Departments of 1 Internal Medicine and 2 Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine at Barnes-Jewish Hospital, St. Louis, Missouri 63110-1092
![]() |
ABSTRACT |
---|
Interstitial fibrosis has a major role in the progression of renal diseases. Several animal models are available for the study of renal fibrosis. The models of aminonucleoside-induced nephrotic syndrome, cyclosporin nephrotoxicity, and passive Heyman nephritis are characterized by molecular and cellular events similar to those that occur in obstructive nephropathy. Additionally, inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme exerts salutary effects on the progression of renal fibrosis in obstructive nephropathy. Unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) has emerged as an important model for the study of the mechanisms of renal fibrosis and also for the evaluation of the impact of potential therapeutic approaches to ameliorate renal disease. Many quantifiable pathophysiological events occur over the span of 1 wk of UUO, making this an attractive model for study. This paper reviews some of the ongoing studies that utilized a rodent model of UUO. Some of the findings of the animal model have been compared with observations made in patients with obstructive nephropathy. Most of the evidence suggests that the rodent model of UUO is reflective of human renal disease processes.
renal fibrosis; gene knockout models; apoptosis; tubular atrophy
![]() |
INTRODUCTION |
---|
INFLAMMATION OF THE TUBULOINTERSTITIAL compartment, leading to fibrosis, is a major factor in the progressive loss of renal function in patients with a wide variety of kidney diseases. About 80% of total kidney volume is composed of tubular epithelial cells and cells within the interstitial space. Most of the nonepithelial cells are associated with the rich vascular network of the kidney. There are also a small number of resident mononuclear cells and fibroblasts. A model of renal fibrosis that encompasses many aspects of other models of kidney disease is unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) (38, 39, 40, 62). Nephropathies induced by the administration of streptozotocin, cyclosporin, aminonucleoside, adriamycin, and ANG II and by the ischemia-reperfusion maneuver are associated with cellular infiltration, fibroblast differentiation/proliferation, increased extracellular matrix protein deposition, and tubule atrophy. In an attempt to maintain the integrity of tubules, there is an activation of proliferative pathways within the epithelial cells (30, 90). If the proliferative forces or homeostatic factors within the kidney dissipate, the apoptotic pathway(s) overwhelms the ability of tubular epithelial cells to survive and tubular atrophy ensues.
There are features of the UUO model that occur within 1 wk of the onset
of ureteral ligation. There are many readily quantifiable cellular and
molecular events during the initiation and progression of renal
fibrosis that make UUO an increasingly good experimental model for
study. Recently, more than 100 abstracts at the 2001 World Congress of
Nephrology dealt with various aspects of the pathophysiological and
molecular events elicited by ureteral obstruction. Table
1 describes factors, the
expression of which is increased in kidneys with ureteral obstruction,
and Table 2 depicts factors, the
expression of which is decreased in kidneys with ureteral obstruction.
|
|
In this review, we highlight most of the key features of the pathophysiology of renal fibrosis in obstructive nephropathy that were known by 1997. In addition, we have emphasized recent studies using a rodent UUO model that highlight the molecular and cellular pathways that culminate in renal fibrosis.
![]() |
ROLE OF VASOACTIVE COMPOUNDS IN OBSTRUCTIVE NEPHROPATHY |
---|
A substantial vasoconstriction of the renal vascular bed is the predominant alteration observed after ureteral obstruction of 24-h duration or longer. The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and effective renal plasma flow (ERPF) are decreased, and mean arterial pressure is increased, after unilateral release of bilateral ureteral obstruction. An imbalance between vasoconstrictor and vasodilatory substances may explain the hemodynamic alterations observed in this setting.
In a rat model of UUO, Sweeney et al. (89) visualized
changes in renal blood flow (RBF) using a radiolabed compound and radioautography. They measured an initial vasodilation in the cortex
within 10 min of obstruction. This was followed by a significant vasoconstriction in both the cortical and medullary beds
(89). The changes in blood flow were mediated by
prostanoid, ANG II, and nitric oxide (NO). We have identified a
significant pathophysiological role of several vasoconstrictive
substances during ureteral obstruction. These vasoconstrictors include
ANG II, thromboxane A2, and antidiuretic hormone
(77). In each of these studies, the use of specific antagonists or inhibitors of the synthesis of vasoconstrictors resulted
in significant increases in ERPF and GFR. We also found a
vasoconstrictive effect of leukotrines in the setting of bilateral ureteral obstruction (77). On the other hand, it is likely
that vasodilatory substances are decreased in the setting of ureteral obstruction or are not increased to a sufficient degree to balance the
increased activity of the vasoconstrictor compounds. Administration of
vasodilators (prostaglandins E2 and I2) and
platelet-activating factor (PAF) after inhibition of the synthesis of
thromboxane A2 increased GFR and ERPF significantly but not
to normal levels. We also found that endothelin has an important role
in the renal functional alterations observed in rats after unilateral
release of 24-h duration bilateral ureteral ligation (76).
Rats given a specific anti-endothelin antibody had significantly higher
GFR and ERPF values than untreated rats subjected to bilateral ureteral obstruction. Table 3 summarizes the
overall role of vasoconstrictors and vasodilators in the renal
hemodynamics observed after unilateral release of bilateral ureteral
obstruction. The overall role of endothelin in the altered hemodynamics
of bilateral ureteral obstruction seems to be modest compared with that
of other vasoconstrictors or the decreased activity of other
vasodilators known to have a role in this setting.
L-Arginine, PAF, and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) are
among the vasodilators that have a role in the hemodynamics of
bilateral ureteral ligation. The administration of
L-arginine, the substrate for NO synthesis, increased GFR
to ~50% of the values obtained for one kidney in sham-operated rats. Administration of PAF, in the setting of prior inhibition of
thromboxane A2 synthesis, increased GFR to ~60% of
values observed in one kidney in a normal rat. ANP administration
increased GFR after unilateral release of bilateral ureteral ligation
to ~40% of values observed in one kidney in sham-operated rats.
|
Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) has been identified by immunohistochemistry in the renal tubules after UUO (25). Vasodilation of the afferent arteriole during acute UUO (<5 h) may account for the increase in RBF and ureteral pressure. Several studies have explored the role of NO during ureteral obstruction. Intrarenal infusion of NG-monomethyl-L-arginine attenuated the increase in RBF after acute ureteral obstruction (25). These effects of NG-monomethyl-L-arginine were reversed by the intrarenal infusion of L-arginine.
The increased activity of the NO system after ureteral obstruction may be due to altered synthesis of L-arginine or increased utilization of L-arginine. Ureteral obstruction for >18 h results in marked decreases in both RBF and ureteral pressures. Constriction of the afferent arteriole may be the underlying cause. The vasoconstrictors ANG II, thromboxane A2, and endothelin predominate and counteract the effect of vasodilating substances, including NO. During late obstruction, either an abnormal synthesis of L-arginine or increased use of this amino acid results in decreased plasma levels of L-arginine and, presumably, decreased synthesis of NO.
NO plays an important role in the regulation of blood flow in the normal and the diseased kidney. In UUO, the renal vasculature remains responsive to the vasodilatory actions of NO, and blood flow changes associated with UUO involve impairment of the NO synthetic pathways in the kidney. Increased expression of both endothelial NOS (eNOS) and iNOS is seen with increasing duration of obstruction, but this probably does not correspond to a sufficient increase in enzyme activity. It should be kept in mind that these studies were of only a 24-h duration of obstruction. Substrate deficiency in the form of an L-arginine deficit is unlikely to play a major role, as serum and tissue levels show no dramatic change in UUO. This suggests that impairments at other sites in the NO production pathway are likely. Bypassing these metabolic processes, exogenous sources of NO provide a restorative effect on RBF and likely a protective effect to the kidney. Further efforts to elucidate the mechanisms underlying impaired endogenous NO production and how this might be enhanced warrant close attention (25).
ANG II
A number of kidney diseases, and their progression to end-stage renal failure, are driven by the intercrine, autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine effects of ANG II (38, 39, 62). All the components of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), including substrate (angiotensinogen), enzymes involved in the synthesis and degradation of angiotensins, as well as receptors for angiotensins, are present in the kidney (41). Recent studies (84, 92) suggest that the interstitial concentration of ANG II may be 60- to 100-fold the plasma concentration. Regardless of whether the intrarenal ANG II level is 60- or 100-fold higher than in the circulation, an unexplored question is how a further increase in ANG II leads to renal fibrosis. Compelling evidence from Chevalier and co-workers (16) indicates that ~50-60% of the eventual fibrosis associated with a mouse model of UUO is dependent on expression of the angiotensinogen gene. This important study utilized angiotensinogen knockout mice and compared the results with those from mice constructed to have one, two, three, or four copies of the angiotensinogen gene. Consistent with this study are others using angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibition or ANG II type 1a (AT1a) receptor knockout mice (23), which indicate that ANG II generation and action result in at least half of the eventual fibrosis of obstructive nephropathy. An important question that remains to be deciphered is how an increase in intrarenal ANG II above the high basal level is sensed by the kidney to initiate molecular and cellular changes.ANG II is produced both systemically and locally in various tissues,
including the heart and blood vessel walls. ANG II binds to two
high-affinity receptors, designated AT1 and
AT2. Signaling through the AT1 receptor results
in vasoconstriction, stimulation of growth, and activation of
fibroblasts and myocytes. Signaling through the AT2
receptor results in vasodilatation and antiproliferative responses, as
well as an increase in apoptosis. Therefore, it appears that
most of the damaging effects of ANG II are mediated by the
AT1 receptor (81). Increasing levels of ANG II
may, in turn, upregulate the expression of other factors, such as
transforming growth factor-1 (TGF-
1),
tumor necrosis factor-
(TNF-
), osteopontin, vascular cell
adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), and nuclear factor-
B (NF-
B), among
others (40). ANG II increases the expression of several
proliferative factors, including platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)
and basic fibroblast growth factor.
