Zentrum Physiologie und Pathophysiologie, D-37073 Göttingen, Germany
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ABSTRACT |
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Here
we review the structural and functional properties of organic anion
transporters (OAT1, OAT2, OAT3) and organic cation transporters (OCTN1,
OCTN2, OCT1, OCT2, OCT3), some of which are involved in renal proximal
tubular organic anion and cation secretion. These transporters share a
predicted 12-transmembrane domain (TMD) structure with a large
extracellular loop between TMD1 and TMD2, carrying potential
N-glycosylation sites. Conserved amino acid motifs revealed a
relationship to the sugar transporter family within the major
facilitator superfamily. Following heterologous expression, most OATs
transported the model anion p-aminohippurate (PAH). OAT1, but
not OAT2, exhibited PAH--ketoglutarate exchange. OCT1-3
transported the model cations tetraethylammonium (TEA), N1-methylnicotinamide, and
1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium. OCTNs exhibited transport of TEA and/or
preferably the zwitterionic carnitine. Substrate substitution as well
as cis-inhibition experiments demonstrated polyspecificity of
the OATs, OCTs, and OCTN1. On the basis of comparison of the
structurally closely related OATs and OCTs, it may be possible to
delineate the binding sites for organic anions and cations in future experiments.
tetraethylammonium; N1-methylnicotinamide; proximal tubule; secretion
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INTRODUCTION |
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THE KIDNEYS EFFICIENTLY EXCRETE amphiphilic organic anions and cations of diverse chemical structures. Among these anions and cations are endogenous and exogenous compounds, including a number of clinically used drugs. Renal disposal of these compounds includes glomerular filtration and proximal tubular secretion processes.
Cellular transport mechanisms involved in proximal tubular secretion of
organic anions and cations have been studied in detail and are reviewed
elsewhere (21, 22, 37, 38, 41, 42, 78). In brief, amphiphilic organic
anions are taken up into proximal tubular cells across the basolateral
membrane by at least three transport systems with overlapping substrate
specificities (54, 55). The prototypical organic anion,
p-aminohippurate (PAH), is exchanged for intracellular
-ketoglutarate and is accumulated in the cell against its blood < cell concentration gradient and against the inside negative membrane
potential. Uphill PAH transport is driven by the downhill efflux of
-ketoglutarate. PAH leaves the cell across the apical brush-border
membrane by a not yet completely understood mechanism(s) that may
involve exchange of PAH against another anion or electrogenic PAH
uniport. Prototypical organic cations such as tetraethylammonium (TEA),
N1-methylnicotinamide (NMN) or
1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP) are taken up across the basolateral
membrane of proximal tubular cells by electrogenic uniport driven by
the inside negative membrane potential, or by exchange with
intracellular organic cations, e.g., choline. The exit of organic
cations across the brush-border membrane is accomplished by an organic
cation/H+ antiporter (exchanger), driven by the lumen > cell H+ gradient established by
Na+/H+ exchange. Some organic anions and
organic cations, e.g., urate and choline, are also reabsorbed from
proximal tubules, resulting in bidirectional transport.
The transport systems involved in the uptake of the organic anions and cations across the basolateral membrane exhibit broad substrate specificities to accommodate a large variety of chemically unrelated compounds. Common structural requirements for substrates are a hydrophobic moiety, the ability to form hydrogen bonds, and the presence of ionic or partial electrical charges (54, 55). Substrates with one or two negative charges preferably interact with the "PAH transporter," and those with positive charges with the "NMN transporter." In addition, uncharged, zwitterionic and even positively charged molecules can interact with the PAH transporter, provided they are hydrophobic enough. Therefore, a considerable number of compounds interact with both the PAH and the NMN transporter (57, 62, 63), suggesting that the transporters for organic anions and organic cations share some structural properties.
In recent years, renal transporters for organic anions and for organic cations have been cloned that indeed share structural properties. Here, we briefly review present knowledge of the structure of the organic anion transporters (OATs) and organic cation transporters (OCTs) and their functional properties following heterologous expression.
