kinetics of responses in rVR1-HEK cells were virtually identical compared with those in rat DRG cells (Fig. 1). Similarly, agonist rank order of potency was also maintained between the two cell types and was consistent with that of previous reports.12 The observation that agonist potencies were higher in rVR1-HEK cells (0.8 log units) and the fact that anandamide and AM404 were less efficacious in DRG cells compared with rVR1-HEK cells, is readily explained by accepted receptor theory and suggests the presence of receptor reserve in the latter. However, the relatively low efficacy of anandamide in the DRG cells, and the fact that concentrationresponse curves to anandamide were bell-shaped in these cells, complicates determination of maximal efficacy. Moreover, in the present study it is impossible to determine if anandamide is a partial agonist in the DRG cells. However, it is likely that the bell-shaped concentrationresponse curves to anandamide reflect the relative insolubility of this compound at higher concentrations. In the present study responses to 30 µM anandamide, which represents the highest achievable concentration without encountering solubility problems, were approximately 60% relative to that of capsaicin (1 µM). The data are in agreement with data from electrophysiological studies using VR1 expressing HEK293 cells and Xenopus oocytes.11 The physiological significance of the relative efficacy of anandamide in this study, and the relevance to the efficacy in man, has yet to be determined. It is noteworthy that the apparent affinity of capsazepine, but not ruthenium red, was lower in the DRG preparation than that in rVR1-HEK293 cells. The reason(s) for this remain unclear, but may reflect secondary modulation of the binding sites associated with the differing cellular environment.
Taken collectively the data are consistent with VR1-mediation of responses seen in both recombinant and DRG cells. However, several aspects of the present study provide evidence against the involvement of cannabinoid receptors in responses in the DRG cells. No inhibition of forskolin-induced cAMP production, nor any increase in [Ca2+]i, was seen following the application of potent CB1 receptor agonists,3 18 despite immunocytochemical evidence of CB1 expression in DRG neurones.20 Furthermore, neither the cannabinoid antagonists AM630, AM251 and AM281,17 nor the CB1 receptor agonists HU210, WIN 55,212-2 and CP 55,9403 18 had any effect on either capsaicin- or anandamide-induced responses in DRG cells. In addition, the potency of anandamide in the present study (>10 µM) is considerably lower than the binding affinity (55 nM) reported for anandamide at CB1 receptors.4 In contrast, pre-application of known VR1 antagonists such as capsazepine9 and ruthenium red21 significantly inhibited a subsequent response to capsaicin and anandamide.
In the present study we have provided evidence that vanilloid pharmacology is similar in recombinant and physiologically relevant systems in vitro. We have also provided evidence that anandamide induces response in DRG cells that are VR1, but not CB1 receptor-mediated. It is reasonable, therefore, to conclude that anandamide may interact with vanilloid receptors in vivo leading to receptor desensitization and analgesia, as proposed previously,22 23 but this remains controversial.24 Overcoming the technical difficulties in handling poorly soluble lipid compounds such as anandamide, will contribute greatly to the resolution of this controversy.
Nevertheless, it is clear that regarding the cannabinoid and vanilloid receptor systems as two completely separate entities, at least in their respective contribution to analgesia, is unwise. It could be argued that these two receptors share a common pharmacophore and that this is purely coincidental. On the other hand, though purely speculative, it is also tempting to consider that these receptors represent different classes of the same receptor system, somewhat analogous to the ionotropic and metabotropic classes of glutamate receptors.
Evidence that a physiological link exists between VR1 and CB1 receptors is lacking in our data. In the present study, selective CB1 agonists and antagonists had no feedback effects on subsequent VR1 activity. However, considering the possibility that the cannabiniod and the vanilloid systems are interlinked in the same physiological responses and share common pharmacophores, affords the possibility of development of novel analgesics with high therapeutic potential. A non-pungent VR1 receptor agonist that is also a CB1 receptor agonist for example, may be efficacious in the treatment of pain.
Alternative approaches are also being considered.25 For example, modulation of anandamide biosynthesis and inactivation, such as inhibition of anandamide hydrolysis, may also provide useful therapeutics.25 However, as is the case with all cannabinoid targeted drug therapies the contribution of the vanilloid system must not be overlooked.
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