ANG II also stimulates oxidative stress (95). Such stress potentiates the vasoconstrictive role of the peptide because of increased catabolism of NO. Also, the generation of reactive oxygen species by ANG II may promote atherogenesis by diverse mechanisms, including oxidation of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Pharmacological blockade of the AT1 receptor reverses endothelial dysfunction and catabolism of NO, leading to attenuation of atherosclerosis. Oxidative stress, fueled in part by ANG II, upregulates the expression of adhesion molecules, chemoattractant compounds, and cytokines.
The angiotensinogen gene, which provides the precursor for angiotensin
production, is stimulated by NF-B activation (2, 46).
Interestingly, NF-
B is activated by ANG II in the liver (46) and the kidney (61, 62). This provides
an autocrine-reinforcing loop that upregulates ANG II production. We
found that ANG II activates NF-
B through both the AT1
and AT2 receptors (39, 62). In addition, ACE
inhibition markedly decreases NF-
B activation in the kidney in the
setting of UUO (61). There are recent papers regarding the
impact of NF-
B activation in renal disease in general (21,
50).
We also found that nuclear extracts obtained from the cortex of kidneys
with ureteral obstruction contained proteins that bind to an
NF-B-like sequence contained in the rat TNF-
gene promoter
(40). These proteins are not present in nuclear extracts prepared from the cortex of the contralateral kidney or kidneys of
sham-operated animals. We found that ACE inhibition decreased the
amount of NF-
B binding proteins within the nuclear extract at 4 h but not at longer time intervals. TNF-
itself stimulates NF-
B
activation (3), which creates an autocrine-reinforcing loop for enhanced TNF-
formation (Fig.
1). Because the NF-
B family of
transcription factors have many potential combinations, it is possible
that different NF-
B isotypes are activated by ANG II at different
phases in the progression of renal disease. ANG II stimulates NF-
B
activation, leading to increased TNF-
synthesis, which, in turn, can
further activate NF-
B. The 40% diminution in TNF-
mRNA
expression observed with ACE inhibition in rats with renal disease may
be attributable to the blunting of a subset of NF-
B homodimers or
heterodimers. Other subsets of NF-
B dimers may perpetuate NF-
B
induction, causing eventual escape from ACE inhibition.
|
Vasoactive prostanoid compounds (thromboxane A2 and prostaglandins) are also upregulated during the course of progressive chronic renal disease, in general, and in obstructive nephropathy in particular (38). Compared with ANG II, their role in the pathophysiology of renal insufficiency is not as well understood.
TNF-
We found (33) that in normal rats, TNF- mRNA was more
abundant in glomeruli than in renal cortical tubules. We measured TNF-
mRNA in the renal cortex of rats at different times after the
onset of UUO and determined whether ANG II inhibition or total body
irradiation affected the mRNA levels of TNF-
(33).
Cortical tubules obtained from kidneys with ureteral obstruction had a marked increase in TNF-
mRNA expression, whereas glomeruli obtained from the same kidneys did not. Thus upregulation of TNF-
expression was confined to renal tubular cells of obstructed kidneys.
Administration of an ACE inhibitor before and during UUO decreased
TNF-
mRNA levels in obstructed kidneys by ~40% at 4 h after
the onset of obstruction. However, at 120 h there was no
difference in TNF-
levels between the obstructed kidneys of rats
given or not given an ACE inhibitor. Total body irradiation, which
prevents the migration of macrophages to the obstructed kidney, did not
affect the upregulation of TNF-
mRNA expression at 4 h after
UUO. Thus TNF-
may have a role in initiating tubulointerstitial
injury in the obstructed kidney. Leukocytes, infiltrating the renal
interstitium of the obstructed kidney, do not seem to contribute to the
increased expression of TNF-
mRNA. ANG II seems to contribute, at
least in part, to the early increase in expression of TNF-
mRNA in the obstructed kidney.
TNF- has a role in the recruitment of inflammatory cells in animal
models of glomerular injury. It stimulates the production of
chemotactic factors by resident cells and upregulates macrophage chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) mRNA in human mesangial cells. Wolf
et al. (97) found that TNF-
increases regulated on
activation, normal T cell expressed, and presumably secreted (RANTES)
mRNA in a murine mesangial cell line and in vivo in rat kidneys
perfused with TNF-
. Mulligan et al. (65) reported that
anti-TNF-
or soluble recombinant human TNFR1 blocked the
upregulation of intercellular adhesion molecule 1, endothelial
leukocyte adhesion molecule 1, and VCAM-1 in nephrotoxic nephritis. The
above data support the concept that TNF-
contributes to the
increased macrophage migration into the renal interstitium of the
affected kidney. We found that macrophages infiltrated the interstitium
of the obstructed kidney cortex as early as 4 h after the onset of
UUO, and by 24 h the influx was at a level ~10-fold greater than
normal. These observations suggest that an early increase in TNF-
after ureteral obstruction of the kidney upregulates the production of
a chemoattractant(s) for monocytes and contributes to the infiltration
of the obstructed kidney by leukocytes.
In another study, we examined the contribution of TNF- to the
pathophysiology of the interstitial fibrosis that occurs after UUO,
using mice in which the known receptors for TNF-
had been individually deleted through genetic means (22, 23). This allowed us to determine whether TNF-
is a contributory factor to the
pathophysiology of obstructive nephropathy. The vast majority of
studies concerning tubulointerstitial fibrosis have utilized the rat
model. The power of genetics and the ability to manipulate the genetics
of the mouse cannot be ignored. Therefore, this study also served to
provide a database for future experiments in the mouse.
Mice in which individual TNF- receptors TNFR1 or TNFR2 had been
genetically knocked out were used, and results were compared with those
from mice of C57BL/6 background after 5 days of UUO (22).
The changes in interstitial volume (Vvint) of the
contralateral unobstructed kidneys averaged 7% and were
indistinguishable among the three genotypes of mice. Vvint
of the UUO kidney of C57BL/6 mice averaged 33 ± 3.9% after 5 days of UUO. Vvint of the obstructed kidneys of TNFR1 mice
was significantly reduced to 19.4 ± 3.1%, whereas that of TNFR2
mice was significantly decreased to 25.4 ± 4.8%. There was a modest
but significant difference between Vvint of TNFR1 and TNFR2
mice (P < 0.047). Both collagen IV and
-small-muscle actin matrix scores were decreased significantly in
the obstructed kidneys of TNFR1 mice compared with those of C57BL/6 and
TNFR2 mice. Nuclear extracts prepared from kidney cortex had a
significant increase in NF-
B binding activity in the obstructed
kidneys compared with the contralateral kidneys. Individual knockout of
the TNFR1 or TNFR2 genes resulted in significantly less NF-
B
activation compared with wild-type, with TNFR1 knockout values being
less than those in TNFR2 knockout mice (22). There was a
significant increase in TNF-
mRNA in the kidneys with UUO in all
three genotypes. TNFR1 knockout mice displayed a significant reduction
in the amount of TNF-
mRNA induced compared with wild-type or TNFR2
knockout mice. Treatment of TNFR1 knockout (22) or TNFR1
and TNFR2 double knockout (23) mice with an ACE inhibitor further decreased Vvint and TNF-
mRNA induction,
suggesting an interaction of the ANG II and TNF-
systems. These
results suggest that TNF-
contributes, in part, to
Vvint, myofibroblast differentiation, and NF-
B
activation in the kidney during ureteral obstruction. These changes
appear to be mediated through both TNFR1 and TNFR2 gene products, with
effects through the TNFR1 receptor predominating. Furthermore, ANG II
appears to stimulate TNF-
-related pathophysiological events leading
to renal fibrosis, and together they can account for
~70-80% of the pathophysiological changes in obstructive
nephropathy (23).
The stimulation of NF-B activity by TNF-
raises an interesting
dilemma with respect to the role of NF-
B in the overall pathophysiology of obstructive nephropathy in particular and renal disease in general. The activation of NF-
B in some cell types by
TNF-
opposes the cytotoxicity of TNF-
(62). At this
time, we do not know which NF-
B isotypes are associated with
pathological effects such as tissue inflammation or with
counterregulatory beneficial effects such as opposing
apoptosis. Most, if not all, electrophoretic mobility shift
assays performed to measure NF-
B activation utilize a consensus
oligonucleotide sequence. The use of different oligonucleotide
sequences found in the promoters of specific genes may help uncover the
various detrimental and beneficial effects associated with generic
NF-
B activation (62).