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OATs |
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Structure of OATs
Figure 1 depicts an alignment of six transporters of the OAT family. A rat renal PAH transporter was cloned independently in two laboratories [OAT1 (46); ROAT1 (48)]. It shares 96% of similar amino acids with the mouse renal OAT, cloned as the first member of this family and originally named NKT (25), and 91% with the human homologue, hOAT1, which was cloned in four laboratories [hROAT1 (40), hOAT1 (19, 39), hPAHT (27)]. More distantly related is the flounder renal OAT fOAT1 [fROAT (75)], which shares 57-58% of similar amino acids with rat, mouse, and human OAT1. The hOAT3 shows 51-52%, and rat OAT2 [NLT (47)] 45-46%, similarities, respectively, with the OAT1 proteins. rOAT3, which was cloned only recently (23), is not included in the alignment.
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Despite the different nomenclature, we shall use "OAT" for these OATs throughout this review, particularly because the OCTs, the first of which have been cloned earlier than the OATs, are abbreviated as OCT.
The shaded areas in Fig. 1 indicate amino acids conserved at least among rat, mouse, human, and flounder OAT1. Conserved regions, e.g., positions 1-40, 154-192, 352-394, 435-480, 517-531 in Fig. 1, may belong to functionally important parts of the protein. Of the 247 amino acids shared between these renal transporters, 104 are common also to OAT2 and OAT3. Among the amino acids conserved between all OATs are 4 cysteines and 10 prolines, which may be of importance for the secondary protein structure. Conserved charged amino acids comprise 1 aspartate, 6 glutamates, 2 lysines, and 10 arginines. Some of the positively charged lysines and arginines may be involved in the binding of the organic anions.
Some of these common amino acids belong to pairs of motifs (underlined in Fig. 1) conserved throughout the sugar porter family [SP; transporter commission (TC) no. 2.1.1] within the major facilitator superfamily (MFS; TC number 2.1) (36). These motif pairs are 1) G-(X)3-D-R/K-X-G-R-R/K (positions 165-174 in Fig. 1) and D-R/K-X-G-R (402-406; in OATs only G-R in positions 405-406 is conserved); 2) E-(X)6-R (twice; 224-231 and 459-466); and 3) P-E-S-P-R-X-L (281-287; in OATs P/X-E-S-X-R-W-L/X) and P-E-T-K (518-521; P-E-T-K/L), respectively. The occurrence of motif pairs suggested that MFS proteins have evolved by gene duplication (36). On the basis of structural data, rOAT1 was assigned TC no. 2.1.19.4 within the family of OCTs (TC no. 2.1.19; see Web site http://www-biology.ucsd.edu/~msaier/transport/titlepage/html). Other members of the OAT family have not yet been classified.
Table 1 summarizes the properties of the
cloned OATs. They are 535-568 amino acids long. From human kidney
two cDNAs differing only in length have been isolated that code for a
550 (19, 27, 39, 40)- and a 563 (19)-amino acid protein. Depending on the algorithm used, 7-12 transmembrane domains (TMD) were
predicted for ROAT1 (48). Most authors, however, assumed 12 TMDs.
Between the first and second predicted TMDs, a long hydrophilic loop is found in all OATs (and in all OCTs; cf. Fig. 3). Because this loop
carries two to six potential N-glycosylation sites (N-X-S/T), it is most probably localized at the extracellular side of the plasma
membrane. Inhibition of glycosylation by tunicamycin in mOAT1-expressing COS-7 cells resulted in an intracellular accumulation of newly synthesized transporters, suggesting that glycosylation is
required for insertion of OAT1 into the plasma membrane (24).
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In all OATs, two or more potential protein kinase C phosphorylation sites (S/T-X-R/K) have been described. PAH transport by rOAT1 (73) and hOAT1 (27) expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes or in HeLa cells, respectively, was inhibited after treatment of cells with phorbol esters. Staurosporin prevented the phorbol ester-induced inhibition of PAH transport, suggesting an inhibitory role of protein kinase C on OAT1. Similarly, fluorescein transport in killifish tubules (31), 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetate secretion in flounder renal tubules (15), and PAH uptake into opossum kidney cells (49) were inhibited by phorbol esters, and staurosporin antagonized the phorbol ester effect. In one study in isolated rabbit S2 proximal tubule segments, an increased PAH uptake was found after exposure to phorbol esters (16). The reason for this discrepancy is not clear. Most studies, however, agree on a downregulation of PAH transport in renal tubules or via the cloned OAT1 by phorbol esters, suggesting that one or more of the identified protein kinase C consensus sequences may actually be utilized for regulation. Putative phosphorylation sites for protein kinase A, casein kinase II, and tyrosine kinase have also been reported. Whether any of these sites is used for the regulation of the OATs is not yet known.
