1 Department of Oncology, Kantonsspital Luzern, Switzerland; 2 Departments of Medicine and Pathology, University of Colorado Comprehensive Cancer Center, Denver, Colorado, CO, USA; 3 Athens Chest Hospital Sotiria, Fifth Pulmonary Clinic, Athens, Greece
Received 14 April 2003; revised 8 July 2003; accepted 10 September 2003
![]() |
ABSTRACT |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Key words: chemoprevention, cyclooxygenase 2, epidermal growth factor receptor, lung cancer, lung cancer biology, retinoids
![]() |
Introduction |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Cigarette smoking is the main risk factor for lung cancer, accounting for 90% of cases in men and 7085% of cases in women [2]. Genetic risk factors contribute to an individuals susceptibility to lung cancer, which is illustrated by the fact that <16% of long-term smokers will develop lung cancer [3]. Life style factors (e.g. diet) are also thought to be important in the modulation of risk [3]. Unfortunately, effective clinical tests to assign risk are lacking. Smoking cessation programs are crucial, but ex-smokers continue to have a higher risk of developing lung cancer >40 years after cessation compared with never-smokers [4]. Ex-smokers comprise nearly 50% of all new lung cancer cases in developed countries, indicating a strong need for a search for new means of early diagnosis in lung cancer and chemoprevention in this high-risk group [4]. However, an important issue for these approaches is the appropriate selection of an optimal high-risk population.
In 1993, Sporn pointed out that carcinogenesis is the disease and not cancer [5]. For comparison, screening and treatment of cervical dysplasia has led to a remarkable decrease of cervical cancer incidence and mortality [6]. Premalignant lesions that affect other organs have been identified and treated (e.g. carcinoma in situ of the bladder, colon polyps and prostate intraepithelial neoplasia) [7]. Treatment of these precancerous lesions appears to be of value for cancer prevention (Table 1).
|
|
The chemoprevention principles are built on the concepts of field of cancerization and multistep carcinogenesis. Field cancerization is characterized by diffuse injury of an epithelial surface as the result of long-term carcinogenic exposure [19]. Genetic alteration throughout the respiratory epithelium is the result of exposure to the carcinogens in cigarettes and to radon or other long-term carcinogenic insults. This preconditioned epithelium can give rise to cancer at multiple points. Studies of the airways of lung cancer patients show that extensive hyperplasia and dysplasia occur throughout the bronchial epithelium, accompanied by aneuploidy. These multiple lesions are not usually genetically distinct from the patients tumor and presumably arise independently. These findings support the idea that the entire upper aerodigestive tract is at risk of developing genetic alterations as a result of long-term carcinogen exposure. Genetic changes detected in premalignant lesions in one region of the field, translate into an increased risk of cancer development throughout the entire field.
Contributing factors to the genetic predisposition associated with increased lung cancer risk are polymorphisms in enzymes that affect carcinogen activation (P450) and detoxification (glutathione S-transferase), DNA repair genes, inactivation of the p53 tumor suppressor gene and activation of dominant oncogenes. The interaction of host susceptibility and exposure to carcinogens leads to variation in cancer susceptibility and presentation.
The concept of multistep carcinogenesis was derived from pathological observations that mucosal changes in the airways, including hyperplasia, metaplasia, dysplasia and carcinoma in situ (CIS), precede or accompany invasive squamous carcinoma [20] (Figure 1). Hyperplasia, squamous metaplasia and mild dysplasia have generally been considered as reversible and not premalignant. Alterations in oncogene and tumor suppressor gene expression and chromosome structure known to be associated with malignant transformation are often present in morphologically normal epithelium of smokers and occur with increasing frequency through varying degrees of dysplasia to CIS, where they are universally present.
|
This biological basis of chemoprevention has provided the framework for the design and evaluation of new chemoprevention trials. Molecular epidemiological and genotyping risk assessment models are encouraged to provide a more sensitive and specific design for the chemoprevention trials.
The purpose of this article is to review the current status and to describe the perspectives for new approaches in the chemoprevention of lung cancer.
![]() |
What did we learn from previous studies? |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Retinoids are potent regulators of gene expression and signal their cellular effects through nuclear retinoid receptors. Two classes of nuclear retinoid receptorsretinoic acid receptor RAR and retinoid X receptor RXRhave been identified, each of them having at least three subtypes (, ß and
, respectively). The receptors are ligand activated and following the binding to retinoids, the retinoid target genes become transcriptionally activated or repressed. The target genes regulate cell growth, differentiation and death (apoptosis) [21].