Endothelin System
A role for the endothelin system in obstructive nephropathy was suggested in a model of partial bladder outlet obstruction using rabbits (36). NADPH diaphorase activity was significantly decreased in the kidney cortex and medulla after obstruction. This diaphorase activity is a surrogate indicator of NOS activity. Endothelin concentration or activity was not measured; however, the number of endothelin ETA receptors was found to be significantly increased, whereas the number of ETB receptors was decreased (36). In a rat model of UUO, the amount of ETA receptor and endothelin-converting enzyme-1 mRNA was increased (15). There was no change in the amount of ETB receptor mRNA. In Sprague-Dawley rats transgenic for overexpression of human renin and angiotensinogen, a role of endothelin activation of NF- ![]() |
APOPTOSIS IN OBSTRUCTIVE NEPHROPATHY |
---|
Apoptosis mediates the controlled deletion of unwanted cells. Apoptosis occurs when death is part of an organized tissue process, as in embryogenesis, metamorphosis, endocrine-dependent tissue atrophy, and the control of normalcy (19). The biological process involves a series of steps leading to the demise of cells by the activation of endogenous systems. Historically, apoptosis refers to a form of programmed cell death observed in animal tissues (93, 99).
Distinct patterns of cell proliferation and apoptosis have been described for tubular, interstitial, and glomerular cells in chronic obstructive nephropathy (91). In the kidney, apoptosis can affect resident cells (glomerular, tubular, fibroblast, endothelial) as well as infiltrating leukocytes. Apoptosis of tubular and interstitial cells is also thought to be at the origin of tubulointerstitial atrophy, secondary to obstructive nephropathy (6, 47).
Prolonged ureteral ligation induces marked hydronephrosis of the affected kidney and is accompanied by tissue loss (evident by a marked reduction in kidney weight), atrophy of tubular epithelial cells, and the development of interstitial inflammation and fibrosis. Truong et al. (91) have examined the effects of obstructive uropathy on cell proliferation and apoptosis. Rats with UUO were killed at several intervals between 1 and 90 days after the induction of obstruction and were compared with control sham-operated rats. Obstructed kidneys, contralateral kidneys, and kidneys from normal rats were subjected to in situ end-labeling of fragmented DNAs to detect apoptotic cells and were immunostained with monoclonal antibodies directed against the nuclear antigens associated with cell proliferation. Apoptosis of tubular cells from kidneys with chronic obstructive nephropathy increased rapidly, reaching 30-fold that of controls by 25 days of obstruction (91). This peak was followed by a rapid decrease to control levels. In the 25 days after the onset of obstruction, both kidney dry weight and mean tubular diameter decreased significantly. Thus apoptosis contributes to the tubular atrophy and renal weight loss observed in prolonged obstructive nephropathy. The rapid increase in tubular cell apoptosis was preceded by a 37% gain in kidney dry weight compared with controls; just before that increase, the proliferation rate of tubular cells (detected by immunostaining for proliferating cell nuclear antigen) increased ~60-fold. No apoptosis or proliferation of glomerular cells was observed during the course of this study. These observations suggest that tubular cell apoptosis might be pathogenetically related to the tubular atrophy and renal tissue loss that occur in animals or humans (38) with chronic obstructive nephropathy.
A large number of factors can initiate apoptosis, several of
which may be pertinent to obstructive nephropathy, such as
hypoxia, ischemia, cytokines, growth factors, ANG II,
TNF-, reactive oxygen species, and mechanical stretch.
These factors act on a family of cell membrane receptors that include the TNF receptor and Fas (also known as CD95 or APO-7). Members of this family share a common intracytoplasmic domain called the death domain (69). Stimulation of these receptors leads to conformational changes in the death domain, which initiates the activation of a cascade of intracytoplasmic molecules that include TRAD, FADD/MORT1, RIP, and RAIDD/CRADD (69). This leads to activation of a number of cytoplasmic signaling cascades, the best known among which is probably the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway (20). The apoptotic signals can also act on cytokine receptors in the cell membrane or cause direct damage to the cell membrane with the release of several structural molecules including ceramide (20). The ligated cytokine receptor, in turn, activates several cytoplasmic signaling cascades (75). The converging point of the cytoplasmic signaling cascades is the activation of cystein-containing, aspartate-specific proteases (caspases) (44).
Kidneys with ureteral obstruction develop progressive tubulointerstitial damage. Several tubular changes occur, including dilatation, atrophy, and immature phenotype. In addition, apoptosis appears to play a major role in ureteral obstruction. It has been demonstrated that a marked increase in tubular and interstitial cell apoptosis is present in kidneys with ureteral obstruction. This increase in apoptosis is associated with an increase in p53 mRNA (57, 58). This finding suggests that p53 activation may have a role in the development of apoptosis after ureteral obstruction (11, 52).
Caspases are a family of cytoplasmic enzymes (caspases 1-9) that
are normally present in the cytoplasm in inactive forms. Activated
caspases represent the central effector molecules of apoptosis
(11, 90) (see Fig.
2). Truong et al.
(90) have demonstrated that ureteral obstruction in mice
induces apoptosis of both tubular and interstitial cells in the
affected kidney in a distinctive pattern that parallels an increased
expression of caspases. This correlation suggests that the caspases
mediate renal cell apoptosis in obstructive nephropathy.
Among the caspases evaluated, increased renal caspase-3 activity
seems to play a central role in renal cell apoptosis associated
with obstructive nephropathy.
|
In a recent study (11), genetically engineered mice were
used to examine the role of p53 in renal cell apoptosis in
obstructive nephropathy. Obstructed kidneys in p53+/+, p53+/,
and p53
/
mice were examined for apoptosis, members of the
bcl-2 family, the death receptor family, and the common effectors of
apoptosis. Obstructed kidneys in p53+/
and p53
/
mice
exhibited equal attenuation of tubular and interstitial cell
apoptosis (70 and 50%, respectively) compared with p53+/+
mice. However, p53 gene deficiency did not confer complete
protection from apoptosis. These data suggest that
apoptosis in obstructed kidneys involves p53-dependent as well
as p53-independent pathways. The p53-dependent pathway may involve
activation of caspases-1, -11, and -12, whereas the p53-independent pathway may involve activation of members of the bcl-2 and death receptor families.
Chronic administration of exogenous epidermal growth factor or insulin-like growth factor-1 reduces apoptosis and tubular atrophy in the obstructed kidney (8, 9). Chevalier et al. (10) have also reported an inverse correlation between the tubular production of the anti-apoptotic oncoprotein bcl-2 and regional apoptosis of renal tubular epithelial cells in the obstructed kidney.
Recently, the sphingolipid ceramide has been identified as a molecule that can act as a potent stimulus to apoptosis (79). When present in high concentrations, ceramide, one of the most hydrophobic molecules in the cell, can induce apoptosis and disrupt nephrogenesis (82). Ceramide synthesis has been described in glomerular endothelial cells, mesangial cells, and tubular epithelial cells. The developing kidney is an organ that normally undergoes extensive remodeling in fetal and early postnatal life, a process that involves widespread apoptosis. Malik et al. (49) have demonstrated that the very high prevalence of renal apoptosis in the fetal and neonatal rat is associated with similarly elevated levels of intrarenal ceramide, and both ceramide production and endogenous renal apoptosis decrease to adult levels during the first month of life. Another factor with which ceramide can interact, as a surrogate of LPS, is the CD14 receptor. We have found that CD14 is increased on the surface of renal epithelial cells during UUO (55). Mice that had a genetic incapacitation of the CD14 signaling system were found to have a significant reduction in epithelial cell apoptosis in UUO (55). The AT2 receptor is linked to sphingolipid synthesis, which then induces apoptosis (45).
In summary, in response to UUO in the neonatal rat, renal ceramide content (which normally decreases with maturation) increases progressively with 2-4 wk of persistent obstruction. This is associated with a parallel increase in apoptosis in the obstructed kidney. Relief of UUO after 5 days significantly reduces the ceramide content of the postobstructed kidney. In contrast, UUO has no effect on the ceramide content of the adult kidney. These results are consistent with a role for endogenous ceramide in the enhanced apoptotic response of the neonatal kidney subjected to prolonged UUO.
Stretch significantly induced apoptosis in NRK-52E cells, which
was accompanied by an increased release of TGF-; 1D11 (10 mg/ml), an
antibody to TGF-
, totally inhibited stretch-induced apoptosis (52). The obstructed kidneys contained
20-fold higher TGF-
compared with the unobstructed kidneys; 1D11
neutralized tissue TGF-
in the obstructed kidneys. The obstructed
kidneys exhibited significantly more fibrosis and tubular
apoptosis than their unobstructed counterparts. This was
blunted by the administration of 1D11. In contrast, 1D11 significantly
increased tubular proliferation. Immunostaining for p53 was localized
to renal tubular nuclei of control obstructed kidneys and was
diminished by 1D11. In contrast, bcl-2 was upregulated in the
1D11-treated obstructed kidneys. Total NOS activity and iNOS activity
in the obstructed kidneys were increased by 1D11 treatment. This study
strongly suggests that an antibody to TGF-
is a promising agent for
the prevention of renal tubular fibrosis and apoptosis in UUO
(52).
![]() |
CONTRIBUTION OF OTHER PATHWAYS TO OBSTRUCTIVE NEPHROPATHY |
---|
As outlined above, the contributions of ANG II, TNF-, and
endothelin-1 to the pathophysiology of obstructive nephropathy have
been extensively studied (ANG II and TNF-
) or are beginning to be
studied (endothelin-1). Several recent studies have appeared that
indicate that other systems are activated in the rodent model of
obstructive nephropathy; however, their exact contributions or
importance has not been determined. These reports suggest a role of
IL-1 (100), tissue factor (96),
heparin-binding EGF (66), and heat shock proteins
(48) in the process of renal fibrosis. An increase in heat
shock proten-25 induction during 24 h of ureteral obstruction
protected the kidney against ischemia-reperfusion injury 1 wk
later (73). This is due to the downregulation of postischemic inflammation.
