1 Pulmonary/Critical Care Medicine, Denver Health Medical Center and University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colorado 80262; 5 Division of Pulmonary Biology, Children's Hospital Medical Center, and 4 Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Cincinnati School of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio 45229-3039; 2 Institute of Chemical Toxicology, Wayne State University, and 3 Department of Pathology, John D. Dingell Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan 48201
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ABSTRACT |
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Targeted
disruption of the surfactant protein (SP) D (SP-D)
gene caused a marked pulmonary lipoidosis characterized by
increased alveolar lung phospholipids, demonstrating a previously
unexpected role for SP-D in surfactant homeostasis. In the present
study, we tested whether the local production of SP-D in the lung
influenced surfactant content in SP-D-deficient
[SP-D(/
)] and SP-D wild-type [SP-D(+/+)] mice. Rat SP-D (rSP-D) was expressed under
control of the human SP-C promoter, producing rSP-D, SP-D(+/+)
transgenic mice. SP-D content in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was
increased 30- to 50-fold in the rSP-D, SP-D(+/+) mice compared with the SP-D(+/+) parental strain. Lung morphology, phospholipid content, and
surfactant protein mRNAs were unaltered by the increased concentration of SP-D. Likewise, the production of endogenous mouse SP-D mRNA was not
perturbed by the SP-D transgene. rSP-D, SP-D(+/+) mice were
bred to SP-D(
/
) mice to assess whether lung-selective
expression of SP-D might correct lipid homeostasis abnormalities in the
SP-D(
/
) mice. Selective expression of SP-D in the
respiratory epithelium had no adverse effects on lung function,
correcting surfactant phospholipid content and decreasing
phosphatidylcholine incorporation significantly. SP-D regulates
surfactant lipid homeostasis, functioning locally to inhibit surfactant
phospholipid incorporation in the lung parenchyma and maintaining
alveolar phospholipid content in the alveolus. Marked increases in
biologically active tissue and alveolar SP-D do not alter lung
morphology, macrophage abundance or structure, or surfactant accumulation.
pulmonary surfactant; alveolar epithelium; alveolar macrophage; surfactant protein D; surfactant protein A; saturated phosphatidylcholine
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INTRODUCTION |
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THE ACCUMULATION OF ALVEOLAR SURFACTANT is regulated at
the levels of synthesis, secretion, recycling, and degradation by diverse physiological and humoral stimuli (7). The mechanisms regulating surfactant homeostasis are not completely understood, but it
is generally believed that surfactant protein (SP) A, SP-B, SP-C, and
SP-D play important roles (3, 17). Contrary to expectations, the generation of mice with targeted deletions of the
SP-A gene demonstrated that SP-A was not essential for either normal surfactant accumulation or function (13). SP-D was not previously believed to have a significant role in either surfactant function or homeostasis. Therefore, the observation that targeted deletions of SP-D increased saturated phosphatidylcholine (Sat PC) in
the alveolus and lung parenchyma was unexpected (2, 15). Morphological
consequences of SP-D deletion included the presence of abnormally large
alveolar type II cell lamellar bodies, increased peribronchial lymphoid
tissue, and enlargement of alveolar air spaces. Alveolar macrophages
accumulated progressively, exceeding six times the normal value by 10 wk of age. Alveolar macrophages in SP-D-deficient
[SP-D(/
)] mice also became larger
with advancing age, with increased phospholipid and neutral lipid
content (2, 15). Although the mechanism underlying the increased
phospholipid content in SP-D(
/
) mice remains unclear,
accumulation of alveolar and intracellular Sat PC occurs in the
presence of only modest changes in the incorporation of
[3H]choline by lung tissue, indicating that
alterations in both the synthesis and degradation of phospholipids
might contribute to the abnormalities seen in SP-D(
/
)
mice (2).