Tissue Distribution of OATs
Except for fOAT1, the organ distribution of the cloned OATs was tested by Northern blots. Rat, mouse, and human OAT1 and human OAT3 mRNAs were most strongly expressed in kidneys and faintly in brain (19, 24, 25, 27, 39, 46, 48). OAT2 and OAT3 from rat, in contrast, showed highest expression in the liver (23, 45, 47). In situ hybridization studies performed in rat (46) and mouse (24) kidneys revealed positive signals in medullary rays of cortex, i.e., in the S2 segments of proximal tubules, the site of maximal proximal tubular PAH secretion (for review see Ref. 38). Immunohistochemical localization also demonstrated that rat (53) and human (19) OAT1 proteins are restricted to the S2 segments of proximal tubules. Within the proximal tubule cells, the antibodies reacted exclusively with the basolateral membrane, proving that OAT1 is a basolateral transporter involved in the uptake of organic anions from the blood.Monoclonal antibodies against NLT (alias OAT2) labeled the sinusoidal membrane of rat hepatocytes, whereas the bile canalicular membrane was negative, indicating a role of OAT2 in the uptake of organic anions from the blood into the hepatocytes (47).
Functional Characterization and Physiological Importance of OATs
The cloned OATs have been expressed in Xenopus oocytes (4, 19, 23, 39, 45, 46, 48, 73, 75), HeLa cells (27), or COS-7 cells (24). Except for hOAT3, uptake of radiolabeled PAH in cells expressing these carriers was increased compared with water-injected oocytes or mock-transfected cells, respectively. Where investigated, PAH uptake was saturable. The reported Km values range between 5 and 70 µM [5 and 9 µM for hOAT1 (19, 27); 37 µM for mOAT1 (24); 14 and 70 µM for rOAT1 (46, 48); 21 µM for fOAT1 (75); and 65 µM for rOAT3 (23)]. From these data, it seems that the hOAT1 has a higher affinity for PAH than OATs from other species. Uptake of PAH by rOAT1 (46, 48), hOAT1 (27), and fOAT1 (75) was trans-stimulated by intracellularly accumulatedBesides PAH, several radiolabeled organic anions and cations were
tested as substrates of heterologously expressed rat OAT1. These
include endogenous compounds like -ketoglutarate, cAMP, cGMP (46),
folate (73), prostaglandin E2, and urate (46), the
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs acetylsalicylate (aspirin), salicylate, and indomethacin (1), and the cytostatic drug methotrexate (46, 73). The human OAT1 transported
-ketoglutarate, but not
methotrexate, prostaglandin E2 (27), and urate (39),
suggesting species differences (27). Urate was also not translocated by fOAT1 (75) and hOAT3 (39). Labeled estrone sulfate was transported by
rOAT3 (23), but not by rOAT2 (45), indicating differences in substrate
specificity between OAT2 and OAT3. The organic cation tetraethylammonium (TEA) was not transported by OAT1-3 (39, 45,
46, 48, 73). Rat OAT3, however, accepted the cationic drug cimetidine
(23).
Recently, an electrophysiological approach was used to demonstrate
translocation of organic anions by fOAT1 expressed in Xenopus oocytes (3). At a concentration of 0.1 mM, PAH and the diuretics bumetanide, ethacrynic acid, and tienilic acid evoked an inward current
that was most likely due to the exchange of a monovalent extracellular
PAH (or diuretic) against a divalent intracellular -ketoglutarate.
Probenecid and, surprisingly, the loop diuretic furosemide did not
generate an inward current, suggesting that these two compounds are not
measurably translocated by fOAT1. Whether rat or human OAT1 do
transport furosemide is unknown at present.
A great number of compounds have been tested as putative inhibitors of
heterologously expressed OAT1. Table 2
lists only those compounds that were tested as putative inhibitors of
PAH uptake in both rOAT1-expressing oocytes in vitro and rat kidney proximal tubules in vivo. These compounds comprise the second messengers cAMP and cGMP, the local hormone PGE2, the bile
salt taurocholate, the end product of purine metabolism, urate, a
number of drugs, and a homologous series of dicarboxylates with
increasing chain length. It is obvious that rOAT1 interacts with many
chemically unrelated compounds, supporting the notion that this
transporter is polyspecific. Of particular clinical interest is the
interaction with some -lactam antibiotics, an antiepilepsy drug,
diuretics, an immunosuppressive drug, and a number of nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs, suggesting that OAT1 may play an important
role in renal secretion of these compounds. Because so far the actual
translocation of these drugs has only been demonstrated for
radiolabeled acetylsalicylate, salicylate, and ibuprofen (1), and, in
electrophysiological studies, for the diuretics bumetanide, ethacrynic
acid, and tienilic acid (3), the contribution of OAT1 in renal
clearance of the other drugs remains to be determined.