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transdifferentiation
A contributing factor to renal fibrosis is the proliferation of fibroblasts in the interstitium. The origin of these fibroblasts is controversial, but the theories are mutually exclusive. One mechanism concerns the basic belief that the occasional interstitial fibroblast present in the normal kidney starts dividing due to the production of ANG II, TGF- ![]() |
GENE KNOCKOUT MICE |
---|
Previous studies, using rat models of UUO, have suggested changes in the activity of many genes in the pathogenesis of obstructive nephropathy. With the advances in genetic manipulation and an increased understanding of mouse genetics, unique experimental animals that lack specific genes are available for study. This section summarizes recent evidence using genetically altered mice in evaluating the contribution of a number of genes to the renal fibrosis that occurs in the model of UUO.
ANG II Receptor Knockout
An increase in ANG II is thought to be a major factor in the initiation and progression of obstructive nephropathy (7, 38). The increase in ANG II is brought about by the action of ACE. The AT2 receptor appears to tonically downregulate ACE expression (86). Mice in which the AT2 receptor has been knocked out display more parenchymal damage during UUO, as the increase in ACE activity is thought to predispose them to injury (86). A previous study using a pharmacological AT2-receptor antagonist found an exacerbation of renal damage in the rat model of UUO (60). Mice in which the AT1a receptor was knocked out displayed blunted macrophage infiltration and TGF-Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinase-1 and Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1 Knockout
One of the factors contributing to tubulointerstitial fibrosis in a kidney with an obstructed ureter is the deposition of matrix proteins in the renal interstitium. This increased deposition is multifunctional, including, but not limited to, a decrease in the degradation of matrix proteins. It was known that both the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP-1) and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) were involved in this decrease in matrix degradation. What was not known, however, was the precise cellular localization of gene activation. Recent studies by Duymelinck et al. (13) focused on the location in the kidney with an obstructed ureter. These studies in the rat model of UUO suggest that TIMP-1 is increased in the interstitial cells by 24 h after the onset of UUO. These interstitial cells were not positive forThe laboratory of Eddy et al. utilized mice with UUO in which either the TIMP-1 (37) or the PAI-1 (68) gene had been knocked out. Many of the quantifiable fibrogenesis responses, such as tubulointerstitial area, collagen matrix, myofibroblast area, and interstitial macrophage number were indistinguishable between wild-type and TIMP-1 knockout mice (37). Although the number of apoptotic tubular epithelial cells was the same between the two mouse genotypes, there was a significant increase in the number of apoptotic interstitial cells in the kidneys of TIMP-1 knockout mice (37). When TIMP-1 expression was eliminated, however, there was a compensatory increase in TIMP-3 and PAI-1 expression. These results led the authors to suggest that inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase activity may not be a dominant profibrotic force by itself (37).
During the course of UUO, PAI-1 mRNA increased 8- to 10-fold. In
another series of experiments, Oda et al. (68) utilized mice in which PAI-1 genes were genetically incapacitated.
Interestingly, the expression of collagen I, collagen III, and
TGF-1 mRNA was found to be significantly decreased at 3 and 7 days of UUO, but not at 14 days of UUO, in the PAI-1 knockout
mice compared with wild-type mice. Furthermore, F4/80 interstitial
macrophage numbers were lower at 3 and 7 days of UUO in these mice but
indistinguishable from wild-type levels by 14 days of UUO
(68). Also of interest in this study was the observation
that purified PAI-1 is a chemoattractant for macrophages at
concentrations ranging between 10
10 and
10
11 M. Because there are many chemoattractant molecules
expressed in the course of obstructive nephropathy, the initial
decrease in F4/80 cells at 3 and 7 days of UUO was probably compensated for by other attractants such as MCP-1 by 14 days of UUO.
iNOS Knockout
Previous studies have demonstrated that iNOS was constitutively expressed in the kidney of normal animals (63). This constitutive expression may be due to the maintenance of tonic influences within the kidney that allow for a steady-state expression of inducible proteins. It was anticipated that iNOS would be further induced during UUO because of the activation of NF-In a follow-up study, Miyajima et al. (53) found a biphasic increase (by 3 days of UUO) and then a decrease (by 14 days of UUO) in iNOS expression. In parallel studies, the authors found that the iNOS knockout mice had more apoptotic cells and proliferating nuclear antigen-positive cells than did wild-type mice. Additional experiments with NRK-52E cells in culture on flexible surfaces suggested that stretching of renal cells induces apoptosis that was enhanced by generic NOS inhibition or diminished by L-arginine supplementation (26, 53). When combined, these two studies led the authors to suggest that in ureteral obstruction iNOS activity is crucial to maintain tubule integrity because of an antiapoptotic and antiproliferative effect due to NO generation. This supports a previous study, which indicated that a beneficial effect of ACE inhibitors was the generation of NO (59). The more recent investigation utilized the rat model of UUO and also demonstrated that generic inhibition of NOS was detrimental to the course of renal fibrosis (59). The source of the NO was not identified in the prior study (59); however, the work of Felsen et al. (26, 52, 53) is consistent with the notion of iNOS performing a protective role in renal epithelial cells in the setting of ureteral obstruction.
Osteopontin Knockout
In many forms of renal disease, there is an infiltration of the interstitium by monocytes, some of which differentiate to tissue macrophages. This is also true for obstructive nephropathy (38). MCP-1 has been previously described as an inducible chemoattractant that is upregulated in the kidney with an obstructed ureter (58). Osteopontin is also considered a macrophage chemoattractant and has been shown to be induced in the UUO model (12). Mice in which the osteopontin gene had been incapacitated displayed an initial decline in macrophage infiltration (71). In later stages, however, macrophage infiltration was essentially indistinguishable from that seen in wild-type mice. There was also a measurable increase in both tubular cell and interstitial cell apoptosis in the osteopontin knockout mice (71).The initial decline in macrophage infiltration followed by equivalent infiltration seen in the osteopontin knockout mouse can be possibly explained by redundant functional genes. In addition to osteopontin, MCP-1 (41) RANTES (12, 94), and CC-chemokine receptors (94) are induced in the kidney with an obstructed ureter. The induction of several chemoattractant genes during UUO would have a tendency to eventually overwhelm the gene knockout model with time.
Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor Knockouts
During the course of UUO, there is an initial phase of tubular epithelial and interstitial cell proliferation (30, 91). There is a decline in this proliferative phase, with the subsequent apoptotic loss of tubular and interstitial cells, resulting in tubular atrophy and interstitial fibrosis. The transit of all cells through the proliferative cycle is regulated at several checkpoints by two families of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (83). One family includes p21WAFI/CIPI, p27KIP1, and p57KIP2. Both p21 and p27 are increased during ureteral obstruction, with p21 induction occurring in an ANG II-dependent manner (57, 58), whereas p27 induction is ANG II independent (18). The contribution of p57 has not been studied. One member of this family, p21, is interesting from the point of view that its levels are regulated through p53- and TGF-The laboratory of Shankland et al. has utilized p27 knockout (70) and p21 knockout (28) mice in the UUO model. Interestingly, targeted disruption of the p27 gene led to increased tubular cell proliferation and apoptosis during UUO (70). In contrast, disruption of the p21 gene led to increased interstitial myofibroblast proliferation early in the disease process (28). There was no effect on interstitial cell apoptosis. Effects of p21 or p27 gene incapacitation were seen early (3-7 days) in the course of the disease, with no quantifiable differences at 14 days of UUO. The authors make two significant points from these observations. First, there are different effects of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors in different cell types. Second, with redundant functional proteins, effects may be seen early in a disease process but be masked at a later point. The issue of redundant functional genes masking changes in gene activity in the UUO model has been previously raised (55-57).
Conditional Cell Knockout
A component of the expanded interstitium in many models of renal disease is the fibroblast or myofibroblast (14, 62). Transgenic mice were prepared that expressed thymidine kinase under the control of the FSP-1 promoter (31). When sections of the kidneys from these animals were immunostained for thymidine kinase, an occasional fibroblast-like cell was seen in the interstitium. These conditional knockout mice were treated with vehicle or with ganciclovir and subjected to UUO for 10 days. There was a significant reduction in the histological score and collagen I mRNA in the kidneys of ganciclovir-treated animals compared with those receiving vehicle (31). The cell number within the interstitium was significantly less. This strategy of knockout is based on lethality of dividing cells. The authors could not distinguish between proliferation of endogenous resident fibroblasts or a process of epithelial-mesenchymal transdifferentiation as the source of the interstitial fibroblasts (31). This study provides a novel approach to targeting a specific cell type and deriving information concerning mechanisms of renal fibrosis. ![]() |
GROWTH AND HOMEOSTATIC FACTORS |
---|
Mechanisms that contribute to the initiation and progression of
renal fibrosis usually involve the upregulation of cytokines and growth
factors such as TGF-, TNF-
, and PDGF. Another important mechanism
to consider is a decrease in the production of growth and homeostatic
factors. These factors are normally endogenously produced by the
kidney, and their absence may accelerate the progression of fibrosis.
Conversely, treatment with purified growth and/or homeostatic factors
could blunt the progression of disease or possibly reverse the loss of
renal function.
