1 Finnish Foundation for Alcohol Studies, P.O. Box 220, FIN-00531 Helsinki and
2 Department of Mental Health and Alcohol Research, National Public Health Institute, Mannerheimintie 166, FIN-00300 Helsinki, Finland
Received 17 April 2000; in revised form 10 July 2000; accepted 1 August 2000
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ABSTRACT |
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INTRODUCTION |
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SUBJECTS AND METHODS |
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Measures
The outcome variable, habitual alcohol intake, was measured by self-reports on the frequency of intake on various consumption levels in the 1995 follow-up questionnaire (graduated frequency method). This method has yielded data closely correlating with alcohol intake registered by diaries (Hilton, 1989). The frequency options were never, twice a year or less, once in 2 months, once or twice a month, once a week, two to five times a week and six to seven times a week. The levels options were one drink or less, two to four drinks, five to seven drinks, eight to 12 drinks, and 13 drinks or more. One drink contains on average 12 g of ethanol. Age at first alcohol use pertained to drinking at least once a month, thus excluding casual experimenting. In Finland, the minimum legal drinking age is 18 years.
Data on potential predictors of alcohol intake were reported in the 1990 questionnaire. The Defence Style Questionnaire (DSQ) consists of 72 statements on a nine-point scale (from completely disagree to completely agree) assessing possible conscious derivatives of 20 defences (Bond, 1986). Based on the 88-item original, it has been revised by Andrews et al. (1989) to be congruous with the definitions of defence mechanisms in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R) by the American Psychiatric Association (1987). These defence styles were combined into three clusters: (1) mature defence style cluster (anticipation, humour, sublimation, and suppression); (2) neurotic defence style cluster (altruism, idealization, reaction formation, and undoing); (3) immature defence style cluster (acting out, autistic fantasy, denial, devaluation, displacement, dissociation, isolation, passive aggression, projection, somatization, and splitting), following the classification of Andrews et al. (1989). Two items from the DSQ were used as independent variables to measure substance use. These were I smoke when I am nervous and I take alcohol, drugs or medicine when I am tense. Briefly, these are referred to below as relief smoking and relief drinking, respectively. The rationale for the latter is that heavy drinking was common in the present sample, whereas use of illicit drugs, including cannabis, was infrequent. Moreover, according to other studies, the use of illicit drugs and legally available psychoactive drugs has been infrequent, whereas heavy drinking among adolescents has been a major problem in Finland in the period under study (Rimpelä et al., 1995
, 1996
; Ahlström et al., 1996
).
Academic achievement was documented by the grade-point average on the final basic school report card. This is awarded at the end of the ninth grade, when most students are 15 years old. The Finnish basic school approximately corresponds to the US junior high school or to the British lower secondary school.
Social support was ascertained by asking Do you have a significant other person with whom you may discuss your personal activities and problems? The question for the perceived degree of social support How important is this person to you was measured on a seven-point Likert scale.
An abbreviated version of the Life Event Checklist (Johnson and McCutcheon, 1980) consisted of 20 defined life events (item nos. 18, 12 and 13, 16, 19, 22, 30 and 31, 34 and 35, 37) considered most common among Finnish adolescents, and of four open items. The number of negative life events was counted.
The StateTrait Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger et al., 1970) was used to measure trait anxiety, a general tendency of feeling. The self-esteem scale of Rosenberg (1965) consists of 10 items measuring the self-acceptance aspect of self-esteem. Additive scoring was used.
Somatic symptoms score was an abbreviated 15-item version of an 18-item score, used earlier in studies on both adults and adolescents (Aro S., 1981; Aro H., 1988). We left out a question on the lack of sexual desire, because this was thought to be too sensitive for the adolescents in 1990. We also left out questions about anxiety or nervousness, and irritability or fits of anger, because of coinciding questions in the trait anxiety inventory. Response options and scoring for items were: (1) never, (2) occasionally, (3) rather frequently, and (4) frequently. Subjects were asked to report symptoms that had occurred during the past 6 months.
