1 Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 2 Department of Hematology/Oncology and 4 Department of Urology, Philipps University School of Medicine, Marburg, Germany; 3 Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Paris, France; 5 Department of Urology, Hospital Am Urban, Berlin, Germany
Received 9 January 2003; revised 11 June 2003; accepted 17 July 2003
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Abstract |
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Malignant tumors of the testis are among the most common cancers in men between the ages of 15 and 30 years. The sensitivity of detection of known tumor markers depends upon the tumor histology and stage. In other cancers, increased serum concentrations of various angiogenic growth factors have been described as potential markers for tumor progression and metastasis. One main histological feature of testicular cancer is profound angiogenesis.
Design:
In this study, we investigated by sensitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) the levels of various growth and angiogenesis factors in the serum of testicular cancer patients as compared with normal control subjects. For the most profoundly increased growth factors, pleiotrophin (PTN) and fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2), we furthermore analyzed tumor lysates by northern blotting, RTPCR and ELISA.
Results:
We demonstrate a marked elevation of average serum levels of PTN (20-fold) and of FGF-2 (
7-fold) in patients and expression of both growth factors in tumor biopsies. To a lesser extent, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and epidermal growth factor (EGF) serum levels were increased, whereas FGF-4 and transforming growth factor-ß levels were similar to those in normal control subjects. Elevation of PTN, FGF-2, EGF and VEGF was detected in seminomatous as well as non-seminatous tumors, and even in early stages.
Conclusions:
PTN and FGF-2 may represent promising new diagnostic markers for testicular cancer with high sensitivity even in early-stage testicular cancer. Further studies are warranted to extend our analyses.
Key words: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, fibroblast growth factor-2, growth factor serum levels, pleiotrophin, testicular cancer
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Introduction |
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In this study, we measured serum levels of various growth factors which: (i) in other tumors exert potent effects on tumor cells and on endothelial cells including stimulation of proliferation, mitogenesis and/or migration; (ii) are often up-regulated in cancer and may correlate with the degree of cancer malignancy; (iii) are often rate-limiting for tumor growth and tumor angiogenesis; and (iv) may play a role in testicular cancer. This has been shown for fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2), which is detected at high concentrations in the serum and urine of various cancer patients [2] and is expressed in the normal testis [3, 4] as well as in teratoma cells where it stimulates cell proliferation and migration [5]. For vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), Viglietto et al. [6] have demonstrated a markedly increased expression in 81% of the germ cell tumors investigated, and in situ hybridization has shown a stronger expression in teratoma than in both seminoma and non-seminomatous specimens [7]. FGF-4 (hst-1, K-FGF) has been detected in Sertoli cells of the normal adult mouse testis [8], and its expression has been associated with murine testicular teratogenesis [9]. Transforming growth factor-ß1 (TGF-ß1) plasma levels predict liver metastasis in colorectal cancer [10] and disease progression in patients undergoing radical prostatectomy [11], and TGF-ß1 shows a stronger expression in tissues of germ cell tumors than in peritumor non-neoplastic testis [12]. Epidermal growth factor (EGF) is frequently overexpressed in cancer, e.g. of the pancreas [13, 14], and is expressed in testicular Leydig cells [1517]. Pleiotrophin (PTN, HB-GAM) is highly expressed in various tumor cell lines of different origin [1820]. Elevated PTN serum levels were detected in patients with pancreatic, colon [21] or lung cancer, and in the last case were related to disease stage [22].
In this paper, we demonstrate a marked elevation of FGF-2 and PTN and, to a lesser extent, an increase in VEGF and EGF serum levels. More detailed analysis revealed an increase in seminomas as well as non-seminomas even in early tumor stages. Hence, both PTN and FGF-2, which we show to be expressed in tumor biopsies, might be promising new diagnostic markers for testicular cancer, with high sensitivity even in early stages.