Although SP-D is expressed abundantly in the respiratory epithelium,
SP-D is also expressed in various tissues including the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and heart (6, 20). It is therefore
unclear whether the observed abnormalities in surfactant homeostasis of
SP-D(/
) mice are mediated by the direct effects of SP-D
on lung metabolism or indirectly by influencing metabolism in other
organs. In normal humans, the normal range of alveolar SP-D abundance
varies from 0.7 to 49 ng/nM phospholipid (9). Such differences have no
known physiological significance. An apparent inverse relationship
between alveolar phospholipid and SP-D and SP-A after acute endotoxin
exposure (19) is consistent with a potential physiological role for
SP-D in decreasing alveolar surfactant abundance. However, a 50%
reduction in the abundance of SP-D does not alter surfactant
accumulation or macrophage morphology (15).
In the present study, we sought to determine whether SP-D functioned
locally within the lung to regulate surfactant pool size, alveolar
macrophage abundance, and morphology and whether the increased
expression of SP-D altered lung phospholipid and metabolism or
regulated endogenous SP-D expression in the mouse. To increase SP-D
concentration in the lung, a construct with the human SP-C promoter
(14) and a rat SP-D (rSP-D) cDNA clone (23) was developed to produce
transgenic mice [rSP-D, SP-D(+/+)] that expressed SP-D in
respiratory epithelial cells. We also bred rSP-D, SP-D(+/+) mice to
SP-D(/
) mice to produce mice expressing rSP-D only in the lung.
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METHODS |
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Vector Construction
The entire rSP-D coding sequence, including the polyadenylation signal, was excised with EcoR I from a previously reported cDNA clone (23) and cloned into a unique EcoR I site in an expression construct between the human SP-C promoter and SV40 polyadenylation sequence (27). One correctly oriented clone was expanded and purified with a Qiagen Plasmid Purification Kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany). The construct was then linearized by double digestion with Not I and Nde I and separated from the plasmid sequences on an agarose gel with a DEAE cellulose membrane (NA45, Schleicher & Schuell, Keene, NH) as previously described (22).Transgenic Strains
Fertilized eggs were obtained from the mating of C57BL/6 × C3H male and female mice. Pronuclei were injected with 4 µg/ml of linearized vector in a volume of 1-2 pl. Ova surviving the microinjection were inoculated into pseudopregnant B6/C3 hybrids obtained from Taconic (Germantown, NY) as previously described (8). Mice were weaned at 3 wk of age, and DNA from tail clips was evaluated for the presence of the transgene by DNA blot analysis after digestion with EcoR I, with the entire rat SP-D cDNA as a probe and hybridization conditions as previously described (23). The transgene was identified by the presence of a 1.3-kb hybridization band corresponding to rat cDNA. This probe also hybridized to a single 8-kb mouse SP-D restriction fragment. Relative abundance of mouse and rat DNAs was estimated by comparing the density of bands with a PhosphorImager (Molecular Dynamics, Sunnyvale, CA). To generate a stable genotype, mice transmitting the transgene in a manner consistent with single autosomal integration with a consistent copy number in successive generations were selected for further study. One strain with approximately two to three copies per genome was used for breeding experiments.SP-D(/
) mice were developed as previously described (15)
and have been outbred to National Institutes of Health Swiss Black mice
four times, with SP-D(
/
) mice recovered after each outbreeding by crossbreeding the resulting SP-D(+/
) progeny. For
breeding experiments with SP-D(
/
) mice, an rSP-D,
SP-D(+/+) male was bred to three SP-D(
/
) females. The
resulting SP-D(+/
) mice that also carried the rSP-D
transgene were crossed with SP-D(
/
) mice to generate
rSP-D, SP-D(
/
) founders. rSP-D, SP-D(
/
)
mice were subsequently crossed with SP-D(
/
) mice,
yielding SP-D(
/
) and rSP-D, SP-D(
/
)
littermates in equal numbers for further study.