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The apparent inhibition constant (Ki) values
determined in vitro increased for naproxen < ibuprofen < indomethacin ~ salicylurate salicylate < acetylsalicylate < phenacetin
paracetamol, indicating the importance of a negative
charge and of hydrophobicity for interaction with the OAT1 (1). In the
intact kidney, the apparent Ki values increased in
the order of salicylurate < indomethacin < naproxen < ibuprofen
salicylate ~ phenacetin ~ acetylsalicylate
paracetamol
(Table 2). These sequences are not identical, and apparent
Ki values determined in rOAT1-expressing oocytes
are always smaller than those found in vivo. However, both test systems revealed substrates with high affinity (ibuprofen, indomethacin, naproxen, salicylurate), with intermediate (acetylsalicylate, phenacetin, salicylate), and with low affinities (paracetamol), suggesting that rOAT1 reflects the renal PAH transporter. This conclusion is supported by the fact that dicarboxylates interact with
rOAT1 only if their chain length exceeds four carbon atoms, as was
found earlier for PAH transport in the intact kidney (Table 2). A
similar finding was obtained with the OAT1 from flounder kidney (4),
highlighting the importance of a proper distance between negative
charges in a substrate for OAT1. A few compounds remain that for
unknown reasons showed disparate results in vitro and in vivo. These
include taurocholate (inhibition only in vivo), urate (mixed results in
vitro), and ampicillin (no inhibition in vitro).
Compared with OAT1, relatively few compounds were tested as putative inhibitors of rOAT2 and rOAT3. Among the tested drugs, the diuretic bumetanide inhibited both transporters (23, 45). Another loop diuretic, furosemide, inhibited rOAT3 (23) and was not tested on rOAT2. The antibiotic cefoperazine and the tuberculostatic rifampicin inhibited rOAT2 (45), and the uricosuric drug probenecid, rOAT3 (23). The predominant expression of rOAT2 and rOAT3 in liver (23, 47) suggests that these transporters may be involved in the hepatic clearance of amphiphilic anionic compounds. rOAT3 may also play a role in the absorption of antibiotics from the cerebrospinal fluid (23).
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OCTs |
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Structure of OCTs
Figure 2 shows an alignment of 15 cloned OCTs ordered according to the degree of their relatedness. Among different mammalian species, the closest relationship exists for OCTN2 from rat [originally named UST2 (43)], mouse (26, 33), and human (50, 77) with 89-98% amino acid similarities. OCTN1 and OCTN2 share 37-41% similar amino acids with OCT3, OCT2, and OCT1. Rat (20) and mouse (74) OCT3 show 59-60% similarities to rat (34), mouse (accession no. AJ006036), human (10), and porcine (11) OCT2, and 56-57% similarities to the OCT1 transporters, respectively. Among themselves, the cloned OCT2 transporters share 83-92% similar amino acids, and 72-76% with rat (13), mouse [named Lx1 (44)], rabbit (52), and human (10, 79) OCT1, respectively. Among the OCT1 proteins of all species, 82-96% of the amino acids are similar.
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As shown in Fig. 2, 285 amino acids are common to OCT1 and OCT2. Among OCT1, OCT2, and OCT3, 188 amino acids are identical, and between all OCTs and OCTNs 92 amino acids are conserved. Among the amino acids shared by OCTs and OCTNs are 4 cysteines and 13 prolines, suggesting an importance of these residues for secondary structure of the proteins. Conserved charged amino acids include three aspartic acids, six glutamic acids, and seven arginines that may be involved in either maintaining secondary structure through salt bridges or binding of charged substrates. As described earlier for the OATs, shared amino acids partly belong to pairs of conserved motifs (underlined in Fig. 2): 1) G-(X)3-D-R/K-X-G-R-R/K (positions 173-182), D-R/K-X-G-R (407-411); 2) E-(X)6-R (233-240 and 464-471); 3) P-E-S-P-R-X-L (290-296) and P-E-T-K (523-527), respectively (22, 44, 79). On the basis of these motifs, the OCT family has been assigned the TC no. 2.1.19 (Web site see above).
