1Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, D.C. 20057; and 2Division of Renal Diseases and Hypertension, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colorado 80262
Submitted 3 October 2002 ; accepted in final form 19 November 2003
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ABSTRACT |
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juvenile rats; behavior; Pi sensors
In response to dietary Pi deprivation, renal NaPi-2 transporter expression increases (16, 20), significantly elevating the renal reabsorption of Pi (10, 19). We recently reported that in addition to the renal adaptation, animals rapidly develop Pi ingestive behavior and will seek out a source of Pi when the dietary source is low (19). We hypothesize that this appetitive behavior is controlled centrally, through a reduction in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Pi. This may regulate a central NaPi transporter expression and transduce signals to initiate the appetitive behavior and renal adaptations. Thus our objective was to determine whether central NaPi transporters are regulated by changes in dietary Pi and whether the behavioral and renal adaptations to low-dietary Pi are controlled centrally.
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METHODS |
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Effects of central Pi injections on behavioral and renal adaptations to Pi deprivation. For the integrated behavioral and renal studies, juvenile animals had stainless steel cannulas stereotaxically implanted into the 3V of the brain. This was confirmed by the presence of CSF in the cannula. Animals were allowed to recover for 4 days, and after their growth rates were consistent, they were fed normal- or low-Pi diets, as previously stated. Food and water (distilled) intake were monitored daily to ensure the animals had not fasted. After 2 days, animals fed a low-Pi diet (LPD) were randomly separated into two groups and received 2 µl of either vehicle (dH2O) or Pi (20 nmol, dibasic potassium Pi) daily at 1100. Concomitantly, all animals were given free access to PiH2O (0.3 M dibasic potassium Pi) in addition to distilled water, as previously reported (19). PiH2O intake was monitored over the following 2 days. After 2 days of 3V injections, animals from each group were used for either acute renal clearance studies to determine the maximum capacity for Pi reabsorption (TmPi) or were perfused with fixative to assess NaPi-2 expression by immunofluorescence in brain and kidney tissues. Separate groups of animals were injected with Pi or veh 3V and perfused with fixative at 15 min, 30 min, and 1 h post-3V injections to assess a potential time course for changes in NaPi-2 expression.
TmPi studies were performed as previously reported (10, 11, 13, 19). Briefly, animals were anesthetized with Inactin (Promonta) and underwent thyroparathyroidectomy (to remove the influence of endogenous PTH). Catheters were placed in the jugular vein for infusions of inulin and Pi, the carotid artery for blood pressure monitoring and blood sampling, and the bladder for urine sampling. Blood and urine samples were obtained during a steady-state control clearance, and sequentially, as increasing concentrations of Pi (39 µmol/min) were infused to elevate the filtered load of Pi and facilitate determination of the transport maximum. Macro- and microphosphate analysis was performed as previously reported (10, 23). To collect CSF samples, injectors were placed in the guide cannula, and CSF was drawn into PE-10 tubing. The tubing was sealed at both ends by flame and stored at 4°C until microanalysis. Analysis was performed using a flow-through microspectrophotometer. CSF samples (100 nl) or phosphate standards (50 nl) were transferred to separate tubing containing 2 µl of reagent [10% ascorbic acid, 10% (8 M) H2SO4, 10% (2.5%) ammonium molybdate in distilled water]. The samples were then sealed, mixed, and incubated in a 37°C water bath for 90 min. After incubation, the samples were injected into the spectrophotometer port, and the absorbance was read as a change in voltage. All samples were run in duplicate in two separate assays, and the phosphate concentration was determined against a known standard curve. Plasma phosphate concentration was measured by the phosphomolybdate method previously described (10, 20, 23). The TmPi was calculated as the average of the maximum reabsorbed Pi normalized per milliliter of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) (RPi/GFR) from each animal. Statistical analysis between groups was performed using ANOVA, with Student-Neuman-Keuls post hoc tests. Differences between two groups were determined using unpaired Student's t-tests, whereas differences within groups were determined using paired Student's t-tests. Significance was designated as P < 0.05.