SP Gene Expression
To assess mRNA accumulation for SP-A, SP-B, SP-C, and SP-D, RNA blots were probed with rat cDNA clones as previously described (12). All blots were counterprobed with glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase to verify equal RNA loading. Blots were scanned with a PhosphorImager from Molecular Dynamics. Signal intensity was compared between groups of four mice for each SP, and each experiment was repeated once for a total of eight mice per analysis. Western blots were performed as previously described (15) with an antibody raised in rabbits against purified rSP-D.To assess endogenous mouse SP-D mRNA accumulation in SP-D(+/+) and
rSP-D, SP-D(+/+) mice, we used a competitive PCR (1). Primers specific
for mouse or, alternatively, rat mRNA were designed as follows:
mouse sense, 5'-CGTCTAGAGGTTGCCTTCTCC-3', and antisense, 3'-GGCTCAGACCTGTATGTTGCCA-5'; and rat sense,
5'-CTAGAGGCTGCCTTTTCTCG-3', and antisense,
3'-GGTATAGCTCAGACCTCTATG-5'. Although the sequences of the
rat and mouse cDNAs are 92% identical, because of differences in the
3'-untranslated region, the above primer pairs are species specific. Competitors for PCRs were developed by conducting
site-directed mutagenesis, deleting an internal Pvu II site in
the mouse SP-D cDNA clone and a Pst I site in the rat cDNA
clone. After experimental determination of an appropriate dilution of
competitor to cDNA to achieve linearity, four 1:2 dilutions of mimic
were combined with the master mix containing cDNA obtained from
transgenic and normal mouse lung RNA by RT and amplified.
Amplifications were done at an annealing temperature of 63°C with
primer concentrations of 20 µM each and Life Technologies Platinum
PCR SuperMix. On completion of 25 cycles, samples were precipitated
with ethanol and subjected to digestion for 2 h with a 10-fold excess
of Pvu II for mouse and Pst I for rat amplicons. The
efficiency of RT was verified by comparing the intensity with that of
amplified -actin. A fraction of the sample was resolved on a Bio-Rad
10% TBE Ready Gel at 150 V for 1.5 h. The gel was stained with SYBR Green I (FMC BioProducts, Rockland, ME) and scanned on a Molecular Dynamics PhosphorImaging System. Relative abundance was calculated as
previously described (1, 24) by comparison of the signal intensity
ratios of unknown concentrations of mimic cDNA with the ratios obtained
from a known input of cloned cDNA. The results are expressed as
picograms of mRNA per microgram of total RNA input. To determine
whether accumulation of SP-A varied depending on genotype,
bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid, lung homogenate, and macrophage
pellets were all subjected to SP-A ELISA as previously described (18).
Surfactant Measurements
The 8-wk-old mice were given a weight-adjusted intraperitoneal injection of 0.03 µCi/g body weight of [3H]choline chloride (American Radiolabeled Chemicals, St. Louis, MO) for the rSP-D, SP-D(+/+) study and 0.07 µCi/g body weight of [3H]choline chloride for the rSP-D(Morphological Evaluation
Lungs from three mice of 10-12 wk of age of each genotype, SP-D(+/+), rSP-D, SP-D(+/+), SP-D(Statistical Analysis
Differences between groups were evaluated with unpaired two-tailed t-tests, with P < 0.05 considered significant. For assessment of linkage, distribution of genotypes was evaluated with ![]() |
RESULTS |
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Transgenic Lines
Fifteen independent rSP-D founders were identified by tail clip DNA blot analysis with rat cDNA as a probe. The copy number of the transgene in founders varied between 2 and 10 copies per genome as estimated by comparison of hybridization band intensity. Two males and two females with four to eight copies per genome were bred to a C57BL/6/C3H hybrid strain. Germ-line transmission was evident for all founders. Further breeding was into a C57/BL/6 background. Transgene transmission was assessed by PCR analysis with rSP-D-specific cDNA primers, and copy number was assessed by DNA blot. Figure 1 is a representation of a DNA blot demonstrating integration of the transgene in the specific strain used for all systematic studies of SP-D transgene expression and subsequent breeding experiments. With an EcoR I digest, a full-length construct hybridization band is apparent at 1.3 kb and another more intense band is apparent at ~1.6 kb, indicating the integration of at least two and possibly three copies of the rat cDNA.
|
To confirm expression, RNA blot analysis was conducted with a mouse
SP-D cDNA clone as a probe. The intensity of the RNA hybridization signal for the transgene appeared to be greater than that for the
normal mouse and was identifiable as transgenic in origin because of a
150-bp size difference (Fig. 2A).