Structural properties of these transporters are summarized in Table
3. Most of them are between 551 and 557 amino acids long, with exception of rOCT2, which has 593 amino acids.
Hydrophobicity analysis predicted 11 (hOCTN1, rOCT1) or 12 (all other
family members) transmembrane-spanning -helical domains
(TMD1-TMD12). All OCT proteins share a large hydrophilic loop between
TMD1 and TMD2, which carries two to five potential
N-glycosylation sites and is most probably located at the
extracellular side of the cell membrane (cf. Fig.
3). Antibodies generated against the large loop bound to nonpermeabilized human embryonic kidney (HEK-293) cells
expressing rat OCT1, proving the extracellular localization of this
loop (30). Given an even number of TMDs, both the NH2 and
COOH termini must then be located at the cytoplasmic side of the
membrane. In support of such a model, antibodies against the COOH
terminus of OCT1 and OCT2 reacted with the proteins only after
permeabilization of the cells (30).
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The N-glycosylation sites at positions 71/72 and 96/97/99 are conserved among OCT1, OCT2 and OCT3; those at positions 56/57, 64, and 91 among the OCTN1 and OCTN2. All proteins possess three to six potential protein kinase C phosphorylation sites. Those at positions 280-289 are found in all OCTs and OCTNs, whereas the OCTNs share a site at position 164. Transport studies with isolated rabbit renal proximal tubules (17) and with cell lines [IHKE-1, LLC-PK1 (18)] indicated a modulation of organic cation transport by phorbol esters. It is, however, not known, which of the potential phosphorylation sites is actually involved in regulation of organic cation transport by protein kinase C. Potential phosphorylation sites for protein kinase A have been found for most OCTs. Occasionally, sites for casein kinase II and tyrosine kinases have been reported. Studies on a regulatory role of protein kinase A, casein kinase II, and tyrosine kinase have not yet been performed.
Tissue Distribution of OCTs
The tissue distribution of the cloned transporters has mostly been investigated by Northern blot techniques. With the exception of human OCT1, which was present only in human liver, mRNA for all other OCTs was found in the kidneys. Expression of mRNA for rabbit OCT1 and rat OCT3 was very weak in kidneys compared with other organs. Published immunohistochemical data are so far available only for the human OCT2 (10), which was detected in distal convoluted tubules. Antibodies against rat OCT1 and OCT2 localized these transporters to the basolateral membrane in proximal tubules (H. Koepsell, personal communication). In situ hybridization experiments on rat kidneys revealed OCT2 mRNA expression in proximal tubules mostly in the outer medulla (14). In rat liver, mRNA for OCT1 was distributed evenly among the lobules, whereas protein expression was restricted to perivenous cells (30), suggesting cell-specific regulation of protein expression beyond gene transcription.Besides kidneys and liver, mRNA for rat and rabbit OCT1, human OCT2, and rat OCT3 was detected in small intestine, hOCT2, rOCT3, and hOCTN2 also in the brain. A wide tissue distribution was found for human OCTN1 and OCTN2.
Functional Characterization of OCTs
Radiolabeled TEA was taken up by human OCTN1 (51) and OCTN2 (77) expressed in HEK-293 and HeLa cells, respectively. hOCTN2-mediated uptake of [14C]TEA was inhibited by unlabeled choline, cimetidine, MPP, procainamide, and TEA (77), indicating that this transporter interacts with several organic cations. Unlike in HeLa cells, hOCTN2 expressed in HEK-293 cells was unable to transport [14C]TEA (50). The reason for this discrepancy is not clear.The human OCTN2 transports the zwitterionic carnitine in a sodium-dependent fashion (50). Importantly, an L352R mutation located in a putative membrane-spanning domain is responsible for a carnitine-deficiency syndrome in mice, the juvenile visceral steatosis (26, 33). The human systemic carnitine deficiency is related to mutations leading to a loss in the first two TMDs or to truncated proteins (33). These data, as well as the expression of OCTN2 in all tissues, suggests a general role in carnitine uptake.