The expression of preproepidermal growth factor is suppressed in kidneys with obstructed ureters in both neonatal (9) and adult (25) rats. Treatment of both adult (35) and neonatal (9) rats with UUO with epidermal growth factor significantly reduces tubular cell apoptosis. This would blunt tubular atrophy and tend to preserve renal function in cases where the eventual release of the obstruction is achieved.
Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) has been used as a treatment of acute renal failure due to ischemia-reperfusion. Interestingly, endogenous IGF-1 expression was not changed during UUO in neonatal rats (8). Treatment of neonatal rats with UUO did not affect the suppression of nephrogenesis or tubular cell proliferation seen in UUO. However, treatment with exogenous IGF-1 did significantly blunt tubular cell apoptosis, tubular atrophy, and interstitial collagen deposition (8). The authors suggest that IGF-1 treatment offers another means of preserving the capacity of renal function once flow is reestablished.
Another aid in the recovery from acute ischemic renal injury is
treatment with hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) (51).
Indeed, a decrease in HGF levels induced by either an increase in ANG II or TGF- was hypothesized to be a factor in the development of
glomerulonephritis (102). HGF has been described as a
substance produced by mesenchymal cells that maintains epithelial
homeostasis (43). Mizuno et al. (54) used a
mouse model of UUO and treated the animals with vehicle, a neutralizing
antibody to HGF, or recombinant human HGF. Treatment with the
HGF-neutralizing antibody was found to increase TGF-
expression,
decrease tubular cell proliferation, and accelerate apoptosis.
Treatment with exogenous HGF attenuated apoptosis and TGF-
expression (54). The authors suggested that the reduction
in endogenous HGF can account for the progression of renal fibrosis in
tubulointerstitial-based disease (54). This was
underscored by a study in which HFG was administered by tail-vein
injection every 12 h for the 7 days of UUO (101). The
injection of HGF blunted the expected increase in TGF-
1
mRNA and various histological indices of fibrosis (101).
The expression of
-smooth muscle actin and vimentin was decreased
whereas the expression of E-cadherin was maintained. The
authors suggest that HGF treatment prevents tubular epithelial cells
from converting to myofibroblasts (101). This would be an
important therapeutic consideration.
Recently, another protein has emerged as a potential renotrophic factor: bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP-7). In a preventative protocol, BMP-7 treatment was found to significantly decrease renal injury in a rat model of UUO when treatment was initiated at the time of injury (27). Subsequent studies suggested that BMP-7 treatment will also attenuate renal fibrosis when administered after renal fibrosis has begun (56). This treatment protocol was also found to significantly increase renal function from the levels measured in the vehicle-treated group (56). These studies underscore the value of histological parameters as an indicator of renal function and the potential of renal homeostatic factors in the treatment of kidney disease.
TGF-
|
Two recent studies suggest that the increase in TGF- expression is
indeed linked to renal fibrosis (29, 52). In a rat model
of UUO, retrograde infusion of HVJ liposome-encased
TGF-
1 antisense oligonucleotide attenuated the increase
in interstitial volume (29). This was due to a decrease in
macrophage infiltration, myofibroblast formation, and collagen I
deposition. In another study using a rat model of UUO, Miyajima et al.
(52) treated rats with a neutralizing antibody to TGF-
.
There was less tubular cell apoptosis with consequently less
tubular atrophy. The induction of p53 was blunted whereas Bcl2 and iNOS
expressions were increased. This is consistent with the authors'
hypothesis that iNOS serves a protective role in obstructive
nephropathy (26, 52). Overall, these two studies
indicate that TGF-
alters the fibrotic forces within the kidney and
is not an epiphenomenon when pathological changes are observed in the
kidney with an obstructed ureter.
Finally, all animal models of UUO suggest that TGF-1 is
increased in kidneys with obstructed ureters. Kaneto et al.
(34) show that this is true in the kidneys of humans with
ureteral obstruction. Material from kidneys of nine patients with
carcinoma of the ureter was compared with the normal portion of kidneys of eight patients with renal cell carcinoma. The patients were basically age and gender matched. There was a significant increase in
TGF-
1 mRNA in the kidneys of patients with an obstructed
ureter (34). There was a positive and significant
correlation between the amount of TGF-
1 mRNA and the
increased interstitial volume found in the patients' kidneys. The
amount of collagen IV and fibronectin mRNA was also found to be
increased (34). This study suggests that animal models of
UUO are reflective of the molecular changes seen in human obstructive nephropathy.
![]() |
INTERPRETATION OF MOUSE MODELS |
---|
The reader should be cautioned about overinterpreting observations related to renal disease in general and UUO in particular without considering the genetic background of mice. There are many comments in the literature suggesting that certain mouse strains may be more susceptible to the development and progression of renal disease. Furthermore, due to the redundancy of many biological systems such as chemoattractants, adhesion molecules, TIMPs, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors, etc., knockout of one gene may have effects early but not later in a disease model. This could well explain many of the studies listed above, in which marginal but significant (P > 0.05) effects were observed at 3 or 5 days of UUO but which then became insignificant, with wide SDs by 7-14 days of UUO. These cautions need to be kept in mind when one compares observations in different studies. Short- and long-term time courses are needed to determine the appropriate biological windows for effects to be quantitated. Similarly, effects seen in Balb/c mice may not hold true for C57BL/6 mice.
![]() |
PEDIATRIC AND ADULT OBSTRUCTIVE NEPHROPATHY |
---|
A significant cause of renal failure in children and infants is congenital obstructive nephropathy (5). Fetal, compared with adult, obstructive nephropathy is particularly devastating because renal growth and continued nephron development are impaired by the progression of fibrosis. Several studies (4-10, 16, 103) have examined many aspects of obstructive nephropathy in the newborn using a neonatal rat model of UUO. At the time of birth, the rodent kidney is not fully developed and is representative of human renal development at about the mid-trimester.
A major feature of the neonatal kidney that is responsible for pathophysiological differences is the preponderance of AT2 receptors in the developing kidney compared with a preponderance of AT1 receptors in the mature kidney (4, 5). The neonatal kidney with an obstructed ureter displays blunted tubular cell proliferation but enhanced apoptosis (4, 5, 9). This leads to maturational changes that severely inhibit subsequent renal development even if a brief obstruction is relieved. In a study of 15 cases of fetal obstructive nephropathy, there was a significant increase in mesenchymal and tubule cell apoptosis compared with that in gestational age-matched controls. Again, this suggests that animal models tend to depict the pathophysiological events of human obstructive nephropathy.
The transformation of renal mesenchyme to epithelium is crucial for
renal development. A study by Nguyen et al. (67) indicates that members of the Wnt gene family are important mediators
of the transformation in neonatal and adult rats models of
UUO. Their study suggests that ureteral obstruction disrupts
the normal pattern of Wnt-4, Wnt-7b, and
Wnt-11 gene activity and maintains the cell in a mesenchymal
state. The expression of Wnt-4 in particular was maintained
rather than decreased if the kidney of newborn rats became obstructed,
and the expression of Wnt-4 reemerged if the kidney of adult
rats was obstructed (67). The latter observation was
coincident with the reexpression of the mesenchymal marker vimentin by
epithelial cells (67). This study suggests that members of
the Wnt gene family are important in renal development and
in the dedifferentiation of renal epithelial cells during obstructive
nephropathy. In a study focusing on a role for Wnt-4 in
renal fibrosis in general but UUO in particular, Surendran et al.
(88) localized Wnt-4 expression to collecting
duct epithelial cells and surrounding mesenchymal cells. In
addition to UUO, Wnt-4 expression was also increased during
folic and induced nephropathy, genetic polycystic kidney disease, and
needle-puncture wounding (88). The highest level of
Wnt-4 expression was found in interstitial fibroblasts
also expressing collagen I (1) and
-smooth muscle actin.
Other genes involved in development will undoubtedly be linked to renal
cell differentiation and dedifferentiation in disease.
![]() |
CONCLUSION |
---|
There are a growing number of studies that now utilize the rodent model of UUO. Obstructive nephropathy is useful to study the cellular and molecular changes that occur in renal epithelial cells and cells within the interstitium of the kidney. In additional to being an aid in developing a fundamental understanding of the pathophysiology of renal fibrosis, the UUO model can be used to determine the efficiency of treatments to resolve fibrosis. Use of the mouse model of UUO takes advantage of the ability to genetically manipulate this species. This has built on the studies conducted in the 1980s and early 1990s, which were largely confined to the rat. Studies are required to compare the cellular and molecular events of obstructive nephropathy between different strains of mice. This may lead to insights regarding racial differences in human renal disease and/or help uncover susceptibility genes that modulate the disease process in patients. The use of neonatal rats and mice should provide a better understanding of fetal obstructive nephropathy and, it is hoped, yield information for in utero treatments to minimize renal problems after birth. In sum, obstructive nephropathy is an increasingly popular model of renal disease. It has the potential to help develop treatments designed to halt or reverse the progression of kidney disease.
![]() |
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
---|
The assistance of Monica Waller in the preparation of this manuscript is gratefully acknowledged.
![]() |
FOOTNOTES |
---|
This work was supported by National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases Grant DK-09976.
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: S. Klahr, Washington Univ. School of Medicine at Barnes-Jewish Hospital (North Campus), 216 S. Kingshighway Blvd., Suite 4300, St. Louis, MO 63110-1092 (E-mail: sklahr{at}im.wustl.edu).
10.1152/ajprenal.00362.2001
![]() |
REFERENCES |
---|
1.
