Department of Medicine, Kansas City Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Kansas City, Missouri 64128; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine and Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, and Division of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Kansas School of Medicine, Kansas City, Kansas 66160
![]() |
ABSTRACT |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Extracellular iron, which is predominantly bound
by transferrin, is present in low concentrations within alveolar
structures, and concentrations are increased in various pulmonary
disorders. Iron accumulation by cells can promote oxidative injury.
However, the synthesis of ferritin stimulated by metal exposure for
intracellular iron storage is normally protective. The cytokines tumor
necrosis factor (TNF)- and interleukin (IL)-1
may alter iron
metabolism by alveolar cells. In this study, we assessed the effects of
TNF-
and IL-1
on iron metabolism with a cell line with properties of type 2 alveolar epithelial cells (A549) exposed to
non-transferrin-bound (NTBI;
FeSO4) or transferrin-bound
(TBI) iron. In addition, we assessed the cytotoxicity of these
exposures by measuring the cell accumulation of malondialdehyde (MDA),
a product of lipid peroxidation, and cell death (MTT assay and lactate
dehydrogenase release). A549 cells treated with NTBI or TBI in
concentrations up to 40 µM accumulated iron and synthesized
predominantly L-type ferritin without accumulation of MDA or cell
death. Treatment of A549 cells with TNF-
(20 ng) or IL-1
(20 ng)
decreased cell transferrin-receptor expression and induced synthesis of
H-type ferritin. TNF-
and IL-1
decreased the uptake of TBI;
however, the uptake of NTBI was increased. Both cytokines enhanced
total ferritin synthesis (H plus L types) in response to iron
treatments due to enhanced synthesis of H-type ferritin. Coexposure to
TNF-
and NTBI, but not to TBI, induced MDA accumulation and greater cytotoxicity (MTT and lactate dehydrogenase release) than TNF-
alone. These findings indicate that TNF-
and IL-1
modulate iron uptake by A549 cells, with differing effects on TBI and NTBI, as well
as on H-ferritin synthesis. Enhanced iron uptake induced by TNF-
and
NTBI was also associated with increased cytotoxicity to A549 cells.
tumor necrosis factor-; interleukin-1
; iron; ferritin; alveolar epithelium
![]() |
INTRODUCTION |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
INCREASED TISSUE IRON CONCENTRATIONS, which may develop as a result of chronic inflammation or an influx of exogenous iron, can promote oxidative injury via iron-catalyzed reactive oxygen species (23). Extracellular iron, which is predominantly bound to transferrin, is present within healthy alveolar structures (14). Intrapulmonary concentrations of iron are further increased in a variety of pulmonary disorders including acute respiratory distress syndrome, toxic mineral dust exposures, smoking-induced emphysema, and cystic fibrosis and after lung transplantation, and lung iron content also increases with aging (1, 2, 11-14, 28, 31). The uptake of iron by alveolar cells could potentially promote oxidative cell injury; however, the synthesis of ferritin by cells induced by iron uptake is normally protective (5-7, 23).
Concentrations of free iron within cells are regulated via cell expression of transferrin receptors and the synthesis of ferritin for iron storage (16). Expression of transferrin receptors (TfRs) regulates the uptake of transferrin-bound iron; however, cells also accumulate non-transferrin-bound iron via transferrin-independent pathways (15). Iron present in alveolar epithelial fluid is predominantly bound to transferrin, whereas intracellular iron is sequestered within ferritin, a multimetric protein composed of 24 subunits consisting of two types, light (L) ferritin (mol wt 19,000) and heavy (H) ferritin (mol wt 21,000) (16). Ferritin composed predominantly of L- or H-ferritin subunits is termed L-type or H-type ferritin, respectively. L-type ferritin effectively stores large amounts of iron and is preferentially expressed in some cell types after iron loading (3). In contrast, H-ferritin has greater ferroxidase activity than L-ferritin and is more effective at taking up iron from cellular sources (18). Functional differences between the isoferritins may be associated with the greater capacity of H-ferritin to protect against iron-catalyzed oxidative cell injury compared with that of L-ferritin (8).