Based on the hypothesis that the reduced risk of lung cancer associated with a high intake of fruit and vegetables is due to ß-carotene and other antioxidants, epidemiological studies have verified that intake or serum concentration of ß-carotene and cancer risk are inversely related [4]. Experimental models together with these epidemiological data formed the rationale for the use of retinoids or carotenes in cancer prevention. Added support for a retinoid-based clinical chemopreventive approach came from the successful treatment of premalignant lesions (oral leukoplakia, cervical dysplasia [6] and xeroderma pigmentosum). In addition, clinical trials have shown that retinoids are active in reducing some second primary cancers (e.g. second aerodigestive tract tumors in patients with resected head and neck cancers).
Randomized controlled trials with retinoids
Randomized controlled trials have been conducted in three lung cancer chemoprevention settings: primary prevention (healthy high-risk smokers), secondary prevention (premalignant lesions) and tertiary prevention [second primary tumors (SPT), SPT in previously treated patients] [817] (Table 2).
Three phase III studies were completed involving primary prevention (Table 2): the -Tocopherol, ß-Carotene (ATBC) Study [8], the ß-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial (CARET) [9] and the Physicians Health Study [10]. In the ATBC trials, the selected patients were 5069 years of age and current smokers (five or more cigarettes per day at entry); in the CARET study, patients had been exposed to asbestos 15 years before randomization or were current or former smokers with at least 20 pack-years (pack years = number of packs cigarettes per day x number of years smoked). The Physicians Health Study recruited male US physicians, 4084 years of age without any history of cancer, myocardial infarction or stroke; only 11% of the study population were smokers. None of these trials showed a reduction in lung cancer incidence or mortality. In the ATBC study, 876 new cases of lung cancer were diagnosed (Table 2), yielding an increased relative risk of 1.18 among subjects (all of them current smokers) in the treatment arm. In the CARET study, there were 388 new cases of lung cancer, yielding an increased relative risk of 1.28 among the treated patients. Separating the study population in current and former smokers, the relative risk was increased to 1.42 for current smokers and decreased to 0.80 for ex-smokers. In the Physicians Health Study, 170 new cases of lung cancer were diagnosed, for a relative risk of 0.93 among men taking ß-carotene (non-significant). The data from these three studies indicated that smokers (current and ex-smokers analyzed together) who received high-dose ß-carotene supplementation had an increased risk for lung cancer (the increase in the lung cancer incidence and mortality in the ATBC study and CARET were 18% and 8%, and 28% and 17%, respectively).
Four phase IIb trials (Table 2) were conducted in smokers with metaplasia or sputum atypia for secondary prevention and all have been negative [1114]. These trials evaluated -tocopherol, ß-carotene, retinal, retinyl palmitate or isotretinoin in smokers. Only smoking cessation correlated with a significant reduction in squamous metaplasia and cell proliferation [13] and isotretinoin plus smoking cessation further reduced metaplasia, but so far neither metaplasia nor sputum atypia are established intermediate end points for chemoprevention trials.
The consistently positive results of short-term retinoid studies in head and neck chemoprevention contributed substantially to the rationale for testing retinoids in lung cancer prevention studies. There are three available phase III studies [1517] for tertiary prevention (Table 2). These studies were designed to determine whether vitamin A or its analogs could prevent secondary primary cancers (SPC) in patients with completely resected lung cancers or head and neck cancers. These patients were previously shown to have a high risk of SPCs. The two most recent studies [16, 17] failed to confirm the positive experiences from studies in headneck tumors and showed no reductions of SPCs or tumor recurrences in contrast to the much smaller preliminary study of Pastorino et al. [15]. In this small European study, vitamin A administration improved the time to SPTs but produced no benefit in terms of overall survival.
So far, all randomized controlled chemoprevention trials testing retinoids, ß-carotenes or -tocopherol defined their target population by using smoking history, preneoplastic changes of the bronchial epithelium or cancer history. Another critical issue is the selection of study end points. In primary prevention, lung cancer incidence and mortality with a long study time has been the gold standard. In the secondary prevention setting, bronchial metaplasia or sputum atypia were selected as intermediate end points, but metaplasia has been reported to be a spontaneously reversible lesion and neither of them are validated intermediate end points.
Despite these critical points, the use of retinoids has not been effective and has possible harmful effects in the chemoprevention of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), especially in current smokers. In order to find an explanation for these results, studies of the interaction between the products of cigarette smoking and high blood concentrations of retinoids or ß-carotenes have been performed. For example, the studies of Wang et al. and Liu et al. showed that ferrets, in the same way as humans, absorb ß-carotene into the bloodstream and transport it to the lungs as well as to other tissues, whereas mice and rats almost completely convert ß-carotene to retinoids in the intestine and liver and therefore would transport little to the lungs [22, 23]. The large amounts of ß-carotene in lung tissue in combination with cigarette smoke are broken down into oxidative metabolites [24, 25]. One possible explanation of the harm seen in the chemoprevention trials can be a procarcinogenic effect of the toxic oxidative carotene metabolites. But results from Aroro et al. indicate that ß-carotene is sensitive to cigarette smoke oxidation but does not lead to prooxidant effects in human bronchial epithelial cells [26]. They rather have a direct effect on the nuclear receptors and the retinoid signaling pathway. The oxidative metabolites induce cytochrome P450 enzymes, lowering the serum levels of retinoid acid and down-regulating RXR and RARß. Nicotine by itself inhibits RARß expression via methylation and induction of orphan receptor TR3 (a subfamily of transcription factors belonging to the nuclear receptor superfamily). RARß is a potent inhibitor of the proliferation-signaling protein AP-1 and a promoter of apoptosis, so down-regulation of the different nuclear receptors, as well as defects in the RA/RARß-regulated genes, results in retinoic acid resistance and enhanced mitogenic activities and cell proliferation.
