Department of Social Medicine, Göteborg University, Göteborg, Sweden
Received 28 February 2000; in revised form 2 May 2000; accepted 15 May 2000
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ABSTRACT |
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INTRODUCTION |
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Results from longitudinal studies generally show a decrease in women's alcohol consumption with increasing age. National surveys from the USA for 1981 and 1991 (Wilsnack and Wilsnack, 1995) showed that fewer women drank heavily in 1991 compared to 1981 and that females drank less frequently and had fewer episodes of heavy drinking. Dawson et al. (1995) reported in another study from the USA that 44% of women aged
18 years were current drinkers, 22% were former drinkers and 34% were lifetime abstainers. With advancing age, the proportion of current drinkers declined and the proportion of former drinkers increased. After age 30 years, the proportion of lifetime abstainers increased linearly with age. In a longitudinal population-based study from Gothenburg, Sweden, three cohorts of women were examined three times in 1980/81, 1992/93 and 1968/69 concerning their alcohol consumption (Bengtsson et al., 1998
). Daily intake of wine and spirits did not show any significant difference between the three points in time, whereas moderate intake of wine and spirits was more common in 1980/81 and 1992/93 than in 1968/69. There seemed to be an overall increase in the drinking frequency, mainly due to the increase in moderate intake, but there was no indication of a large increase in heavy consumption of alcohol. Harford (1993) found in a 6-year follow-up study that the onset of current and heavier drinking decreased with increasing age, while the offset of current and heavier drinking increased with age. However, not all studies have reported reduced drinking over time. For example, the average yearly consumption of alcohol increased between 1987 and 1992 in a longitudinal sample of females aged 2049 years, in Prague, Czech Republic (Kubicka et al., 1995
).
There are some cross-sectional studies of women's drinking over time, and most of these have found an increase in women's drinking between 1950 and 1980 (Hasin et al., 1990; Neve et al., 1996; Rehm and Arminger, 1996
). For example, Midanic and Clark (1994) found, in a general population survey in the USA, an increase in consumption among women aged >40 years and that weekly heavy drinking was more common among people aged <40 years than among older people. Among women, the percentage of heavy drinkers reached its lowest point in 1989 and the proportion of current drinkers was significantly lower in 1990 than in 1984. Several cross-sectional studies have documented levels of problem drinking connected to different factors, such as multiple roles, grade of employment and stress (Hammer and Vaglum, 1989
; Shore and Bratt, 1991
; Wilsnack and Wilsnack, 1991
, 1992
; Marmot et al., 1993
). However, an important limitation of cross-sectional surveys is that they do not capture the changes in drinking practices during the lives of the individuals (Fillmore et al., 1997
).
Further longitudinal studies on alcohol use and problem drinking in women are of interest for several reasons: (1) to increase knowledge about women's lifetime alcohol use, as a basis for prevention and treatment; (2) to study, particularly in Sweden, whether the trend of womens alcohol drinking shows the same pattern as in continental Europe after the EU affiliation; (3) to compare levels of alcohol consumption over time in different countries and to study cross-cultural differences. This study is part of a longitudinal population-based study Women and Alcohol in Göteborg (WAG). We report data from a 5-year follow-up of a sample of women initially interviewed in 1989/90. The aims of the study were to find out: (1) the prevalence of 1 month high alcohol consumption (HAC) in 1989/90 and in 1995/96; (2) the prevalence of 12 month high episodic drinking (HED) in 1989/90 and in 1995/96; (3) the prevalence of 12 month alcohol dependence and abuse (ADA) 1989/90 and 1995/96; (4) the 5-year incidence of ADA; (5) changes in proportions of HAC, HED and abstainers between 1989/90 and 1995/96. HAC was defined as an average daily alcohol consumption 20 g during the month prior to interview. HED was defined as an intake of
72 g alcohol/occasion in 1989/90. This measure was changed to
60 g in the 1995/96 interview, as this is the most commonly used definition internationally. For comparisons with the second wave, the measure of HED in 1989/90 was adjusted from
72 g to
60 g of alcohol. This was possible for all but two interviews.
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SUBJECTS AND METHODS |
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The interviews lasted between 11/2 and 3 h, and took place at our department or in the respondent's home. The interviewers had clinical experience. Diagnoses of alcohol dependence and abuse were made according to DSM-III-R (American Psychiatric Association, 1987) and were based on CIDI-SAM (Robins et al., 1986) as well as on clinical judgement. The interviewers were trained and tested in DSM-III-R until sufficient interrater reliability was reached. In cases of disagreement between the CIDI-SAM and clinical interview diagnosis, all available information was weighted by one of the authors (F.S.), resulting in a concept called final diagnosis.
In the second wave, all women selected for interview in the first wave were approached. Of the 399 women interviewed in 1989/90, 386 women were available for an interview in 1995 and 313 (81%) agreed to participate. We also asked those who did not participate in the 1989/90 interview (n = 80) to take part and seven of these agreed. Thus, altogether 320 women were interviewed. Thirty-three interviews lacked data sufficient to make diagnoses and were excluded for the purpose of this paper. Thus 287 interviews were analysed.
In the second wave the interview protocol was mainly the same as that used in the first wave. The time frame was changed from lifetime to the last 5 years and some questions on leisure-time activities and experience of sexual abuse were more detailed. These questions, however, were not used in this study.