NaPi-2 immunofluorescence. NaPi-2 protein was detected by immunofluorescence techniques, as previously reported (7, 9, 16, 18, 22). Briefly, 5-µm cryosections of fixed frozen tissues were incubated overnight with a 1:500 dilution of rabbit anti-rat polypeptide antibody generated against the COOH-terminal peptide of rat NaPi-2 (2, 24). The staining we report is specific staining for NaPi-2 because there is complete protection in the presence of immune serum. This step is routinely used in our laboratory and was confirmed in a blind study by Dr. K. Adams. However, at this point, we refer to brain NaPi-2 staining as NaPi-2-like. The following day, sections were brought to room temperature, washed four times in PBS, and incubated in the dark for 1 h at 25°C with a 1:400 dilution of secondary antibody (anti-rabbit IgG/FITC, Dakopatts, Glostrup, Denmark). Slides were rinsed four times, mounted, and examined using a laser-scanning confocal microscope (Zeiss LSM 410).
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RESULTS |
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Effects of central Pi injections on behavioral and renal adaptations to Pi deprivation. To further explore the role of the brain in Pi homeostasis, the next objective was to determine whether increasing CSF Pi content in the face of low systemic plasma Pi levels would alter central NaPi-2 expression and the predicted Pi appetitive behavior in rats fed LPD.
The Pi levels in brain CSF were significantly greater in the LPD animals receiving 3V Pi injections compared with those receiving 3V saline (Table 1). This increase in CSF Pi occurred without altering the low plasma Pi. Figure 2A indicates that the rats fed LPD + 3V vehicle had a significantly greater ingestion of the PiH2O, compared with animals fed NPD, illustrating the rapid Pi appetitive behavior, consistent with our previous report (19). Most important, however, was the lack of Pi appetite in the animals fed LPD + 3V Pi. The physiological growth response in these groups of animals is illustrated in Fig. 2B. Although both groups of animals exhibited the hallmark reduction in body weight gain when ingesting LPD without 3V injections, the animals fed LPD + 3V saline displayed an accelerated growth rate on days 3 and 4, commensurate with the ingestion of significant amounts of PiH2O (Fig. 2A). In sharp contrast, the LPD + 3V Pi rats did not exhibit the Pi appetite (Fig. 2A) and continued to lose weight over days 3 and 4 compared with days 1 and 2 (Fig. 2B). Renal functional studies indicated that the renal TmPi was dramatically reduced in the LPD + 3V Pi animals compared with that in LPD + 3V vehicle animals (Fig. 3). This also could account for the loss of BW in these animals over days 3 and 4 (Fig. 2B), because they had increased their urinary excretion of Pi as a result of the low TmPi. There were no significant differences in GFRs or basal plasma Pi levels; however, the basal fractional excretion of Pi was significantly greater in animals with 3V Pi injections (10 ± 5 vs. 0.1 ± 0.02% in rats with 3V vehicle injections, P < 0.1). Thus increasing CSF Pi concentrations reversed the behavioral and functional adaptations to dietary Pi restriction.
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NaPi-2 expression following central Pi injections. Immunofluorescence microscopy was performed to determine NaPi-2 expression in the brain and kidneys from the animals fed LPD with and without 3V Pi injections. Significant reductions in NaPi-2 immunoreactivity were observed after 12 days of central Pi injections in both brain and kidney, commensurate with the behavioral and functional findings (data not shown). A time course was performed to assess the rapidity of the changes in NaP-2 activity following central Pi injections. Figure 4A is from tissues perfused 1 h post-3V injection, and it illustrates strong NaPi-2-like protein expression localized in the amygdaloidal area of the brain in the animals receiving 3V vehicle (A, left), whereas NaPi-2-like expression is almost undetectable in the same region in animals receiving 3V Pi (A, right). Perhaps one of the most important findings, however, is that Pi injections in the brains of animals fed LPD dramatically reduced NaPi-2 expression in the renal proximal tubular cells (Fig. 4B, right) from the normally high expression observed during dietary Pi deprivation (Fig. 4B, left). Furthermore, removal of NaPi-2 transporters from membranes in 3V ependymal cells and kidney tubules was seen as soon as 15 min post-3V injection of Pi (Fig. 5). This is consistent with the dramatically reduced TmPi in these animals and continuous decline in growth during the 3V Pi injections. Again, this occurred despite the continued low plasma Pi levels, which should have stimulated renal NaPi-2 expression, and indicates that the brain may override the peripheral stimuli to regulate Pi homeostasis.