The cloned OCT1, OCT2, and OCT3 transporters were heterologously expressed in Xenopus oocytes (5-7, 10, 13, 14, 20, 22, 29, 32, 35, 52, 76, 79), HEK-293 cells (2, 5, 11, 12, 20, 22, 29), Madin-Darby canine kidney cells (72), HeLa cells (20, 80), and HRPE cells (76). Most experiments on substrate specificity have been performed with rat OCT1 as well as with rat and human OCT2. Although uptake of radiolabeled cimetidine (2, 12), quinidine, and quinine (32) could not be demonstrated, choline (7, 10), dopamine (2, 6, 7, 12), epinephrine (2, 12), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT; 2, 6, 12), MPP (2, 6, 7, 12, 13, 29, 52, 79), NMN (7), norepinephrine (2, 12), TEA (2, 7, 12, 13, 72, 80), and tyramine (2, 12) did show an enhanced tracer uptake in oocytes or cells expressing OCT1, proving the broad substrate specificity of this transporter. As expected for an electrogenic transporter, the addition of potential substrates to OCT1-expressing oocytes resulted in an inward current in voltage-clamped oocytes (6, 7). The "inward current" produced by the more hydrophobic "type 2" organic cations, cyanine 386, quinidine, quinine, and tubocurarine, however, later turned out to result from a trans-inhibition of choline efflux from the oocytes (32). Hence, the type 2 organic cations inhibit OCT1, but are not translocated.
The apparent Km values, which have been determined with various organic cations by either tracer flux measurements or electrophysiologically, differed among investigators. For example, for TEA, apparent Km values of 35 µM [rOCT1 expressed in oocytes; electrical current (7)], 38 µM [rOCT1 expressed in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells; tracer uptake (72)], 95 µM [rOCT1 expressed in oocytes, tracer uptake (13)], and 229 µM [hOCT1, expressed in HeLa cells (80)], were found, suggesting both species differences between rat and human OCT1 and the influence of the method, i.e., tracer vs. electrophysiological technique. Similarly, for choline, apparent Km values of 240 µM [rOCT1; oocytes; electrical current (7)]; 620 µM [rOCT1, oocytes; tracer uptake (10)]; and 1,100 µM [rOCT1, oocytes, tracer uptake (7)] were reported, whereas for MPP the apparent Km values were 9.6 (7), 13 (29), 14.6 (79), and 23 µM (52), very close irrespective of whether rat (7, 29), rabbit (52) or human (79) OCT1 was tested.
Collectively, in these experiments MPP turned out as the cation with the lowest Km value. High affinities with Km values below 100 µM were also found for acetylcholine (6), dopamine (6, 7), histamine (6) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) (6), and, in three studies TEA (7, 13, 72). NMN [340 µM (7)] and choline (see above) showed moderate affinities toward the expressed OCT1.
Similar to OCT1, expressed OCT2 transported a variety of radiolabeled organic cations. MPP (5, 10), amantadine (5), 5-HT (5), memantine (5), and TEA (10, 11, 35, 72) exhibited high affinities with Km values <100 µM; choline (10), NMN (10), and dopamine [in one study (5)] were moderate (Km < 1,000 µM); and epinephrine (14), histamine (5), 5-HT [in another study (14)], and norepinephrine (5, 14) showed low affinities (Km > 1,000 µM), respectively. For OCT3, relatively few data are available with respect to transport. Radiolabeled dopamine (76), guanidine (20), MPP (76), and TEA (20) were taken up into OCT3-expressing cells. MPP had a high-to-moderate affinity, and TEA, with Km values of 2,500 and 6,200, a low affinity for OCT3.
Many more putative substrates have been tested in
cis-inhibition studies by adding them to the incubation medium
containing labeled TEA, MPP, or guanidine. Because the kinetics of
inhibition were not tested, whether all inhibitors competed with the
radiolabeled cations for the substrate binding site or bound to a
separate site not related to translocation remains open. It is also not clear whether the inhibitor itself is transported. Table
4 lists only those compounds that were
tested on organic cation transport in the intact kidney in vivo and on
either rOCT1 or rOCT2 or on both. It is obvious from these selected
compounds that OCT1 and OCT2 interact with endogenous and exogenous
organic cations of diverse chemical structures. Among the most potent
inhibitors of OCT1 were clonidine, cyanine-863, and, in some studies,
cimetidine, decynium-22, and MPP, with IC50 values of <10
µM. In other studies, decynium-22 and MPP showed higher
IC50 values of up to 100 µM or more. For cimetidine (35),
choline, guanidine, 5-HT, and NMN (22, 72) moderate (IC50 < 1,000 µM), and for NMN (35) and dopamine, moderate-to-low
(IC50 > 1,000 µM) affinities were found. As far as they
are available, the results for OCT2 are comparable.