With scanning densitometry of the blots probed with mouse cDNA, a band
signal of approximately twice that of the normal mouse was obtained for
the transgenic band, indicating at least a threefold increase in total
SP-D mRNA in rSP-D, SP-D(+/+) mice. The hybridization intensity of rat
mRNA is much greater when rat cDNA is used as a probe, indicating the difficulty of precise quantification of similar but not identical mRNA
species with a slightly dissimilar probe. SP-D in the lung homogenate
also appeared to be much greater than that in the normal mouse (Fig.
2B). ELISA of lung homogenate and BAL fluid confirmed increased
SP-D (Fig. 3). There was no extrapulmonary
SP-D transgene expression identified by RT-PCR analysis of
stomach, intestine, pancreas, liver, and heart RNAs with rat-specific
SP-D primers (data not shown). After four sequential outbreedings of
one lineage, the transgene copy number stabilized, with approximately
two to three copies per genome. This line was used for all further
experiments. For experiments assessing phenotype, mice were
heterozygous for the transgene locus. RNA blot and protein blot
analyses from these lines are shown in Fig. 2, A and B.
Immunohistochemical staining of acid alcohol-fixed sections
demonstrated SP-D expression in the alveolar epithelium but more
intense immunostaining in the small-airway epithelium. rSP-D mice
demonstrated staining that was more intense than that in normal mice
(Fig. 4).
|
|
|
Analysis of rSP-D Mice
Lung structure. Three transgenic mice with SP-D expression of at least 20-fold of the normal value by comparison of Western blots from transgenic and normal littermates were studied at 10-12 wk of age. The lungs were removed from the thorax and inflation fixed to a pressure of 20 cmH2O with Formalin and examined after routine hematoxylin and eosin staining (Fig. 5). There were no consistent abnormalities identified between rSP-D, SP-D(+/+) and SP-D(+/+) mice when they were subjected to blinded analysis by four investigators. The number of alveolar macrophages recovered from BAL fluid was identical between normal mice and littermates expressing the transgene (1.45 ± 1.4 × 106 and 2.0 ± 1.1 × 106 cells in normal and transgenic mice, respectively; P = 0.26; n = 11 each), and there were no structural abnormalities of alveolar macrophages evaluated by both light (Fig. 5) and electron microscopy (data not shown). Differential counts were identical between the normal and overexpressing mice (data not shown).
|
SP gene expression. RNA blot analysis was conducted to estimate
SP-A, SP-B, and SP-C mRNA abundance. There were no differences in mRNA
for SP-A, SP-B, or SP-C between normal and rSP-D mice (Fig.
6). To determine whether expression of the
rSP-D transgene reduced the accumulation of steady-state mRNA
for endogenous mouse SP-D, primer pairs were designed that were
specific for rat or, alternatively, mouse SP-D cDNA. Specificity was
confirmed with cDNA clones for both rSP-D and mouse SP-D and also by
performing RT-PCR with RNA from mouse and rat lungs as templates. In
mice with an ~20-fold increase in SP-D as assessed by Western blot and ELISA, no detectable decrease in endogenous mouse SP-D mRNA was
observed [5.4 ± 3.33 × 102 and 5.98 ± 2.98 × 10
2 pg/µg of RNA for SP-D(+/+)
and rSP-D, SP-D(+/+) mice, respectively; P = 0.85; n = 6 each]. Thus expression of the transgenic rSP-D did not
decrease the expression of the endogenous SP-D gene.