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DISCUSSION |
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The presence of the renal-type NaPi-2 transporters in discrete areas of rat brain and the fact that they can be regulated by dietary Pi and CSF Pi concentrations elevate them to a potential position to control Pi homeostasis. We attempted to discern whether these are actually renal NaPi-2 transporters, and our initial findings suggest that they respond specifically to the NaPi-2 antibodies and can be blocked by incubation with preimmune serum. Although this, and the regulation by dietary and CSF Pi, supports the idea that they are NaPi-2 transporters, they may represent some other isoform, and this issue will be studied further. Recent work by others describes a new NaPi/vesicular glutamate transporter that is localized to neuron-rich area of the brain. Brain-specific NaPi (DNPI) transporters have been localized in many diencephalic regions, including the amygdala and ependymal cells of the 3V (1, 4, 5). Functional studies have not been performed using the DNPI antibodies; however, our present work adds the important findings of regulation of brain NaPi-2-like transporters by diet and direct manipulation of CSF Pi levels. This, in conjunction with the effects on the kidney NaPi-2 transporters, provides major novel mechanisms for the regulation of Pi homeostasis.
One aspect of the potential central sensing and control over Pi homeostasis is the induction of the Pi appetitive behavior when animals are fed LPD. Our working hypothesis was that low CSF Pi levels stimulate the behavioral response, and indeed, the present findings indicate that specific elevation of CSF Pi (independent from plasma Pi) abolished the Pi appetite (Fig. 2A). This strongly suggests that areas in the brain may stimulate the appetitive behavior in response to the local Pi environment. The observation that NaPi expression in the brain is also regulated by CSF Pi adds to this concept. Other behaviors, such the sodium appetite (17), transduce their signals through the amygdaloidal area of the brain, where we also observed regulation of NaPi-2-like expression by CSF Pi. Thus it is possible that the NaPi-2-like transporter is acting as a relay system in the transduction of the Pi appetite through this area. Furthermore, because the cells around the 3V are in direct contact with CSF, it is likely that they may respond quickly to changes in CSF Pi concentrations. The presence of a Pi sensor that could control systemic Pi transporters has been postulated but has not been demonstrated: we suggest that the circumventricular ependymal cells act as a Pi sensor for the rest of the brain, as well as the periphery.
In support of this concept, when Pi was added directly to the CSF in Pi-deprived rats, NaPi-2-like expression was dramatically reduced in the ventricular ependymal cells and amygdaloid of the brain, as well as in the apical membranes of the renal proximal tubular cells (Fig. 4). This occurred despite the continued low plasma Pi environment (Table 1). This strongly suggests that there is central control of renal Pi homeostasis and thus may implicate central NaPi-2 transporters as Pi sensors that could regulate brain, renal, and overall systemic Pi homeostasis. Another possible mechanism could derive from changes in central CSF calcium, initiating the changes in central and peripheral Pi transporters. Interestingly, the changes in renal NaPi-2 transporters observed appear to be independent of PTH, as the TmPi studies were performed in TPTX animals. This rules out a role of PTH in the central control of renal Pi transport. Considering the present findings, we also hypothesize that significant regulation of renal NaPi-2 would also be observed following 3V Pi injections in animals fed NPD.
Of tremendous impact is the notion that renal NaPi-2 transporters and hence renal function can be regulated by central Pi concentrations. Our findings show a direct effect of central administration of Pi on the reduction in renal NaPi-2, TmPi, and failure to grow, integrating these important mechanisms and linking them to a central pathway. This could have implications for normal growth and development, as well as in aging and disease. We hypothesize that central regulation would also be apparent in animals fed NPD and would contribute to the rapid day-to-day regulation of Pi homeostasis, including the adaptations that enhance Pi retention in the young animal (1012). The role of the brain in renal Pi regulation does not discount the role of local factors affecting the kidney but adds a potentially important aspect to the overall regulation of Pi homeostasis.
Perspectives
The discovery of NaPi-2-like transporters in the brain and their ability to be regulated both by dietary Pi and CSF Pi content are an important step in understanding the metabolic needs of the brain for Pi during growth, adulthood, and aging. Furthermore, the fact that the Pi milieu of the brain regulates not only central but renal NaPi-2 expression indicates that there is central control of peripheral Pi homeostasis through a NaPi transporter-related mechanism. These concepts provide a novel area for future studies centered on ways to target cellular aging and disease.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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GRANTS
This work was supported by National Institutes of Health Grant R03AG1863401 and an Established Investigator Award 0040012N from the American Heart Association (AHA) to S. E. Mulroney and VA Merit Review, AHA, and Juvenile Diabetes Foundation grants to M. Levi.
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FOOTNOTES |
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The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
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REFERENCES |
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