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Materials and methods |
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Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays
The PTN enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) was carried out as described previously [21]. Briefly, a mouse anti-PTN monoclonal antibody (4B7) [21] was diluted to 1 µg/ml in TBS and 100 µl/well of the dilution were incubated in covered 96-well ELISA plates (Life Technologies, Karlsruhe Germany) at 4°C overnight. Wells were washed three times with TBST, and residual free binding sites were blocked with 200 µl TBST containing 1% bovine serum albumin (BSA) for 2 h at 4°C, before wells were washed again. Serum (22 samples from testicular carcinoma patients and 24 healthy controls) was diluted 1:1 with double-concentrated TBST, or supernatants of centrifuged tumor lysates 1:10 to 1:100 in TBST, and 100 µl/well of this dilution was added and incubated at room temperature for 1 h. After washing, 100 µl/well biotinylated affinity-purified goat anti-human-PTN secondary antibody (R&D, Wiesbaden, Germany) was added at a concentration of 500 ng/ml and incubated for 1 h at room temperature. After washing again, the plate was incubated in the dark with 100 µl/well p-nitrophenyl phosphate substrate solution for 2 h. Absorbance was measured in an ELISA reader at 405 nm. Recombinant human PTN (R&D) served as the standard.
ELISAs for FGF-2, FGF-4, VEGF, EGF and TGF-ß were from R&D and carried out as described by the supplier. Briefly, samples and standards were diluted appropriately in the respective assay diluent and incubated at room temperature in wells supplied pre-coated with specific capturing antibodies. After washing, the respective detection antibody-conjugate was added and incubated at room temperature before washing again. Addition of substrate solution then resulted in color development and, after addition of a stop solution, color intensity was measured in an ELISA reader at the appropriate wavelength. For correction of optical imperfections in the plate, reading was repeated as recommended by the supplier at a different wavelength, and these results were subtracted.
RNA preparation, RTPCR, Southern and northern blot analysis
From tumor tissues, total RNA was extracted using the Tri Reagent as described by the manufacturer (Sigma). RTPCR was carried out with 2 µg denatured RNA using AMV reverse transcriptase as described by the manufacturer (Roche). The cDNA product (1.5 µl) was amplified in a 50 µl final volume containing 5 µl 10x PCR buffer with MgCl2, 0.2 mM dNTPs, 10 pmol of each primer and 0.5 µl NeoTherm DNA Polymerase (GeneCraft, Münster, Germany) for 30 cycles under the following conditions: 30 s at 94°C, 45 s at 53°C and 3 min at 72°C. Primer sequences were as follows: PTN sense 5'-TATGTTCCACAGGTGACATC-3', and PTN antisense 5'-AGAGGACGTTTCCAACTCAA-3'. PCR products were loaded on a 1.2% ethidium bromide-stained agarose gel and total RNA was separated in a 1% formaldehyde agarose gel. For Southern or northern blots, DNA or RNA was transferred on to a nylon membrane (HyBond N; Amersham Pharmacia, Little Chalfont, UK) by capillary action and hybridized overnight with 32P-labeled (Rediprime; Amersham Pharmacia) PTN cDNA in 50% formamide, 5x SSC, 0.1% Ficoll, 0.1% polyvinylpyrrolidone, 0.1% BSA, 0.1% SDS and 100 µg/ml salmon sperm DNA. After twice washing with 2x SSC/0.1% SDS and with 0.1x SSC/0.1 SDS at 42°C, membranes were autoradiographed for 15 days.
Statistical analysis
Serum levels of each growth factor were determined in multiple independent experiments for each sample, and mean values were calculated from the data of each patient. To analyze if the samples were normally distributed, the KolmogorovSmirnov test was used. Statistical significance was evaluated by Students t-test and MannWhitney U-test as indicated in the text. Only P values <0.05 were considered statistically significant. Correlation between levels of different growth factors were tested by the Pearson test.
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Results |
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Serum levels in different tumor subtypes and tumor stages
For PTN (Figure 2A), uniformly high serum levels were found in all four testicular cancer patient groups as compared with normal controls (P <0.001, MannWhitney U-test). Levels did not differ between seminoma and non-seminoma histological groups, and did not increase with tumor size. The median values were as follows: normal serum 1.455 ng/ml, seminoma pT1 16.66 ng/ml, pT2/3 15.31 ng/ml, non-seminoma pT1 16.92 ng/ml, and pT2/3 18.88 ng/ml.