In a study looking at lung precursor lesions in the free resection margins of patients undergoing surgery for lung cancer or noncancerous diseases, there was a linear increase in the expression of RXR- and RXR-
from never-smokers to dysplasia and in situ carcinoma and a decrease in RAR-ß protein expression from the first to the last group. Methylation of the RAR-ß promoter and loss of heterozygosity (3p, which contains the gene locus for RAR-ß) are likely to be the important mechanisms.
Several synthetic receptor-selective retinoids have proved to be more potent than retinoic acid in inhibiting cell growth in lung cancer models [27]. However, their value in vivo has yet to be proven in controlled randomized trials. Finally, there are indications that new routes of administration, such as inhalation, may provide an effective way of prescribing retinoids [28].
Looking at the side-effects described in randomized trials [817], there was a statistically significant increase in yellowing of the skin using ß-carotenes and dryness of the skin or mucous membranes using retinoids. Other significant treatment-related toxic effects included arthralgia, nausea or dyspepsia, headache and hypertriglyceridemia. There is also evidence that a high vitamin A intake is associated with increased bone fragility and risk of fracture.
Vitamin E (-tocopherol)
-Tocopherol (AT) is an antioxidant, scavenging reactive oxygen species and free radicals, and protecting against oxidative damage. Similar to carotenes, epidemiological and dietary studies suggest a potential preventive role for vitamin E [4]. In the only published, controlled randomized trialthe ATBC study [8]vitamin E supplementation had no effect on lung cancer incidence (risk ratio, 0.99; Table 2). The higher mortality due to hemorrhagic stroke among the participants who received
-tocopherol was possibly related to known effects on platelet function. However, in the same study, there was an association between blood levels of
-tocopherol and incidence of lung cancer [29]. A 19% reduction of lung cancer incidence was observed in the highest versus the lowest quintile of serum
-tocopherol [relative risk, 0.81; 95% confidence intervals (CI) 0.670.97].
-Tocopherol was found to be more protective in younger men with fewer years of smoking, suggesting that high levels of serum
-tocopherol, if present during the early critical stages of carcinogenesis, may inhibit lung cancer development.
Selenium
Epidemiological studies suggest that selenium (Se) has anticarcinogenic capacity and plays a role in cellular defense against oxidative stress [30]; results of these studies have shown an inverse association between Se status and lung cancer. A recent update of the Nutrition Prevention of Cancer Trial [31] indicated that Se supplementation did not significantly decrease lung cancer incidence in the full population, but a decrease among individuals with baseline plasma selenium in the lowest tertile was observed (hazard ratio, +0.42; 95% CI 0.180.96; P = 0.04). There is an ongoing randomized phase III trial to determine the effectiveness of selenium in preventing the development of secondary primary lung tumors in patients with previously resected stage I NSCLC, comparing the incidence of specific cancers, mortality from cancer and overall survival of participants treated with selenium versus those treated with placebo (ECOG-E5597).
![]() |
Future directions |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
|
|
Activation of the erbB1 leads to downstream ras activation. The ras gene is mutated in 40% of NSCLC cases and this leads to farnesylation and activation of the ras protein [33]. The farnesyl transferase inhibitors (FTI) were designed to block ras activation and the downstream signaling pathway. They also block other signal proteins that require farnesylation, such as Rho and raf. In phase I studies, the dose-limiting toxicities of FTIs have been myelosuppression, neurological complications, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and fatigue. Other significant toxicities included skin sensitivity and rash, but in general, these agents were well tolerated at doses that generated pharmacologically significant plasma concentrations [36].