Albertazzi, E,
Cajone F,
and
Sherbet GV.
Characterization of a splice variant of metastasis-associated h-mts1 (S100A4) gene expressed in human infiltrating carcinomas of the breast.
DNA Cell Bio
17:
1003-1008,
1998[Medline].
2.
Brasier, AR,
and
Li J.
Mechanisms for inducible control of angiotensinogen gene transcription.
Hypertension
27:
465-475,
1996
3.
Brasier, AR,
Li J,
and
Wimbish KA.
Tumor necrosis factor activates angiotensinogen gene expression by the Rel A. transactivator.
Hypertension
27:
1009-1017,
1996
4.
Chevalier, RL.
Growth factors and apoptosis in neonatal ureteral obstruction.
J Am Soc Nephrol
7:
1098-1105,
1996[Abstract].
5.
Chevalier, RL.
Pathophysiology of obstructive nephropathy in the newborn.
Semin Nephrol
18:
585-593,
1998[ISI][Medline].
6.
Chevalier, RL,
Goyal S,
Kim A,
Chang AY,
Landau D,
and
LeRoith D.
Renal tubulointerstitial injury from ureteral obstruction in the neonatal rat is attenuated by IGF-1.
Kidney Int
57:
882-890,
2000[ISI][Medline].
7.
Chevalier, RL,
Goyal S,
Wolstenholme JT,
and
Thornhill BA.
Obstructive nephropathy in the neonate is attenuated by epidermal growth factor.
Kidney Int
54:
38-47,
1998[ISI][Medline].
8.
Chevalier, RL,
Smith CD,
Wolstenholme JT,
Krajewski S,
and
Reed JC.
Chronic ureteral obstruction in the rat suppresses renal tubular bcl-2 and stimulates apoptosis.
Exp Nephrol
8:
115-122,
1999[ISI].
9.
Chevalier, RL,
Thornhill BA,
and
Wolstenholme JT.
Renal cellular response to ureteral obstruction: role of maturation and angiotensin II.
Am J Physiol Renal Physiol
277:
F41-F47,
1999
10.
Chevalier, RL,
Thornhill BA,
Wolstenholme JT,
and
Kim A.
Unilateral ureteral obstruction in early development alters renal growth: dependence on the duration of obstruction.
J Urol
161:
309-313,
1999[ISI][Medline].
11.
Choi, YJ,
Mendoza L,
Rha SJ,
Sheikh-Hamad D,
Baranowska-Daca E,
Nguyen V,
Smith CW,
Nassar G,
Suki WN,
and
Truong LD.
Role of p53-dependent activation of caspases in chronic obstructive uropathy: evidence from p53 null mutant mice.
J Am Soc Nephrol
12:
983-992,
2001
12.
Crisman, JM,
Richards LL,
Valach DP,
Franzoni DF,
and
Diamond JR.
Chemokine expression in the obstructed kidney.
Exp Nephrol
9:
241-248,
2001[ISI][Medline].
13.
Duymelinck, C,
Dauwe SE,
De Greef KE,
Ysebaert DK,
Verpooten GA,
and
De Broe ME.
TIMP-1 gene expression and PAI-1 antigen after unilateral ureteral obstruction in the adult male rat.
Kidney Int
58:
1186-1201,
2000[ISI][Medline].
14.
Eddy, AA.
Molecular insights into renal interstitial fibrosis .
J Am Soc Nephrol
7:
2495-2508,
1996[Abstract].
15.
Feldman, DL,
Mogelesky TC,
Chou M,
and
Jeng AY.
Enhanced expression of renal endothelin-converting enzyme-1 and endothelin-A-receptor mRNA in rats with interstitial fibrosis following ureter ligation.
J Cardiovasc Pharmacol
36:
S255-S259,
2000[ISI][Medline].
16.
Fern, RJ,
Yesko CM,
Thornhill BA,
Kim HS,
Smithies O,
and
Chevalier RL.
Reduced angiotensinogen expression attenuates renal interstitial fibrosis in obstructive nephropathy in mice.
J Clin Invest
103:
39-46,
1999
17.
Fukuda, K,
Yoshitomi K,
Yanagida T,
Tokumoto M,
and
Hirakata H.
Quantification of TGF-1 mRNA along rat nephron in obstructive nephropathy.
Am J Physiol Renal Physiol
281:
F513-F521,
2001
18.
Gerth, JH,
Kriegsmann J,
Trinh TT,
Stahl RA,
Wendt T,
Sommer M,
Stein G,
and
Wolf G.
Induction of p27KIP1 after unilateral ureteral obstruction is independent of angiotensin II.
Kidney Int
61:
68-79,
2002[ISI].
19.
Gobe, G,
Fung LCT,
and
Buttyan R.
Hallmark and consequences of apoptosis and necrosis in the kidney.
In: Contemporary Issues in Nephrology. Acute Renal Failure, edited by Goligorsky MS,
and Stein JH.. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1995, vol. 30, p. 143-159.
20.
Griffith, TS,
Brunner T,
Fletcher SM,
Green DR,
and
Ferguson TA.
Fas ligand-induced apoptosis as a mechanism of immune privilege.
Science
70:
1189-1192,
1995.
21.
Guijarro, C,
and
Egido J.
Transcription factor-B (NF-
B) and renal disease.
Kidney Int
59:
415-424,
2001[ISI][Medline].
22.
Guo, G,
Morrissey J,
McCracken R,
Tolley T,
and
Klahr S.
The role of TNFR1 and TNFR2 receptors in the interstitial fibrosis of obstructive nephropathy.
Am J Physiol Renal Physiol
277:
F766-F772,
1999
23.
Guo, G,
Morrissey J,
McCracken R,
Tolley T,
Liapis H,
and
Klahr S.
Contributions of angiotensin II and tumor necrosis factor- to the development of renal fibrosis.
Am J Physiol Renal Physiol
280:
F777-F785,
2001
24.
Hay, ED,
and
Zuk A.
Transformations between epithelium and mesenchyme: normal, pathological, and experimentally induced.
Am J Kidney Dis
26:
678-690,
1995[ISI][Medline].
25.
Hegarty, NJ,
Young LS,
Kirwan CN,
O'Neill AJ,
Bouchier-Hayes DM,
Sweeney P,
Watson RW,
and
Fitzpatrick JM.
Nitric oxide in unilateral ureteral obstruction: effect on regional renal blood flow.
Kidney Int
59:
1059-1065,
2001[ISI][Medline].
26.
Hochberg, D,
Johnson CW,
Chen J,
Cohen D,
Stern J,
Vaughan ED, Jr,
Poppas D,
and
Felsen D.
Interstitial fibrosis of unilateral ureteral obstruction is exacerbated in kidneys of mice lacking the gene for inducible nitric oxide synthase.
Lab Invest
80:
1721-1728,
2000[ISI][Medline].
27.
Hruska, KA,
Guo G,
Wozniak M,
Martin D,
Miller S,
Liapis H,
Loveday K,
Klahr S,
Sampath TK,
and
Morrissey J.
Osteogenic protein-1 prevents renal fibrogensis associated with ureteral obstruction.
Am J Physiol Renal Physiol
279:
F130-F143,
2000
28.
Hughes, J,
Brown P,
and
Shankland SJ.
Cyclin kinase inhibitor p21CIP1/WAF1 limits interstitial cell proliferation following ureteric obstruction.
Am J Physiol Renal Physiol
277:
F948-F956,
1999
29.
Isaka, Y,
Tsujie M,
Ando Y,
Nakamura H,
Kaneda Y,
Imai E,
and
Hori M.
Transforming growth factor-beta-1 antisense oligodeoxynucleotides block interstitial fibrosis in unilateral ureteral obstruction.
Kidney Int
58:
1885-1892,
2000[ISI][Medline].
30.
Ishidoya, S,
Morrissey JJ,
McCracken R,
Reyes A,
and
Klahr S.
Angiotensin II receptor antagonist ameliorates renal tubulointerstitial fibrosis caused by unilateral ureteral obstruction.
Kidney Int
47:
1285-1294,
1995[ISI][Medline].
31.
Iwano, M,
Fischer A,
Okada H,
Plieth D,
Xue C,
Danoff TM,
and
Neilson EG.
Conditional abatement of tissue fibrosis using nucleoside analogs to selectively corrupt DNA replication in transgenic fibroblasts.
Mol Ther
3:
149-159,
2001[ISI][Medline].
32.
Kaneto, H,
Morrissey J,
and
Klahr S.
Increased expression of TGF-beta 1 mRNA in the obstructed kidney of rats with unilateral ureteral ligation.
Kidney Int
44:
313-321,
1993[ISI][Medline].
33.
Kaneto, H,
Morrissey J,
McCracken R,
Ishidoya S,
Reyes A,
and
Klahr S.
The expression of mRNA for tumor necrosis factor- increases in the obstructed kidney of rats soon after unilateral ureteral ligation.
Nephrology
2:
161-166,
1996[ISI].
34.
Kaneto, H,
Ohtani H,
Fukuzaki A,
Ishidoya S,
Takeda A,
Ogata Y,
Nagura H,
and
Orikasa S.
Increased expression of TGF-beta1 but not of its receptors contributes to human obstructive nephropathy.
Kidney Int
56:
2137-2146,
1999[ISI][Medline].
35.
Kennedy, WA, II,
Buttyan R,
Garcia-Montes E,
D'Agati V,
Olsson CA,
and
Sawczuk IS.