The alveolar space contains high concentrations of tumor necrosis
factor (TNF)- and interleukin (IL)-1
in acute inflammation within
the lungs, such as occurs in acute respiratory distress syndrome, and
these cytokines may influence cell iron metabolism (19, 29, 30). In
addition, a role for intracellular oxidant generation and catalytic
iron in the pathogenesis of TNF-
-induced cytotoxicity is suggested
by prior studies (14, 24, 26). In the present study, we sought to
characterize the effects of TNF-
and IL-1
on iron metabolism by
A549 cells, including iron uptake, TfR expression, and ferritin
synthesis, and to determine whether iron uptake influenced
cytokine-induced cytotoxicity.
![]() |
MATERIALS AND METHODS |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
A549 cells, a human lung epithelium-like adenocarcinoma cell line, was
obtained from American Type Culture Collection; RPMI 1640 medium and
fetal calf serum (FCS) were purchased from JRH Biosciences (Lenexa,
KS). Human transferrin, ferrous sulfate, penicillin, streptomycin, and
3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) were
obtained from Sigma (St. Louis, MO). Recombinant TNF- and IL-1
were obtained from R&D Systems (Minneapolis, MN).
Cell cultures. A549 cells
(106) were allowed to adhere to
35-mm petri dishes for 2 h in RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with 10%
FCS, L-glutamine, and
antibiotics. Nonadherent cells were then removed, and different amounts
of ferrous sulfate in 1 ml of growth medium were added.
Non-transferrin-bound iron
(FeSO4) or iron-loaded human
transferrin was added to the medium in final concentrations up to 40 µM with and without TNF- (20 ng) or IL-1
(20 ng).
Iron, provided by ferrous sulfate must be oxidized to a
ferric state before storage as a hydrous ferric oxide within ferritin.
Prior studies have utilized both ferrous and ferric iron for assessing
the uptake of non-transferrin-bound iron in cell systems; however,
there is evidence that ferric iron is reduced to ferrous iron before
non-transferin-bound iron uptake in some cell systems; therefore, we
utilized ferrous sulfate for these in vitro studies (15). Iron
concentrations up to 40 µM were utilized in studies based on initial
studies demonstrating no accumulation of malondialdehyde (MDA) or
cytotoxicity [MTT assay and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release]
to A549 cells incubated in cultures containing up to this concentration
of non-transferrin-bound iron or transferrin-bound iron. After
incubation of cells in medium for 24 h at 37°C, the medium was
removed, the cultures were washed three times with saline to remove
detached cells and serum protein, and then the cells were gathered with
rubber policemen in 1 ml of saline and sonicated. Butylated
hydroxytoluene was added to the cells to prevent oxidative
injury after collection.
L- and H-type ferritin and iron assays. The concentrations of L-ferritin were determined by Tandem-R ferritin immunoradiometric assay (Hybritech, San Diego, CA). The ELISA assay for H-ferritin was developed with the use of recrystallized human heart ferritin to develop monoclonal antibodies as previously described (33). The concentration of intracellular iron was determined with a controlled coulometric method (Ferrochem II, Environmental Science Associates, Bedford, MA) as previously described (25). This coulometric precedure measures the total electron transfer induced at two electrode surfaces by different currents applied simultaneously at each electrode. The methodology requires instilling a small (25-µl) aliquot into the reaction chamber of the coulometry equipment. Working standards for iron were prepared from certified ferric chloride suitable for standardization with atomic absorption spectrometry (Fisher Scientific, Fair Lawn, NJ). In some studies, we also measured iron concentrations by a standard colorimetric method (ferrozine) as described by Fish (9) and found these methods to yield similar results.
TfR assay. The expression of TfRs by A549 cells was measured with a previously described ELISA methodology (10). Monoclonal reagents in this method were prepared against soluble TfR rather than surface TfR so that both bound and unbound TfRs were measured. Briefly, flat-bottomed 96-well microtiter plates (NUNC-Intermed, NUNC, Naperville, IL) were coated with 2 µg/ml of monoclonal antibody diluted in 0.05 M carbonate buffer, pH 9.6, and incubated overnight at 4°C. Unreacted sites were blocked with 0.5% bovine serum albumin (BSA) in carbonate buffer for 30 min at room temperature. The plates were then washed three times with PBS-Tween (PBS-T). Purified TfR was diluted in PBS-T containing 0.5% BSA and added in a volume of 200 µl to the appropriate wells. The plates were covered, incubated for 2 h at room temperature, and washed three times with PBS-T, and then 200 µl of horseradish peroxidase-conjugated antibody diluted in PBS-T containing 1% BSA were added to all wells, and the plates were incubated an additional 2 h at room temperature. The plates were washed again three times, and 200 µl of the substrate (34 mg of o-phenylenediamine in 0.15 M citrate-phosphate buffer, pH 5.0, containing 0.01% H2O2) were added. After 30 min of incubation at room temperature in the dark, the reaction was stopped by adding 50 µl of 25% sulfuric acid. The optical density was read at 492 nm on a microplate reader (Biotek Elx808, Biotek Instruments, Winooski, VT). The sensitivity of this assay method is 0.5 µg/l.