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The apparent Ki values determined with the rat kidney in vivo were all higher than those found with heterologously expressed rat OCT1 and OCT2. Several reasons may account for this discrepancy. First, lipophilic organic cations exhibiting low IC50 values in vitro, e.g., cyanine-863, decynium-22, and MPP, may in vivo bind to membranes and interstitial components, reducing their effective concentration at the transporter. Second, experiments on expressed OCT1 and OCT2 required incubation of cells with radiolabeled substrate and test cations for up to 1 h, whereas experiments in intact rat kidneys were done with incubation periods of a few seconds. During more extended incubation periods, lipophilic compounds may accumulate in the cell membrane, resulting in a higher local concentration at the transporter. Third, the lipid compositions of the basolateral cell membrane in vivo and of the membrane of cells used for heterologous expression may differ. Fourth, apparent affinities toward organic cations in the extracellular fluid may depend on organic cations in the trans (intracellular)- compartment and/or on the phosphorylation state of the transporter. Fifth, because depolarization increased the Km values for choline and TEA in rOCT1- and OCT2-expressing oocytes fourfold (7, 35), different membrane potentials may account for part of the discrepancies. Finally, it remains possible that the organic cation transporter investigated in vivo and rOCT1 or OCT2 are not identical. However, a linear relationship between the Ki values for dopamine, 5-HT, MPP, norepinephrine, and TEA observed in vivo and those in rOCT1-expressing HEK-293 cells suggested that OCT1 is responsible for organic cation transport in rat renal proximal tubules (2).
Physiological Functions of Cloned OCT1, OCT2, and OCT3
Electrogenic organic cation transport and broad substrate specificity suggest that renal OCT1 and OCT2 are involved in the first step of secretion, i.e., uptake of organic cations across the basolateral membrane into proximal tubule cells. A decrease in pH inhibited uptake of radiolabeled organic cations via heterologously expressed pOCT2 (11), rOCT3 (20), hOCTN1 (51), and OCTN2 (77), suggesting a competition between protons and organic cations. Therefore, pOCT2 and hOCTN1 were claimed to represent the organic cation/H+ antiporter of the brush-border membrane. However, this conclusion may be premature because organic cation-induced currents were independent of pH in OCT3-expressing oocytes despite the fact that uptake was decreased at acidic pH (20). At present, the molecular identity of the organic cation/H+ antiporter remains not known with certainty.With regard to the liver, there is little doubt that OCT1 is involved in the uptake of "type 1" organic cations into hepatocytes: a linear relationship existed between Ki values determined in isolated rat hepatocytes and those found with HEK-293 cells expressing rOCT1 (29). Compared with rOCT1, the human OCT1 exhibited either comparable (e.g., clonidine, desipramine, MPP, TEA) or lower affinities (e.g., decynium-22, procainamide, NMN, quinine, vecuronium) for organic cations, suggesting the existence of species differences that may prove important for hepatic uptake and metabolism of cationic xenobiotics in humans (79, 80).
The capability of OCTs to transport monoamine neurotransmitters raised considerable interest in their putative role in the central nervous system. mRNA for rat and human OCT2 was detected in the central nervous system (5, 10), and more detailed analysis located the OCT2 mRNA in cells in various regions including hippocampus, thalamus, and substantia nigra (5, 11). In this context it is interesting that an anti-Parkinsonian drug, amantadine, interacted with OCT2 (5) and that another substrate of OCT2, MPP, is particularly toxic for dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Hence, OCT2 may play a role in dopamine transport in the brain and be a target for anti-Parkinsonian drugs.
The relatively low affinities to cocaine, corticosterone, desipramine, and reserpine ruled out that OCT1 and OCT2 represent the classical monoamine transporters located at synapses or in synaptic vesicles of the central nervous system (2, 5, 13, 28). On the basis of its high affinity for steroid hormones, rOCT3, originally cloned from placenta (20, 76), has been postulated to be identical to the extraneuronal "uptake 2" system, which handles monoamines. In situ hybridization showed strong signals in cerebral cortex, hippocampus, pontine nucleus, and cerebellum in rat brain (20).