The eicosanoid pathway
Cyclooxygenase (COX) catalyzes the synthesis of prostaglandins (PGs) from membrane arachidonic acid (Figure 3). The first step in the synthesis of PGs is the hydrolysis of phospholipids to produce free arachidonate, a reaction catalyzed by phospholipase A2 [37]. Molecular oxygen is then added to arachidonic acid in a reaction catalyzed by the cyclooxygenase activity of COX. This reaction produces an unstable product, PGG2. PGG2 is rapidly converted to PGH2 by the peroxidase activity of COX. PGH2 is the common precursor for all other prostanoids (e.g. prostaglandins and thromboxanes), in reactions catalyzed by specific synthetases. Several of these terminal pathway molecules in the COX and lipoxygenase (LOX) pathways, such as PGE2 and 5-, 8- and 12-LOX, appear to promote carcinogenesis and metastases, while other products, such as PGI2, 15-LOX-1 and 15-LOX-2, promote differentiation and apoptosis.
|
Several lines of evidence suggest that COX-2 is important in carcinogenesis [38]. First, increased amounts of COX-2 are commonly found in both premalignant tissues and malignant tumors, including cancers of the head and neck, esophagus and lung, reflecting the effects of oncogenes and growth factors [39]. Importantly, wild-type and not mutant p53 suppressed COX-2 transcription. Second, genetic and pharmacological studies showed extensive evidence that COX-2 is mechanistically linked to the development of cancer [40]. Third, tobacco specific carcinogens, such as the ß-adrenergic receptor agonist 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), releases arachidonic acid, up-regulates COX-2 expression and stimulates proliferation in lung adenocarcinoma cell lines [41]. There is also increasing evidence that nicotine may induce COX-2 expression. COX-2 appears to be implicated in tumorigenesis in a number of different ways such as the inhibition of apoptosis and the enhancement of angiogenesis. It has also been shown that COX inhibitors, such as indomethacin, contribute positively to the induction of an immune response in NSCLC.
The relationship between non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) use and lung cancer has been examined in several epidemiological studies. These studies suggest that aspirin and NSAID ingestion may reduce the risk of developing lung cancer. Preclinical data have shown the chemopreventive effects of NSAIDs for lung tumorigenesis. In several studies using mouse models, NSAIDs could prevent the development of lung tumors induced by tobacco carcinogens by inhibiting COX-2 and by inducing apoptosis in the premalignant cells. Encouraged by these data, treatment with COX-2 inhibitors (celecoxib) for chemoprevention is already under clinical investigation, such as in the NCI-G01-1966 trial, with celecoxib for primary prevention in high-risk tobacco smokers. Although the question remains: what is the optimal dose of celecoxib for chemoprevention.
Recent data from transgenic mouse studies at the University of Colorado Cancer Center indicate that high levels of prostaglandin synthetase (PGIS), that lead to increased amounts of prostacyclin (PGI2), result in reduced tumorgenicity in mice exposed to lung cancer carcinogens (Figure 3). A chemopreventive approach is to maintain a high level of PGI2 in high-risk patients by giving an oral PGI2 analog (iloprost). This and related agents are approved for use in the treatment of several conditions, including thrombarteritis obliterans, primary pulmonary hypertension and others. Iloprost is currently under investigation in a phase I/II chemoprevention study at the University of Colorado Cancer Center. The primary objective of that study is to see if iloprost can reverse premalignant histological changes. The secondary end point is to examine the effect on the Ki-67 proliferative index.
5-Lipoxygenase (LOX) is a key enzyme in the metabolism of arachidonic acid to leukotrienes. Increasing evidence suggests that LOX-catalyzed metabolites have an impact on the development and progression of cancers [42]. Compared with normal tissues, significantly elevated levels of LOX metabolites have been found in lung, prostate, breast, colon and skin cancers. LOX-mediated products elicit diverse biological activities important for neoplastic cell growth, influencing growth factor and transcription factor activation, oncogene induction, stimulation of tumor cell adhesion and regulation of apoptosis. Agents that block LOXs catalytic activity may be effective in preventing cancer. Pharmacological agents inhibiting the LOX-mediated signaling pathways (e.g. zafirlukast) are already being used in the treatment of inflammatory diseases, such as asthma, arthritis and psoriasis. Preclinical studies have demonstrated that lipoxygenase inhibitors may have benefits as preventive agents of lung tumorigenesis [43] and should be studied in human trials.
The combination of COX and LOX inhibitors could also be an interesting chemopreventive approach. Preclinical data indicated that inhibition of the COX pathway can be answered with shunting into the LOX pathway. Interestingly, there are efforts being made to develop dual inhibitors, able to block both the COX and LOX metabolic pathways. These dual inhibitors possess a wide range of anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative activity and appear to be almost exempt from gastric toxicity, which is the most troublesome side-effect of COX inhibitors [44].
Recent data indicate that COX inhibitors can inhibit signaling via the EGF receptor (Figure 2). In addition, EGF has been shown to stimulate COX-2 expression, whereas EGFR and HER2 inhibitors markedly decrease COX-2 activity. A combined blockage of both pathways (COX-2 and EGFR) has already been studied with positive results in colon cancer prevention [45]. Such an approach could also be attractive for lung cancer.