MDA assay. MDA concentrations in the cell layers were determined with a commercially available colorimetric assay method (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN) and are expressed in micromoles of MDA per milligram of cell protein. This assay utilizes a chromogenic reagent that reacts with MDA at 45°C. Subsequent condensation of MDA with a second reagent yields a stable chromophore with maximal absorbance at 586 nm. The sensitivity of this assay is 0.5 µmol. Comparative studies with this method and previously described techniques with thiobarbituric acid yielded similar results (32).
MTT assay. The MTT assay assesses mitochondrial function and correlates with cell viability (20). Cells were grown in 96-well microtiter plates (Falcon, Becton Dickinson) with 5 × 104 cells plated initially in each well. The cells were cultured for 24 h in medium (RPMI 1640 medium and 10% FCS) either supplemented with iron and/or cytokines or without supplementation (control). After exposure to iron and/or cytokines, 25 µl/well of MTT stock (5 mg/ml in PBS) were added to each well. After 1 h of incubation with MTT, 100 µl of lysing buffer [20% (wt /vol) SDS in 50% N,N-dimethylformamide] were added. The cells were incubated an additional 1 h, and then the optical density was measured at 570/630 nm with a microtiter plate reader (Dynatech). The optical density for each well was compared with lysing buffer as a blank.
LDH and protein assays. LDH was measured with a colorimetric method based on the conversion of pyruvic acid to lactic acid (procedure 500, Sigma). The LDH content of the culture supernatant is expressed as a percentage of the total LDH content of the sonicated cell layer after subtraction of the LDH content of the medium. The protein content of cell layers was measured with a protein assay reagent consisting of bicinchoninic acid (BCA Kit, Pierce, Rockford, IL), with BSA as a standard.
Statistical analysis. Data analysis was performed with ANOVA, and a P value < 0.05 was considered significant. All measurements were performed in triplicate, and the mean value from at least five separate experiments is displayed.
![]() |
RESULTS |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
Effect of cytokines on uptake and isoferritin
synthesis in response to non-transferrin-bound iron.
Treatment of A549 cells with medium supplemented with ferrous
non-transferrin-bound iron (FeSO4) resulted in rapid iron
uptake, with saturation by ~8 h of exposure (Fig.
1). Supplementation of the medium with
FeSO4 in concentrations up to 100 µM significantly increased L-ferritin synthesis in A549 cells in a
dose-dependent manner (Fig. 2).
Iron-supplemented medium enhanced the synthesis of L-ferritin in
preference to synthesis of H-type ferritin (Figs. 2 and
3).
|
|
|
Treatment of A549 cells with TNF- or IL-1
alone was associated
with accumulation of H-type ferritin and no change in L-type ferritin
in the absence of any significant change in intracellular iron (Table
1). The addition of TNF-
or IL-1
to
cultures of A549 cells treated with
FeSO4-supplemented medium
significantly increased iron uptake (Fig. 1), suggesting
cytokine-induced effects on the accumulation of iron by
transferrin-independent pathways. Treatment of the cells with
FeSO4 and cytokines induced a
marked increase in H-ferritin formation (Fig. 3). TNF-
and IL-1
had different effects on
FeSO4-induced L-ferritin
accumulation, with TNF-
decreasing synthesis, whereas IL-1
had no
effect on synthesis (Fig. 2). Both cytokines significantly increased
total ferritin synthesis (H- plus L-type ferritin) compared with total
ferritin induced by exposure to non-transferrin-bound iron in the
absence of cytokines (Fig. 4). The increase
in L-ferritin and H-ferritin associated with exposure to
FeSO4, either with or without
cytokines, began by 4 h of incubation, although ferritin accumulation
did not stabilize until after 24 h of incubation (Fig.