Epidermal growth factor suppresses renal tubular apoptosis following ureteral obstruction.
Urology
49:
973-980,
1997[ISI][Medline].
36.
Khan, MA,
Dashwood MR,
Thompson CS,
Mumtaz FH,
Mikhailidis DP,
and
Morgan RJ.
Time-dependent up-regulation of endothelin-A receptors and down-regulation of endothelin-B receptors and nitric oxide synthase binding sites in the renal medulla of a rabbit model of partial bladder outlet obstruction: potential clinical relevance.
BJU Int
84:
1073-1080,
1999[ISI][Medline].
37.
Kim, H,
Oda T,
Lopez-Guisa J,
Wing D,
Edwards DR,
Soloway PD,
and
Eddy AA.
TIMP-1 deficiency does not attenuate interstitial fibrosis in obstructive nephropathy.
J Am Soc Nephrol
12:
736-748,
2001
38.
Klahr, S.
Nephrology Forum: obstructive nephropathy.
Kidney Int
54:
286-300,
1998[ISI][Medline].
39.
Klahr, S,
and
Morrissey JJ.
The role of growth factors, cytokines and vasoactive compounds in obstructive nephropathy.
Semin Nephrol
18:
622-632,
1998[ISI][Medline].
40.
Klahr, S,
and
Morrissey JJ.
Angiotensin II and gene expression in the kidney.
Am J Kidney Dis
31:
171-176,
1998[ISI][Medline].
41.
Klahr, S,
and
Morrissey JJ.
Comparative study of ACE inhibitors and AII receptor antagonists in interstitial scarring.
Kidney Int
52, Suppl 63:
S111-S114,
1997[ISI].
42.
Knerr, I,
Nyul Z,
Miller J,
Rosch W,
Dotsch J,
Repp R,
Weidner W,
and
Rascher W.
Increased endothelin-1 and decreased adrenomedullin gene expression in the stenotic tissue of congenital pelvi-ureteric junction obstruction in children.
BJU Int
87:
667-671,
2001[ISI][Medline].
43.
Kopp, JB.
Hepatocyte growth factor: mesenchymal signal for epithelial homeostasis.
Kidney Int
54:
1392-1393,
1998[ISI][Medline].
44.
Kumar, S.
Mechanisms mediating caspase activation in cell death.
Cell Death Differ
6:
1060-1066,
1999[ISI][Medline].
45.
Lehtonen, JY,
Horiuchi M,
Daviet L,
Akishita M,
and
Dzau VJ.
Activation of the de novo biosynthesis of sphingolipids mediates angiotensin II type 2 receptor-induced apoptosis.
J Biol Chem
274:
16901-16906,
1999
46.
Li, J,
and
Brazier AR.
Angiotensinogen gene activation by angiotensin II is mediated by the Rel A. (nuclear factor-B p65) transcription factor: one mechanism for the renin angiotensin system positive feedback loop in hepatocytes.
Mol Endocrinol
10:
252-264,
1996[Abstract].
47.
Lieberthal, W,
Koh JS,
and
Levine JS.
Necrosis and apoptosis in acute renal failure.
Semin Nephrol
18:
505-518,
1998[ISI][Medline].
48.
Lin, KC,
Krieg RJ, Jr,
Saborio P,
and
Chan JC.
Increased heat shock protein-70 in unilateral ureteral obstruction in rats.
Mol Genet Metab
65:
303-310,
1998[ISI][Medline].
49.
Malik, RK,
Thornhill BA,
Chang AY,
Kiley SC,
and
Chevalier RL.
Apoptosis parallels ceramide content in the developing rat kidney.
Pediatr Nephrol
15:
188-191,
2000[ISI][Medline].
50.
Mezzano, SA,
Barria M,
Droguett MA,
Burgos ME,
Ardiles LG,
Flores C,
and
Egido J.
Tubular NF-kappa B and AP-1 activation in human proteinuric renal disease.
Kidney Int
60:
1366-1377,
2001[ISI][Medline].
51.
Miller, SB,
Martin DR,
Kissane J,
and
Hammerman MR.
Hepatocyte growth factor accelerates recovery from acute ischemic renal injury in rats.
Am J Physiol Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol
266:
F129-F134,
1994
52.
Miyajima, A,
Chen J,
Lawrence C,
Ledbetter S,
Soslow RA,
Stern J,
Jha S,
Pigato J,
Lemer ML,
Poppas DP,
Vaughan ED,
and
Felsen D.
Antibody to transforming growth factor-beta ameliorates tubular apoptosis in unilateral ureteral obstruction.
Kidney Int
58:
2301-2313,
2000[ISI][Medline].
53.
Miyajima, A,
Chen J,
Poppas DP,
Vaughan ED, Jr,
and
Felsen D.
Role of nitric oxide in renal tubular apoptosis of unilateral ureteral obstruction.
Kidney Int
59:
1290-1303,
2001[ISI][Medline].
54.
Mizuno, S,
Matsumoto K,
and
Nakamura T.
Hepatocyte growth factor suppresses interstitial fibrosis in a mouse model of obstructive nephropathy.
Kidney Int
59:
1304-1314,
2001[ISI][Medline].
55.
Morrissey, JJ,
Guo G,
McCracken R,
Tolley T,
and
Klahr S.
Induction of CD14 in tubular epithelial cells during kidney disease.
J Am Soc Nephrol
11:
1681-1690,
2000
56.
Morrissey, JJ,
Hruska K,
Guo G,
Wang S,
and
Klahr S.
Bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP-7) improves renal fibrosis and accelerates the return of renal function.
J Am Soc Nephrol
3:
S14-S21,
2002.
57.
Morrissey, JJ,
Ishidoya S,
McCracken R,
and
Klahr S.
The effect of ACE inhibitors on the expression of matrix genes and the role of p53 and p21 (WAF1) in experimental renal fibrosis.
Kidney Int
49, Suppl54:
S83-S87,
1996[ISI].
58.
Morrissey, JJ,
Ishidoya S,
McCracken R,
and
Klahr S.
Control of p53 and p21 (WAF1) expression during unilateral ureteral obstruction.
Kidney Int
50, Suppl57:
S84-S92,
1996[ISI].
59.
Morrissey, JJ,
Ishidoya S,
McCracken R,
and
Klahr S.
Nitric oxide generation ameliorates the tubulointerstitial fibrosis of obstructive nephropathy.
J Am Soc Nephrol
7:
2202-2212,
1996[Abstract].
60.
Morrissey, JJ,
and
Klahr S.
The effect of AT2 receptor blockade on the pathogenesis of renal fibrosis.
Am J Physiol Renal Physiol
276:
F39-F45,
1999
61.
Morrissey, JJ,
and
Klahr S.
Enalapril decreases nuclear factor B activation in the kidney with ureteral obstruction.
Kidney Int
52:
926-933,
1997[ISI][Medline].
62.
Morrissey, JJ,
and
Klahr S.
Transcription factor NF-B regulation of renal fibrosis.
Semin Nephrol
18:
603-611,
1998[ISI][Medline].
63.
Morrissey, JJ,
McCracken R,
Kaneto H,
Vehaskari M,
Montani D,
and
Klahr S.
Location of an inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA in the normal kidney.
Kidney Int
45:
998-1005,
1994[ISI][Medline].
64.
Muller, DN,
Mervaala EM,
Schmidt F,
Park JK,
Dechend R,
Genersch E,
Breu V,
Loffler BM,
Ganten D,
Schneider W,
Haller H,
and
Luft FC.
Effect of bosentan on NF-kappaB, inflammation, and tissue factor in angiotensin II-induced end-organ damage.
Hypertension
36:
282-290,
2000
65.
Mulligan, MS,
Johnson KJ,
Todd RF,
Issekutz TB,
Miyasaka M,
Tamatani T,
Smith CW,
Anderson DC,
and
Ward PA.
Requirements for leukocyte adhesion molecules in nephrotoxic nephritis.
J Clin Invest
91:
577-587,
1993[ISI][Medline].
66.
Nguyen, HT,
Bride SH,
Badawy AB,
Adam RM,
Lin J,
Orsola A,
Guthrie PD,
Freeman MR,
and
Peters CA.
Heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor is up-regulated in the obstructed kidney in a cell- and region-specific manner and acts to inhibit apoptosis.
Am J Pathol
156:
889-898,
2000
67.
Nguyen, HT,
Thomson AA,
Kogan BA,
Baskin LS,
and
Cunha GR.
Expression of the Wnt gene family during late nephrogenesis and complete ureteral obstruction.
Lab Invest
79:
647-658,
1999[ISI][Medline].
68.
Oda, T,
Jung YO,
Kim HS,
Cai X,
Lopez-Guisa JM,
Ikeda Y,
and
Eddy AA.
PAI-1 deficiency attenuates the fibrogenic response to ureteral obstruction.
Kidney Int
60:
587-596,
2001[ISI][Medline].
69.
Ogasawara, J,
Watanabe-Fukunaga R,
Adachi M,
Matsuzawa A,
Kasugai T,
Kitamura Y,
Itoh N,
Suda T,
and
Nagata S.
Lethal effect of the anti-Fas antibody in mice.
Nature
364:
806-809,
1993[ISI][Medline].
70.
Ophascharoensuk, V,
Fero ML,
Hughes J,
Roberts JM,
and
Shankland SJ.
The cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27Kip1 safeguards against inflammatory injury.