The dithiolethiones are a class of organosulfur compounds, including oltipraz (5-[2-pyrazinyl]-4-methyl-1,2-dithiol-3-thione) and anethole dithiolethione (ADT; 5-[p-methoxyphenyl]-1,2-dithiole-3-thione). Epidemiological studies associate a diet high in vegetable consumption with a lower risk for many cancers [3]. These vegetables contain many potential cancer-protective substances including dithiolethiones. In animal models, the administration of these compounds protects rodents from the development of lung and stomach tumors in response to alkylating agents. The dithiolethiones appear to act via different mechanisms, including the inhibition of cell replication, and predominantly by increasing the expression or activity of phase II enzymes, such as glutathione S-transferase (GST). In addition, ADT increases the intracellular level of glutathione and displays free radical scavenger properties. Lam et al. performed a randomized phase IIb study to determine the effects of ADT in smokers with bronchial dysplasia, identified by LIFE bronchoscopy [46]. One hundred and twelve current or former smokers were randomly assigned to receive placebo or ADT at 25 mg orally thrice daily for 6 months. The primary end point was response defined by improvement in histology. No response difference was seen between the two groups. However, as an undefined end point, the progression rate was statistically significantly lower in the ADT group (8%) than it was in the placebo group [17%; P <0.001, difference in progression rate, 9% (95%CI 4% to 15%)]. This trial suggests that in smokers, ADT is potentially an effective chemoprevention agent for lung cancer. This is the first phase IIb lung cancer chemoprevention trial to use bronchial histology as the primary intermediate end point biomarker.
From a chemopreventive point of view, the future challenge is to find the most optimal targeted therapy (or combination of therapies, Table 3) with respect to the fact that certain requirements for feasibility and low toxicity need to be met in such a category of patients who are at high risk for developing lung cancer, but have not yet developed cancer.
Intermediate markers for response evaluation
Considerable research is focusing on the identification of biomarkers as surrogate or intermediate end points in place of overt cancer in cancer chemoprevention trials (Table 4). Identification and validation of such markers is important as it would allow smaller trials of shorter duration than when using cancer as the end point. This intermediate biomarker concept is used as well in the management of other diseases. For example, cholesterol quantitation is used to indicate the progression of atherosclerosis as a surrogate in determining the risk of myocardial infarction.
|
Promising markers include morphologic changes of the bronchial epithelium, as well as cytogenetic and molecular changes. Research is focusing on intraepithelial neoplasia, a premalignant condition exemplified by colorectal adenomas or cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. To develop a more dependable outcome than a pathological judgement on a single biopsy, the metaplasia indexa semiquantitative method to characterize the degree of metaplasia in a number of bronchial biopsieshas been introduced [47]. The level of metaplastic/dysplastic changes in the bronchial mucosa seems to be dependent on the selected study population rather than differences in histopathological interpretation. In a study from the M.D. Anderson Cancer Center (participants with >20 pack-years and having quit smoking for 1 year), metaplasia was the most prevalent change, while only a few patients had dysplasia [47]. In a study from the University of Colorado Cancer Center, >50% of high-risk patients (>30 pack-years, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, sputum atypia) had moderate dysplasia or worse [48]. In the latter randomized study, it was shown that LIFE bronchoscopy improves the detection of preneoplastic bronchial lesions significantly compared with traditionally used white-light bronchoscopy. Thus, the inclusion of LIFE bronchoscopy is recommended for the evaluation of chemoprevention studies.
An intermediate marker for chemoprevention studies of preneoplasias must be reproducible. Because metaplasia can spontaneously reverse, while dysplasia rarely does, dysplasia should be a superior intermediate marker for treatment response. Importantly, morphologic criteria for dysplasia have been defined in the recent World Health Organization (WHO) classification [20]. This WHO classification of bronchial preneoplastic changes (Figure 1) has been found to be highly reproducible by a panel of lung cancer pathologists [49]. However, more data are needed to determine the prognostic implications of the different levels of epithelial changes in the bronchi of high-risk individuals and sparse data are available for the natural course of the different levels of bronchial dysplastic changes.
Biological/genetic markers, such as Ki67, MCM2, p53, epithelial growth factor receptor (EGFR) and HER2, have been studied by immunohistochemistry in bronchial biopsies [50] (Figure 4). These markers need to be validated as useful intermediate biomarkers in clinical-pathological studies before they can be routinely used as intermediate end points for chemoprevention studies. Furthermore, pathway-specific, downstream activated proteins need to be evaluated as surrogate markers for the biological effect of the different chemopreventive agents (Figure 2). New markers are under development, such as microchip gene array and proteomic evaluation of multiple proteins. So far it is too early to predict their usefulness as intermediate biomarkers in chemoprevention studies.