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COMPARATIVE ASPECTS OF OATs AND OCTs |
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It has become obvious that transporters for organic anions and organic cations in the basolateral membrane of proximal tubule cells not only share a number of substrates but also have structural similarities. Figure 3 depicts a model for rat OCT1 and rat OAT1. Both have 12 putative TMDs, and large hydrophilic loops between TMD1 and TMD2 as well as between TMD6 and TMD7. The loop between TMD1 and TMD2 carries three (rOCT1) or four (rOAT1) potential glycosylation sites and is therefore most probably facing the extracellular side. NH2 and COOH termini are located inside the cell according to this model. Most charged amino acids are found in the large hydrophilic loops, some of them also in the short loops between TMDs. With regard to specificity for organic cations of rOCT1, it is tempting to search for negatively charged amino acid residues (D, E) which are conserved between OCTs and are not found at a similar position in the OATs. Eight amino acids fulfill these criteria: E in the NH2 terminus (position 13 in rOCT1; conserved in OCT1-3 and OCTN1,2); E and D in the large extracellular loop (positions 69 and 95; OCT1-3); D at the beginning of TMD2 (position 150; OCT1-3); E in the large intracellular loop (position 325; conserved as E in OCT1-2, and as D in OCT3); D at the beginning of TMD8 (position 379; OCT1-3); D at the end of TMD8 (position 399; conserved as D in OCT1-2, and as E in OCT3); and D in the middle of TMD11 (position 475, OCT1-3). On the other hand, the organic anion recognition site in the OATs should involve positively charged amino acids (K, R, and, after ionization, H) that are conserved in all OATs and are not present in the OCTs. There are three amino acids that meet these requirements: H in TMD1 (position 34 in rOAT1, conserved in OAT1-3); K at the end of TMD8 (position 382, OAT1-3); and R in the middle of TMD11 (position 466, OAT1-3). Given the uncertainty of secondary structure predictions, the charged amino acids at the borders of TMDs 2 and 8 in rOCT1, and at TMD8 in rOAT1, may be actually located inside TMDs and participate in the translocation of organic anions. The histidine residue in TMD1 of all OATs is of particular interest, because the histidine reagent diethylpyrocarbonate (DEPC) inhibited PAH transport by mOAT1(24). PAH afforded protection from inhibition by DEPC, suggesting that this histidine residue may be related to the organic anion binding site. A conspicuous difference between OCTs and OATs is the charge in TMD11: OCT1-3 possess a negatively charged aspartate, and OAT1-3, a positively charged arginine. In vitro mutagenesis experiments are underway to determine the role of these residues in organic ion transport.
Perspectives
Expression and homology cloning techniques have revealed a new family of renal and hepatic transporters for amphiphilic organic anions and cations. After heterologous expression, the OCTs have been amply characterized with respect to specificity and affinity for their substrates. For the OATs, the substrate specificity has been tested, but the affinities for most substrates are unknown. Future experiments should not only determine these affinities but also help to distinguish between substrate binding to OATs and OCTs without transport and actual translocation of the competitor. These data are needed to establish a substrate structure-transport relationship, which is important for the understanding of the renal and hepatic handling of drugs.The high degree of relatedness between organic anion and organic cation transporters offers the unique chance to delineate the binding and transport sites. Particularly conserved regions may represent functionally important domains of the transporter molecules. Positively charged, conserved amino acid residues in OATs, and negatively charged, conserved amino acids in OCTs, may be considered as possible binding sites for organic anions and cations, respectively. The construction and functional characterization of chimera between OATs and OCTs and of transporters with site-specific mutations will help to identify those binding sites. These experiments may also reveal how OATs and OCTs accommodate so many different, chemically unrelated compounds, which could, for example, be rendered possible by a large binding site with several niches.
With respect to renal secretion of organic anions and cations, we are beginning to understand on the molecular level, how organic anions and cations are taken up across the basolateral membrane from the blood into proximal tubule cells. Unfortunately, such knowledge is lacking for the apical membrane of proximal tubule cells. It remains an important task to identify the transporters involved in the exit of organic anions and cations into the primary urine.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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The authors thank K. J. Ullrich and B. C. Burckhardt for valuable suggestions, and E. Thelen for the artwork.
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FOOTNOTES |
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The authors' research on flounder and human OAT1 has been supported by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft Grants Bu 571/4 and GRK 335.
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: G. Burckhardt, Zentrum Physiologie und Pathophysiologie, Humboldtallee 23, D-37073 Göttingen, Germany (E-mail: gburckhardt{at}veg-physiol.med.uni-goettingen.de).
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