Nat Med
4:
575-580,
1998[ISI][Medline].
71.
Ophascharoensuk, V,
Giachelli CM,
Gordon K,
Hughes J,
Pichler R,
Brown P,
Liaw L,
Schmidt R,
Shankland SJ,
Alpers CE,
Couser WG,
and
Johnson RJ.
Obstructive uropathy in the mouse: role of osteopontin in interstitial fibrosis and apoptosis.
Kidney Int
56:
571-80,
1999[ISI][Medline].
72.
Ortiz, A,
Bustos C,
Alcazar A,
Lopez-Armada MJ,
Plaza JU,
Gonzalez E,
and
Egido J.
Involvement of tumor necrosis factor- in the pathogenesis of experimental, and human glomerulonephritis.
In: Advances in Nephrology, edited by Grunfeld JP,
Bach JF,
Kreis H,
and Maxwell MH.. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1995, p. 53-77.
73.
Park, KM,
Kramers C,
Vayssier-Taussat M,
Chen A,
and
Bonventre JV.
Prevention of kidney ischemia/reperfusion-induced functional injury, MAPK and MAPK kinase activation, and inflammation by remote transient ureteral obstruction.
J Biol Chem.
277:
2040-2049,
2002
74.
Poucell-Hatton, S,
Huang M,
Bannykh S,
Benirschke K,
and
Masliah E.
Fetal obstructive uropathy: patterns of renal pathology.
Pediatr Dev Pathol
3:
223-331,
2000[ISI][Medline].
75.
Prendergast, GC.
Mechanisms of apoptosis by c-Myc.
Oncogene
18:
2967-2987,
1999[ISI][Medline].
76.
Reyes, AA,
and
Klahr S.
Renal function after release of ureteral obstruction: role of endothelin, and the renal artery endothelium.
Kidney Int
42:
632-638,
1992[ISI][Medline].
77.
Reyes, AA,
Lefkowith J,
Pippin J,
and
Klahr S.
Role of the 5-lipooxygenase pathway in obstructive nephropathy.
Kidney Int
41:
100-106,
1992[ISI][Medline].
78.
Reyes, AA,
Robertson G,
and
Klahr S.
Role of vasopressin in rats with bilateral ureteral obstruction.
Proc Soc Exp Biol Med
197:
49-55,
1991[Abstract].
79.
Saba, JD,
Obeid LM,
and
Hannun YA.
Ceramide: an intracellular mediator of apoptosis and growth suppression.
Philos Trans R Soc Lond Biol
351:
233-244,
1996[ISI][Medline].
80.
Satoh, M,
Kashihara N,
Yamasaki Y,
Maruyama K,
Okamoto K,
Maeshima Y,
Sugiyama H,
Sugaya T,
Murakami K,
and
Makino H.
Renal interstitial fibrosis is reduced in angiotensin II type 1a receptor-deficient mice.
J Am Soc Nephrol
12:
317-325,
2001
81.
Schmitz, D,
and
Berk BC.
Angiotensin II signal transduction stimulation of multiple mitogen activated protein kinase pathways.
Trends Endocrinol Metab
8:
261-266,
1997[ISI].
82.
Serlachius, E,
Svennilson J,
Schalling M,
and
Aperia A.
Protein kinase C in the developing kidney: isoform expression and effects of ceramide and PKC inhibitors.
Kidney Int
52:
901-910,
1997[ISI][Medline].
83.
Shankland, SJ.
Cell-cycle control and renal disease.
Kidney Int
52:
294-308,
1997[ISI][Medline].
84.
Siragy, HM,
Howell NL,
Ragsdale NV,
and
Carey RM.
Renal interstitial fluid angiotensin. Modulation by anesthesia, epinephrine, sodium depletion, and renin inhibition.
Hypertension
25:
1021-1024,
1995
85.
Stahl, PJ,
and
Felsen D.
Transforming growth factor-beta, basement membrane, and epithelial-mesenchymal transdifferentiation: implications for fibrosis in kidney disease.
Am J Pathol
159:
1187-1192,
2001
86.
Stoneking, BJ,
Hunley TE,
Nishimura H,
Ma J,
Fogo A,
Inagami T,
Tamura M,
Adams MC,
Brock JW, III,
and
Kon V.
Renal angiotensin converting enzyme promotes renal damage during ureteral obstruction.
J Urol
160:
1070-1074,
1998[ISI][Medline].
87.
Strutz, F,
Okada H,
Lo CW,
Danoff T,
Carone RL,
Tomaszewski JE,
and
Neilson EG.
Identification, and characterization of a fibroblast marker: F.SP1.
J Cell Biol
130:
393-405,
1995[Abstract].
88.
Surendran, K,
McCaul SP,
and
Simon TC.
A role for Wnt-4 in renal fibrosis.
Am J Physiol Renal Physiol
282:
F431-F441,
2002
89.
Sweeney, P,
Young LS,
and
Fitzpatrick JM.
An autoradiographic study of regional blood flow distribution in the rat kidney during ureteric obstruction the role of vasoactive compounds.
BJU Int
88:
268-272,
2001[ISI][Medline].
90.
Truong, LD,
Choi YJ,
Tsao CC,
Ayala G,
Sheikh-Hamad D,
Nassar G,
and
Suki WN.
Renal cell apoptosis in chronic obstructive uropathy: the roles of caspases.
Kidney Int
60:
924-934,
2001[ISI][Medline].
91.
Truong, LD,
Petrusevska G,
Yang G,
Gurmipar T,
Shappell S,
Lechago J,
Rouse D,
and
Suki WN.
Cell apoptosis and proliferation in experimental chronic obstructive uropathy.
Kidney Int
50:
200-207,
1996[ISI][Medline].
92.
Van Kats, JP,
Schalekamp MA,
Verdouw PD,
Duncker DJ,
and
Danser AH.
Intrarenal angiotensin II: interstitial and cellular levels and site of production.
Kidney Int
60:
2311-2317,
2001[ISI][Medline].
93.
Vaux, DL,
and
Korsmeyer SJ.
Cell death in development.
Cell
96:
245-254,
1999[ISI][Medline].
94.
Vielhauer, V,
Anders HJ,
Mack M,
Cihak J,
Strutz F,
Stangassinger M,
Luckow B,
Grone HJ,
and
Schlondorff D.
Obstructive nephropathy in the mouse: progressive fibrosis correlates with tubulointerstitial chemokine expression and accumulation of CC chemokine receptor 2- and 5-positive leukocytes.
J Am Soc Nephrol
12:
1173-1187,
2001
95.
Warnholtz, A,
Nickenig G,
Schulz E,
Macharzina R,
Bräsen JH,
Skatchkov M,
Heitzer T,
Stasch JP,
Griendling KK,
Harrison DG,
Böhm M,
Meinertz T,
and
Münzel T.
Increased NADH oxidase-mediated super-oxide production in the early stages of atherosclerosis: evidence for involvement of the renin-angiotensin system.
Circulation
99:
2027-2033,
1999
96.
Wendt, T,
Zhang YM,
Bierhaus A,
Kriegsmann J,
Deng Y,
Waldherr R,
Teske T,
Luther T,
Funfstuk R,
Nawroth PP,
and
Stein G.
Tissue factor expression in an animal model of hydronephrosis.
Nephrol Dial Transplant
10:
1820-1828,
1995[Abstract].
97.
Wolf, G,
Aberle S,
Thaiss F,
Nelson PJ,
Kaensky AM,
Neilson EG,
and
Strahl RA.
TNF. induces expression of the chemoattractant cytokine RANTES in cultured mouse mesangial cells.
Kidney Int
44:
795-804,
1993[ISI][Medline].
98.
Wuthrich, RP,
Glimcher LH,
Yui MA,
Jevnikar AM,
Dumas SE,
and
Kelley VE.
Class II MHC antigen presentation and tumor necrosis factor in renal tubular epithelial cells.
Kidney Int
37:
783-792,
1990[ISI][Medline].
99.
Wyllie, AH,
Kerr JF,
and
Currie AR.
Cell death: the significance of apoptosis.
Int Rev Cytol
68:
251-306,
1980[Medline].
100.
Yamagishi, H,
Yokoo T,
Imasawa T,
Mitarai T,
Kawamura T,
and
Utsunomiya Y.
Genetically modified bone marrow-derived vehicle cells site specifically deliver an anti-inflammatory cytokine to inflamed interstitium of obstructive nephropathy.
J Immunol
166:
609-616,
2001
101.
Yang, J,
and
Liu Y.
Blockage of tubular epithelial to myofibroblast transition by hepatocyte growth factor prevents renal interstitial fibrosis.
J Am Soc Nephrol
13:
96-107,
2002
102.
Yo, Y,
Morishita R,
Yamamoto K,
Tomita N,
Kida I,
Hayashi S,
Moriguchi A,
Kato S,
Matsumoto K,
Nakamura T,
Higaki J,
and
Ogihara T.
Actions of hepatocyte growth factor as a local modulator in the kidney: potential role in pathogenesis of renal disease.
Kidney Int
53:
50-58,
1998[ISI][Medline].
103.
Yokoo, T,
Ohashi T,
Utsunomiya Y,
Shen JS,
Hisada Y,
Eto Y,
Kawamura T,
Hosoya Yoo KH T,
Thornhill BA,
and
Chevalier RL.
Angiotensin stimulates TGF-1 and clusterin in the hydronephrotic neonatal rat kidney.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol
278:
R640-R645,
2000