|
Optimal target population for chemoprevention studies
One of the challenges for future studies is to define the optimal high-risk study population for chemoprevention studies. Different populations have been studied in primary, secondary and tertiary chemoprevention studies. The delineation of the optimal high-risk populations is not well defined but several studies have shown that it is possible to identify high-risk persons [18]. Most trials selected the study populations based on smoking history [8, 9, 1113]. Other studies included risk factors like radon exposure, obstructive lung disease, prior resected stage I cancer and family history [3]. Preliminary data from the University of Colorado high-risk cohort study, including a population with a history of more than 30 pack years and COPD (defined by spirometry), showed an accumulated risk of developing lung cancer of almost 20% after 10 years [51]. Several studies demonstrated a clear doseresponse relationship between the development of lung cancer and the degree of exposure to cigarette smoke, measured in pack-years. However, there is strong evidence that smoking duration and the age at which smoking began is more important than the number of cigarettes per day. The relative risk of developing lung cancer among male smokers with 20 pack-years is 11.59 when they have smoked 2029 cigarettes a day (approximately one package) for 2029 years, but 29.66 when they have smoked 1019 cigarettes a day (approximately half a package) for 40 years. These data support the use of a smoking history of at least 30 pack-years and an average consumption of at least 20 cigarettes a day to identify high-risk smokers. Preliminary data from the University of Colorado high-risk cohort study showed a significantly lower level of morphological changes in former smokers compared with current smokers [52].
Another method of defining high-risk smokers is to use intermediate markers, such as preneoplastic changes in the bronchi. In an autopsy study, sections were taken from the bronchial tree from 445 men who did not die of lung cancer [19]. Advanced histological changes occurred far less frequently in non-smokers than in cigarette smokers and increased in frequency with amount of smoking [19]. However, the relationship between preneoplastic changes and smoking is most likely dependent on individual (genetic) factors.
The role of sputum atypia as a risk factor for the detection of bronchial preneoplasia and development of lung cancer is a subject currently under investigation. In the Colorado High-risk Study, 55% of individuals with sputum atypia had high-grade dysplasia at bronchoscopy [48]. Subjects with moderate or worse atypia on sputum had an increased odds ratio of 3.2 for developing lung cancer compared with individuals in the high-risk cohort without sputum atypia [52]. By adding DNA hypermethylation of seven genes in the sputum to the sputum atypia, preliminary data from 33 cases and 33 controls have shown that the risk increased to 10.2 [51]. These findings need to be verified in a larger study population.
Patients who previously had curative treatment for a primary lung or head and neck cancer have an increased risk of a second primary cancer of the aerodigestive tract (13.4% per year [53]). These patients are good candidates for intermediate marker-based chemoprevention studies with histology as a primary end point. Ongoing chemoprevention studies in this high-risk population will elucidate the role of several biomarkers as markers for chemopreventive effect and/or prediction of outcome. They are also an excellent group for randomized trials with second cancers as the primary end point, as described above.
With the development and utilization of low-dose spiral computed tomography for screening and early detection of lung cancer, new challenges have evolved to characterize the subcentimeter small lesions. So far, very little is known about the biology of these lesions. Many of the detected lesions are characterized as atypical adenomatous hyperplasia (AAH) and are considered as premalignant lesions. A chemopreventive treatment approach of the AAH lesions should be considered when sufficient biological information is available. However, because these lesions are relatively rare, it seems crucial to establish a registry for patients with these small lesions, so careful follow-up can give a clinical/biological profile to distinguish between those patients who develop invasive cancer and those who do not.
![]() |
Conclusions |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Lessons from the treatment of advanced lung cancer and the increased understanding of important cellular signaling pathways point out that inhibiting these different regulatory cascades might prevent/reverse lung carcinogenesis. Because of the complexity of the signaling network, combinations of targeted therapies might be an interesting possibility to be tested in chemoprevention studies. However, it is important that such studies are well designed in order to gather as much clinical/biological information as possible for future chemoprevention studies.
![]() |
Acknowledgements |
---|
![]() |
FOOTNOTES |
---|
![]() |
REFERENCES |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
2. Shopland DR. Tobacco use and its contribution to early cancer mortality with a special emphasis on cigarette smoking. Environ Health Perspect 1995; 103: 131142.[ISI][Medline]
3. Alberg AJ, Samet JM. Epidemiology of lung cancer. Chest 2003; 123: 21S49S.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
4. McLaughlin JK, Hrubec Z. Smoking and cancer mortality among US veterans: a 26-year follow-up. Int J Cancer 1995; 6: 190193.
5. Sporn M. Chemoprevention of cancer. Lancet 1993; 342: 12111213.[ISI][Medline]
6. Alvarez RD, Conner MG, Weiss H et al. The efficacy of 9-cis-retinoic acid (Aliretinoin) as a chemopreventive agent for cervical dysplasia: results of a randomized double-blind clinical trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2003; 12: 114119.
7. OShaughnessy JA, Kelloff GJ, Gordon GB et al. Treatment and prevention of intraepithelial neoplasia: an important target for accelerated new agent development. Clin Cancer Res 2002; 8: 314346.
8. The -Tocopherol, ß-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group: the effect of vitamin E and ß-carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 10291035.
9. Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD et al. Effects of a combination of ß-carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 1996; 334: 11501155.
10. Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Manson JE et al. Lack of long-term supplementation with ß-carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 1996; 334: 11451149.
11. Arnold AM, Browman GP, Levine MN et al. The effect of the synthetic retinoid etretinate on sputum cytology: results from a randomized trial. Br J Cancer 1992; 65: 737743.[ISI][Medline]
12. Lee JS, Lippman SM, Benner SE et al. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of isotretinoin in chemoprevention of bronchial squamous metaplasia. J Clin Oncol 1994; 12: 937945.[Abstract]
13. Kurie JM, Lee JS, Khuri FR et al. N-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-retinamide in the chemoprevention of squamous metaplasia and dysplasia of the bronchial epithelium. Clin Cancer Res 2000; 6: 29732979.
14. McLarty JW, Holiday DB, Girard WM et al. Beta-carotene, vitamin A, and lung cancer chemoprevention: results of an intermediate endpoint study. Am J Clin Nutr 1995; 62: 1431S1438S.[Abstract]
15. Pastorino U, Infante M, Maioli M et al. Adjuvant treatment of stage I lung cancer with high-dose vitamin A. J Clin Oncol 1993; 11: 12161222.[Abstract]
16. van Zandwijk N, Dalesio O, Pastorino U et al. EUROSCAN, a randomized trial of vitamin A and N-acetylcysteine in patients with head and neck or lung cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92: 977986.
17. Lippman SM, Lee JJ, Karp DD et al. Randomized phase III intergroup trial of isotretinoin to prevent second primary tumors in stage I non-small-cell lung cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001; 93: 605618.
18. Hirsch FR, Franklin WA, Gazdar AD, Bunn PA. Early detection of lung cancer: clinical perspectives of recent advances in biology and radiology. Clin Cancer Res 2001; 7: 522.
19. Auerbach O, Hammond EC, Garfinkel L. Changes in the bronchial epithelium in relation to smoking and cancer of the lung. N Engl J Med 1979; 300: 831835.
20. Franklin WA. Diagnosis of lung cancer: pathology of invasive and preinvasive neoplasia. Chest 2000; 117: 80S89S.
21. Dragnev KH, Rigas JR, Dmitrovsky E. The retinoids and cancer prevention mechanisms. Oncologist 2000; 5: 361368.
22. Wang XD, Liu C, Bronson RT et al. Retinoid signaling and activator protein-1 expression in ferrets given ß-carotene supplements and exposed to tobacco smoke. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999; 91: 6066.
23. Liu C, Wang XD, Bronson RT et al. Effects on physiological versus pharmalogical ß-carotene supplementation on cell proliferation and histopathological changes in the lungs of cigarette smoke-exposed ferrets. Carcinogenesis 2000; 21: 22452253.
24. Handelman GJ, Parker L, Cross CE et al. Destruction of tocopherols, carotenoids and retinol in human plasma by cigarette smoke. Am J Clin Nutr 1996; 63: 559.[Abstract]
25. Baker DL, Krol ES, Jacobsen N et al. Reactions of ß-carotene with cigarette smoke oxidants. Identification of carotenoid oxidation products and evaluation of the prooxidant/antioxidant effect. Chem Res Toxicol 1999; 12: 535543.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
26. Arora A, Willhite CA, Liebler DC et al. Interactions of ß-carotene and cigarette smoke in human bronchial epithelial cells. Carcinogenesis 2001; 22: 11731178.
27. Shi-Yong S, Kurie JM, Yue P et al. Differential responses of normal, premalignant, and malignant human bronchial epithelial cells to receptor-selective retinoids. Clin Cancer Res 1999; 5: 431437.
28. Dahl AR, Grossi IM, Houchens DP et al. Inhaled isotretinoin is an effective lung cancer chemopreventive agent in A/J mice at low doses: a pilot study. Clin Cancer Res 2000; 6: 30153024.
29. Woodson K, Tangrea JA, Barrett MJ et al. Serum -tocopherol and subsequent risk of lung cancer among male smokers. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999; 91: 17381743.
30. van den Brandt PA, Goldbohm RA, vant Veer P et al. Prospective cohort study on selenium status and the risk of lung cancer. Cancer Res 1993; 53: 48604865.[Abstract]
31. Reid ME, Duffield AJ, Garland L et al. Selenium supplementation and lung cancer incidence: an update of the Nutritional Prevention of Cancer trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002; 11: 12851291.
32. Franklin WA, Hirsch FR, Veve R, Bunn PA. Epidermal growth factor receptor family in lung cancer and premalignancy. Semin Oncol 2002; 29: 314.
33. Arteaga CL, Khuri F, Krystal G et al. Overview of rationale and clinical trials with signal transduction inhibitors in lung cancer. Semin Oncol 2002; 29: 1526.[Medline]
34. Fukuoka M, Yano S, Giaccone G et al. Final results from a phase II trial of ZD1839 (Iressa) for patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (IDEAL 1). Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 2002; 21: 298a (Abstr 1188).