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VEGF levels in seminoma patients (Figure 2C, left) showed an increase in serum levels between stage pT1 (median 438.0 pg/ml) and stage pT2/3 (median 816.5 pg/ml). VEGF levels of stage pT1 were even significantly elevated compared with the control (median 258 pg/ml; P = 0.004, Students t-test) as were levels of stage pT2/pT3 (P = 0.011), with differences between seminoma tumor grades not being statistically significant (P = 0.11). In non-seminomas (Figure 2C, right) VEGF levels in grade pT1 (median 688.5 pg/ml) were higher, but not significantly different (P = 0.5) compared with pT2/pT3 (344.0 pg/ml). Due to the relatively low VEGF serum levels in non-seminoma pT2/pT3 patients, with 80% of the samples being in the range of normal serum, these patients were the only group with serum levels not significantly elevated over normal serum.
Standard testicular tumor markers
AFP was elevated in the serum of 66% of the patients with non-seminomatous tumors but in none of the patients with seminoma. hCGß serum levels were elevated in 23% of the seminoma patients and in 56% of the non-seminoma patients. Increased LDH was observed in the serum of 38% of patients with seminoma and in 20% of patients with a non-seminomatous tumor. No statistically significant correlation was found between the classic tumor markers and any of the growth factors analyzed in this study.
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Discussion |
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The most remarkable findings were highly elevated levels of FGF-2 and PTN in the serum of testicular cancer patients. For PTN, >20-fold increased levels were detected in the serum of testicular cancer patients. Setting a cut-off level at 3.5 ng/ml, which is comparable with that used in earlier studies [22], results in increased serum levels in 100% of the cancer patients examined with no sample having a concentration below 12.5 ng/ml. Likewise, 100% of the controls were below this cut-off with no serum concentration >3.3 ng/ml. Interestingly, no differences in mean values were seen between different testicular cancer subtypes or the different stages investigated. PTN levels are increased even in early stages of testicular cancer. Analysis of tumor biopsies for mRNA and protein levels confirmed PTN expression in the tumor mass of all samples tested.
For FGF-2, a more than seven-fold increase in mean serum concentrations was determined. Definition of a cut-off level of 8 pg/ml, which is in the range reported by previous papers on other tumors (reviewed in [23]), results in elevated FGF-2 levels in all patients with only one exception consisting of a low-grade (pT1) seminoma. All healthy control subjects were below this cut-off, except for one with an FGF-2 serum level three-fold higher than normal values. Obviously, measurement of FGF-2 serum levels clearly distinguishes between testicular cancer patients and normal individuals and, most importantly, FGF-2 serum levels are elevated even in early stages. ELISA of tissue lysates confirmed FGF-2 expression in testicular tumors.
Elevated levels were also detected for VEGF, revealing a more than two-fold increase over those in healthy control subjects. However, individual values were scattered widely with serum levels from several, including high-grade testicular cancer patients, being in the normal range. For EGF, a statistically significant up-regulation of serum levels in cancer of the testis was seen although the overall differences were comparatively small.
The standard tumor markers AFP, hCG and LDH are of diagnostic and prognostic value and are widely used in testicular cancer patients. However, elevation of serum levels is observed only in a small number of early-stage testicular cancers, and even in patients with advanced stages of testicular cancer increased values are detected in <100%. In contrast, we demonstrate that serum levels of the growth factors PTN and FGF-2 are even elevated in all (PTN) or all but one (FGF-2) patients with stage I seminoma or non-seminomatous tumors. Our data indicate that these growth factors might be useful novel tumor markers, especially due to their high sensitivity in early-stage testicular cancer. Clearly, to confirm our findings presented in this report and to investigate further the putative diagnostic value of PTN and FGF-2, studies with larger numbers of samples need to be undertaken. Important future directions also include: (i) the exact time-course of changes with regard to later tumor stages; (ii) the determination of post-operative serum levels and their possible association with disease-free survival or the likelihood of tumor recurrence (as seen for example with FGF-2 in women with breast cancer [24]); as well as (iii) analyses of tumor sections by immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization to correlate these data to serum levels.
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Acknowledgements |
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Footnotes |
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References |
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