In estimating prevalence of HAC, HED and ADA, we have used weighted data, based on the composition of the stratified sample.
Two types of analyses were used for comparisons over time: (1) a cross-sectional analysis comprising all women interviewed in 1989/90 (n = 345) and all women interviewed in 1995/96 (n = 287); (2) a longitudinal analysis comprising only those individuals who were interviewed in 1989/90 as well as in 1995/96 (n = 263).
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RESULTS |
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We analysed non-participants by reason for not participating and diagnosis of ADA during the first wave. The most common reason was that the women did not want to take part this time, but agreed to be contacted for future studies (n = 32, including four women with ADA). Eight women (one ADA) refused to participate at any time and one woman (with ADA) also requested deletion of previous data. Twelve women (including three with ADA) could not be reached, two women were dead (one ADA) and four women had emigrated (no ADA).
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DISCUSSION |
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The decline in HED was seen in the age groups born in 1925, 1935, 1945 and 1965, whereas an increase was seen among those born in 1955. The decline in HED is interesting, in that previous Swedish studies have shown an increase between 1979 and 1992 (CAN, 1999). However, these were national cross-sectional studies. We have no other Swedish longitudinal study to compare ours with. The decrease in other age groups may be related to the effects of normal ageing. A longitudinal study in the USA (Harford, 1993
) also reported a similar and marked decline in heavy drinking with increasing age. Younger female drinkers reported more frequent intoxication. Longitudinal analyses of 5-year changes in drinking behaviour indicated that movement both into and out of problem drinking was greatest among women aged 2134 years (Wilsnack and Wilsnack, 1995
). However, alcohol use and dependence were much more common among cohorts born after the Prohibition and after World War II in the USA (Grant, 1997
).
Women born in 1955 showed a rather complex consumption pattern change in the 5-year follow-up period. In this age group, HAC decreased, HED increased and one new case of ADA was recorded.
One explanation for the increase in HED in the 1955 cohort may be a cohort-related drinking pattern consistent with previous findings. This age group grew up during a period when the attitudes to alcohol and drugs were liberal in Sweden. Swedish alcohol consumption peaked in the second half of the 1970s, i.e. when these persons were in their early twenties. We know that women living with children 14 years old have lower frequencies of ADA than other women (Thundal and Allebeck, 1998
). It could be that women born in 1955 could have decreased their alcohol consumption during the years of rearing small children and, now at the age of
40 years with their children needing less attention, they have increased their alcohol consumption.
Older women (40 years) decreased their alcohol consumption in terms of both HAC and HED. This is in accordance with several other studies (Hasing et al., 1990
; Neve et al., 1996
; Rehm and Arminger, 1996
). However, Kubicka et al. (1995) reported that the percentage of heavier drinkers with an average daily consumption of
20 g alcohol, increased from 7.2% to 14.0% in the Czech Republic after the velvet revolution of 1989. They wondered if the increased consumption was due to changed price/income relation in the Czech Republic during this period. Women's average salaries increased by ~90% in a sample of women and the average price of alcohol increased by ~60%.
There were fewer abstainers in the last 12-month period in 1995/96 than in 1989/90. Only among women born in 1945 did the number of abstainers increase. Our numbers of abstainers were much lower than in the study by Neve et al. (1996), in which 2123% of Dutch women were abstainers in 1993. In our study, only women born 1925 had such a high level of abstainers. In comparison with abstention rates for several other countries, the proportion of abstainers is very low in Sweden and in other Nordic countries. Sweden has the lowest percentage of female abstainers compared to seven other European countries (Ahlström, 1999). The low abstention rate is hard to interpret. One explanation may be that Swedish women during several decades had a high employment rate, as it has been shown that women in the labour market have higher alcohol consumption than women outside the labour market, because of their greater access to alcohol (Wilsnack and Wilsnack, 1992
; Plant, 1997
). A simultaneous decline in the number of abstainers and number of women with HAC and HED is of interest, since it seems to contradict the total consumption theory on the association between total consumption and excessive drinking (Ledermann, 1956
; Skog, 1980
).
The effect of attrition has to be considered in any longitudinal study, as the decline in the sample steadily increases. The participation rate in the screening phase was 78%. In the first and second waves of interviewing, the participation rates were 81% and 83% respectively, thus acceptable participation rates have been achieved in each phase of the study. Furthermore, we could show that there was not a higher proportion of women with ADA diagnoses among those who did not participate in the follow-up interviews; and the proportion of women with and without ADA in the second wave interviews was the same as the proportion of women with and without ADA as in the attrition in the same wave.
The 12-month prevalence of ADA did not change in the second wave and the prevalence of HAC and HED decreased during the same period. This is not in accordance with public opinion in Sweden, according to which there is a steadily increasing misuse of alcohol among women. Perhaps Swedish women nowadays consume alcohol in public places more often, or are found drinking in places and situations where alcohol consumption among women previously was less common. Our ongoing studies in younger women also indicate that these groups do not tend to feel stigmatized by being seen under the influence of alcohol, as their mothers and grandmothers did. This may also have contributed to the fact that female drinkers no longer are invisible in the health services, as was previously stated (Spak, 1996). Although women's alcohol consumption seems to have stabilized on a higher level during the last few decades, the development in younger cohorts should be monitored, because of increased travelling and exposure to continental European culture.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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FOOTNOTES |
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