35. Xia W, Mullin RJ, Keith BR et al. A dual tyrosine kinase inhibitor blocks EGF activation of EGFR/erbB2 and downstream Erk1/2 and AKT pathways. Oncogene 2002; 21: 62556263.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
36. Karp JE, Lancet JE, Kaufmann SH et al. Clinical and biologic activity of the farnesyltransferase inhibitor R115777 in adults with refractory and relapsed acute leukemias: a phase I clinical-laboratory correlative trial. Blood 2001; 97: 33613369.
37. Bunn PA Jr, Keith RL. The future of cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors and other inhibitors of the eicosanoid signal pathway in the prevention and therapy of lung cancer. Clin Lung Cancer 2002; 3: 271277.
38. Richardson CM, Sharma RA, Cox G et al. Epidermal growth factor receptors and cyclooxygenase-2 in the pathogenesis of non-small cell lung cancer: potential targets for chemoprevention and systemic therapy. Lung Cancer 2003; 39: 113.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
39. Hastuerk S, Kemp B, Kalapurakal SK et al. Expression of cyclooxygenase-1 and cyclooxygenase-2 in bronchial epithelium and non-small cell lung carcinoma. Cancer 2002; 94: 10231031.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
40. Liu CH, Chang SH, Narko K et al. Over-expression of cyclooxygenase (cox)-2 is sufficient to induce tumorigenesis in transgenic mice. J Biol Chem 2001; 276: 1856318569.
41. Castonguay A, Rioux N, Duperron C et al. Inhibition of lung tumorigenesis by NSAIDS: a working hypothesis. Exp Lung Res 1998; 24: 605615.[ISI][Medline]
42. Rioux N, Castonguay A. Inhibitors of lipoxygenase: a new class of cancer chemopreventive agents. Carcinogenesis 1998; 19: 13931400.[Abstract]
43. Soriano AF, Helfrich B, Chan DC et al. Synergistic effects of new chemopreventive agents and conventional cytotoxic agents against human lung cancer cell lines. Cancer Res 1999; 59: 61786184.
44. Leval X, Julemont F, Delarge J et al. New trends in dual 5-LOX/COX inhibition. Curr Med Chem 2002; 9: 941962.[ISI][Medline]
45. Torrance CJ, Jackson PE, Montgomery E et al. Combinatorial chemoprevention of intestinal neoplasia. Nat Med 2000; 6: 10241028.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
46. Lam S, MacAulay C, le Riche JC et al. A randomized phase IIb trial of anethole dithiolethione in smokers with bronchial dysplasia. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002; 94: 10011009.
47. Kurie JM, Lee JS, Morice RC et al. Autoflourescence bronchoscopy in the detection of squamous metaplasia and dysplasia in current and former smokers. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998; 90: 991995.
48. Hirsch FR, Prindiville SA, Miller YE et al. Fluorescence versus white-light bronchoscopy for detection of preneoplastic lesions: a randomized study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001; 93: 13851391.
49. Hirsch FR, Gazdar AF, Gabrielson E et al. Histopathologic evaluation of premalignant and early malignant bronchial lesions: an interactive program based on Internet digital images of lung cancer and for monitoring chemoprevention studies. Lung Cancer 2000; 29: 209.
50. Hirsch FR, Bunn PA, Miller YE et al. Intermediate biomarker profile for lung cancer and for monitoring chemoprevention trials. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 2001; 20: 322a (Abstr 1286).
51. Hirsch FR, Belinsky SA, Kennedy TC et al. Aberrant DNA methylation and sputum atypia predict lung cancerpreliminary report from the University of Colorado SPORE High Risk Cohort Study. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 2003; 22: 92 (Abstr 368).
52. Hirsch FR, Prindiville SA, Byers T et al. Sputum cytology as a marker of risk for lung cancer-preliminary results from the University of Colorado high risk cohort study. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 2002; 21: 301a (Abstr 1201).
53. Martini N, Bains MS, Burt ME et al. Incidence of local recurrence and second primary tumors in resected stage I lung cancer. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1995; 109: 301 120129.
54. Heimburger DC, Alexander CB, Birch R et al. Improvement in bronchial squamous metaplasia in smokers treated with folate and vitamin B12. Report of a preliminary randomized, double-blind intervention trial. JAMA 1988; 259: 15251530.[Abstract]
55. van Poppel G, Kok FJ, Hermus RJ. ß-Carotene supplementation in smokers reduces the frequency of micronuclei in sputum. Br J Cancer 1992; 66: 11641168.[ISI][Medline]
56. Soria JC, Moon C, Wang L et al. Effects of N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-retinamide on hTERT expression in the bronchial epithelium of cigarette smokers. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001; 93: 12571263.