Statistical analysis
Bivariate associations were assessed by Pearson product moment correlation coefficients. Multivariate models were fitted to evaluate the relationships between independent variables and the dependent variable. In the case of a continuous dependent variable, regression analysis was used, whereas in the case of a categorical one, logistic regression was employed. Interactions were studied by adding product terms. In regression analysis, the outcome variable was the natural logarithm of the alcohol intake. This transformed the distribution closer to normal. In men, the kurtosis changed from 28.78 to 1.41 and skewness from 4.52 to 0.82. The corresponding values from women were from 96.3 to 1.29 and from 8.22 to 0.51 respectively. Adjusted odds ratios and their 95% confidence intervals were estimated from logistic models with categorical independent variables. The level of significance was set at P < 0.05. All tests were two-sided.
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RESULTS |
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DISCUSSION |
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Cross-sectionally, heavy drinking has been found to correlate with negative life events among adolescents aged 1016 years in the USA (Colder and Chassin, 1993). In follow-up studies, several other correlates of heavy drinking have also been found. Over a 3-year follow-up, heavy drinking (5 drinks or more per occasion) has been found to be predicted by low parental monitoring and friends' drinking among adolescents aged 1319 years in the USA (Reifman et al., 1997
). Over a 2 year follow-up, an increase in alcohol intake was found to be related to a combination of mental health risk factors, including depressive and anxiety symptoms, self-esteem, locus of control, and task persistence in the USA (Scheier et al., 1997
). In a 4-year follow-up study of adolescents of an average of 13.6 years at baseline, the significant risk factors for problem drinking included male gender, hopelessness, substance-using friends, school achievement, stress, dropout proneness, whereas the protective factors were positive orientation to school, prosocial activities, and intolerance of deviance in the USA (Costa et al., 1999
). It should be noted, however, that earlier smoking and alcohol use were not controlled in these studies. Our findings suggest that alcohol intake and heavy drinking in young adulthood can be simply predicted by earlier self-reports on relief smoking and drinking. The fact that trait anxiety did not predict later alcohol intake in multivariate analysis suggests that the prediction is due to prior alcohol intake and smoking as such, rather than because of underlying anxiety related to perceived relief provided by alcohol intake and smoking. Mental health risk factors included in this study did not seem to influence drinking. As we did not have information preceding the onset of drinking, the findings do not rule out the possibility that mental health risk factors might have influenced the initiation to drinking and smoking. Earlier, Vaillant (1983, 1995) found that adolescent antisocial tendencies, but not other premorbid psychological features, predicted future alcoholism.
The limitations of our study include the fact that it was based on self-reports. These may be subject to errors, due to forgetting and conscious or unconscious faking. We were not able to control for parental and peer influences, nor for early childhood conduct problems, a factor that has earlier been found to predict alcohol intake and related problems at the age of 15 years in New Zealand (Lynskey and Fergusson, 1995). The sampling implies limitations in generalizability. Since the present sample was originally from the Finnish lukio, it seems likely that only a few subjects with conduct disorder were included, because our sample represents the more educated majority of Finnish adolescents. Our sample comprised urban Finnish-speaking adolescents, sharing similar ethnic, educational, and social backgrounds. Due to the lack of the less educated one-third of the young population and due to cultural variation, these results should be seen as suggestive, rather than directly generalizable to other population groups. It is possible that the differences between the associations observed here and in other studies might be influenced by country-specific drinking styles, cultural variations in responses to deviant behaviour and mental health, and degree of access to health services. For example, if a similar study was conducted in a culture favouring moderate drinking, relief drinking and relief smoking might be less important as risk factors. Clarification of these possible influences awaits further studies.
It should be noted that, in our sample, the typical pattern of drinking was heavy. Although not all heavy drinkers become alcoholics, alcoholism is often preceded by heavy drinking in adolescence or young adulthood. Among adolescents, alcohol problems have been found to be associated with early onset of drinking in the USA (Chou and Pickering, 1992). Of patients aged 1862 years with a diagnosis of alcohol dependence, 97% had commenced alcohol use before the age of 18 years in the USA (Prescott and Kendler, 1999
). Thus, the predictors of heavy drinking might also be relevant in predicting later onset of alcoholism.
In conclusion, our findings suggest that alcohol intake and heavy drinking in young adulthood can be predicted by earlier self-reports on relief smoking and alcohol intake. Mental health risk factors included in this study did not seem to influence drinking.
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FOOTNOTES |
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