Concentrations of SP-A were also measured in lung lavage fluid and
homogenates by ELISA, revealing no differences between wild-type
[SP-D(+/+)] and rSP-D mice (data not shown).
|
Surfactant Sat PC Measurement
Twenty-four SP-D(+/+) and nineteen rSP-D, SP-D(+/+) mice were used for surfactant measurements. There were no significant differences in body weight between the groups. Alveolar, lung, and total (alveolar plus lung tissue) pool sizes of Sat PC were not different between SP-D(+/+) and rSP-D, SP-D(+/+) mice (Fig. 7A). Likewise, there were no differences in the incorporation of [3H]choline into Sat PC between the normal and rSP-D transgenic mice 8 (Fig. 7B) and 24 (Fig. 7C) h after injection.
|
Generation of Rescued rSP-D, SP-D(/
) Mice
Expression of rSP-D in SP-D(/
) Mice
|
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DISCUSSION |
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The distal respiratory epithelial cell-specific expression of rSP-D in
the mouse had no effect on lung morphology, surfactant phospholipid
content, metabolism, or SP mRNAs in vivo. However, the local expression
of rSP-D in the lungs of SP-D gene-targeted mice fully
corrected the increased surfactant phospholipid content and reduced the
incorporation of [3H]choline into lung
phospholipids. SP-D functions locally to regulate lung phospholipid
synthesis and content. Likewise, the local production of SP-D corrected
abnormalities in alveolar macrophage morphology and mononuclear cell
infiltrates seen in the SP-D(/
) mice.
Although SP-D mRNA has been detected in various tissues including the
lung, heart, stomach, and kidney (20), the present findings demonstrate
that cell-selective expression of recombinant SP-D restored the
abnormalities in histology and lung surfactant concentrations seen in
the SP-D(/
) mice. In the normal lung, SP-D mRNA and
protein are detected primarily in respiratory epithelial cells,
including nonciliated respiratory epithelial cells or Clara cells, and
alveolar type II cells in rat (9, 26), human (4), and mouse (28) lungs.
In the present study, the 3.7-kb human SP-C promoter was used
to express the rat SP-D transgene. As previously described
(14), gene expression with the construct was confined to the lung,
likely representing expression in both peripheral bronchiolar and
alveolar type II epithelial cells as observed repeatedly with this
SP-C gene promoter. Marked increases in SP-D abundance were
demonstrated with antibodies that recognize both rSP-D and mouse SP-D
but with a relatively higher affinity for rSP-D. The extent to which
SP-D is elevated is difficult to quantify precisely, but when this
antibody was used to probe equal loads of recombinant mouse SP-D or,
alternatively, rSP-D on an immunoblot, the signal intensity for mouse
SP-D was ~50% of that for rSP-D. Therefore, the observed increases
in SP-D in rSP-D(+/+) mice are likely to be at least 20-fold. Such
markedly increased concentrations of SP-D in rSP-D, SP-D(+/+) mice did
not cause abnormalities in lung histology or surfactant homeostasis.
Although the equivalence of rSP-D and mouse SP-D has not been
established firmly, the present finding that expression of rSP-D in
SP-D(
/
) mice corrected the abnormalities in surfactant
homeostasis supports the biological activity of rSP-D in the mouse
model. The amino acid sequences of the mouse SP-D and rSP-D molecules
share ~95% identity (National Center for Biotechnology Information),
providing further support for the likely activity of recombinant SP-D
across species. Furthermore, the finding that the local expression of
SP-D corrected pulmonary surfactant abnormalities supports the concept
that the effects of SP-D are mediated by cell signaling within the lung
rather than by possible effects of SP-D on metabolism in other tissues.
Surfactant phospholipid synthesis, as assessed by metabolic labeling
studies, is increased in the lungs of SP-D(/
) mice (15).
In the present work, the rate of [3H]choline
incorporation into Sat PC seen in the SP-D gene-targeted mice
was significantly reduced by expression of rSP-D cDNA in the lung,
demonstrating that SP-D regulates surfactant homeostasis, at least in
part, by inhibiting synthesis of Sat PC by type II epithelial cells.
The consistent and progressive alterations in macrophage morphology
seen in the SP-D(
/
) mice in vivo (2, 15) and in previous
in vitro experiments (25, 29) demonstrating the effects of SP-D on
alveolar macrophage function support the possibility that the local
effects of SP-D on surfactant concentrations are mediated by a
SP-D-dependent change in alveolar macrophage function. It is
increasingly clear that alveolar macrophages play a critical role in
surfactant phospholipid and protein catabolism in the lung. Marked
accumulations of both SPs and lipids are associated with abnormalities
in alveolar macrophage function in granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-deficient
[GM-CSF(
/
)] and the GM-CSF
-chain
receptor-deficient mice in vivo (5, 11, 21). Metabolic clearance of
both SPs and lipids are markedly decreased in the lungs of the
GM-CSF(
/
) mice, with no accompanying changes in their
synthesis (11). The present findings demonstrating the local effects of
SP-D on surfactant homeostasis also implicate the role of SP-D on type
II cell metabolism but do not clarify whether SP-D also influences
alveolar macrophage function. It is therefore unclear whether the lipid
accumulations and foamy macrophages seen in SP-D(
/
) mice
are secondary to the increased phospholipid content in the lung or are
related to primary abnormalities in macrophage function.
Surfactant lipid content was markedly increased in
SP-D(/
) mice, comparable to the increased concentrations
of phospholipids observed in the GM-CSF(
/
) mice with
alveolar proteinosis. However, unlike the GM-CSF(
/
) mice,
SPs did not accumulate in the lungs of SP-D(
/
) mice and
were not influenced by increased expression of SP-D in the lung.
Paradoxically, SP-A mRNA and protein concentrations were decreased in
the lungs of SP-D(
/
) mice (15). In the present study,
mouse SP-A mRNA was not altered by expression of rSP-D in SP-D(+/+)
mice. High levels of expression of rSP-D in the wild-type mice did not
decrease endogenous mouse SP-D mRNA in vivo. Thus although SP-D
restores normal surfactant lipid homeostasis, endogenous SP-D
gene expression was not directly regulated locally by the increased
content of SP-D in the lung. Although it is possible that the failure
of rSP-D to decrease endogenous mouse SP-D expression is related to
changes in protein structure between the species, close sequence
conservation in rSP-D and mouse SP-D makes this explanation unlikely.
The present findings support a model in which SP-D expression is
controlled by factors distinct from the level of SP-D in the alveolus.
In summary, the present findings demonstrate that the local expression of SP-D corrects surfactant lipid content and reduces choline incorporation into Sat PC within the lung, supporting the hypothesis that SP-D regulates the metabolic functions of type II epithelial cells. It remains unclear whether SP-D also has a direct effect on macrophage function. SP-D appears to play a novel role in the regulation of lipid homeostasis, distinct from that seen in other forms of alveolar proteinosis in which both lipids and SPs accumulate, the latter effects being mediated primarily by abnormalities in alveolar macrophage-dependent clearance. The present findings support the hypothesis that SP-D plays a primary role in the regulation of surfactant metabolism by type II epithelial cells in the lung.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
---|
This work was funded by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Grants HL-41320 (to J. H. Fisher), HL-41496 (to J. A. Whitsett), HL-28623 (to J. A. Whitsett and T. R. Korfhagen), and HL-61612 (to F. X. McCormack); National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Grant HD-11932 (to M. Ikegami); and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Grant P30-ES-06639 (to Y.-S. Ho).
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FOOTNOTES |
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The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. §1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: J. H. Fisher, Denver Health Medical Center, 777 Bannock St., Denver, CO 80204 (E-mail: Jfisher{at}DHHA.org).
Received 5 April 1999; accepted in final form 9 September 1999.
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