5). The accumulation of newly synthesized
H-ferritin after treatment with TNF-
or IL-1
plus
FeSO4 occurred predominantly from
8 to 24 h after exposure (Fig. 5). The relatively faster uptake of iron
compared with ferritin synthesis increased the ratio of iron to
ferritin within A549 cells, with greater increases in cytokine-treated
cells. The ratio of iron to ferritin in A549 cells treated with
FeSO4 (40 µM) alone at 4 h was
6.7 ± 0.2 (SE), whereas in cells treated with TNF-
plus
FeSO4, the ratio was 12.2 ± 0.8 and after iron plus IL-1
, the ratio was 12.9 ± 0.9.
|
|
|
Effect of cytokines on iron uptake and isoferritin
synthesis in response to transferrin-bound iron.
Treatment with either TNF- or IL-1
significantly decreased the
accumulation of iron in cells treated with transferrin-bound iron
(Table 1). There were also decreases in the synthesis of L-type
ferritin after treatment with either TNF-
or IL-1
. Synthesis of
H-type ferritin, however, was significantly increased by both TNF-
and IL-1
.
Effect of iron and cytokines on TfR
expression. Exposure to iron, TNF-, or IL-1
significantly decreased A549 cell expression of TfRs (Table
2). The effect of cytokines on TfR
expression developed rapidly and then decreased because the effects at
4 h were greater than the effects at 24 h. The effects of TNF-
and
IL-1
on TfR expression were similar to the effect of iron exposure (40 µM) at 4 h; however, the decrease induced by iron persisted through 24 h, whereas the effects of cytokine treatment had decreased substantially by 24 h.
|
Cell MDA content. The addition of
TNF- or IL-1
to cell cultures or the addition of
FeSO4 (40 µM) did not
significantly increase the cell layer content of MDA (Fig.
6). In contrast, the addition of both iron
and TNF-
was associated with significant increases in cell MDA
content. If exposure to TNF-
was delayed 24 h after FeSO4 treatment, increases in cell
MDA content were inhibited (data not shown), suggesting that the
storage of iron within newly synthesized ferritin is protective.
Exposure of A549 cells to transferrin-bound iron (40 µM) or the
combination of transferrin-bound iron and cytokines (TNF-
or
IL-1
, 20 ng) did not increase cell MDA content (data not shown).
|
MTT assay. Exposure of A549 cells to
non-transferrin-bound or transferrin-bound iron in concentrations up to
40 µM did not significantly increase cytotoxicity as determined by
the MTT assay (Fig. 7). Exposure of A549
cells to TNF- (20 ng) or IL-1
(20 ng) induced cytotoxicity, with
greater cytotoxicity associated with TNF-
compared with IL-1
.
Exposure to IL-1
and either transferrin-bound or
non-transferrin-bound iron did not increase cytotoxicity above levels
induced by each agent alone (Fig. 7). Exposure to TNF-
was
associated with a greater amount of cytotoxicity than exposure to
IL-1
, and cytotoxicity was substantially enhanced by coexposure to
non-transferrin-bound iron but not to transferrin-bound iron.
|
Release of LDH. To confirm enhancement
of cytotoxicity with exposure of A549 cells to TNF- and
non-transferrin-bound iron, we measured the supernatant content of LDH
to assess for induced cytolysis. A549 cells exposed to TNF-
(20 ng)
and increasing concentrations of
FeSO4 up to 40 µM demonstrated a
dose-dependent increase in supernatant LDH (Fig.
8).
|
![]() |
DISCUSSION |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
In this study, we determined that TNF- and IL-1
significantly
alter iron metabolism by A549 cells, including effects on iron uptake
and ferritin synthesis. Both cytokines decreased cell expression of
TfRs as well as accumulation of transferrin-bound iron. In contrast,
both cytokines enhanced the accumulation of extracelllar
non-transferrin-bound iron. We also extended prior studies (19, 30)
that indicated that these cytokines induce expression of H-type
ferritin. The enhanced synthesis of H-type ferritin was not fully
protective against the toxicity associated with TNF-
because the
enhanced uptake of non-transferrin-bound iron was associated with
peroxidation of cell lipids and increased cell death.
There is normally a small amount of non-transferrin-bound iron in
alveolar structures of healthy subjects, although alveolar iron is
predominantly bound by transferrin (14). Iron bound by transferrin is
generally prevented from catalyzing extracellular hydroxyl radical
formation; however, cellular accumulation of transferrin-delivered iron
can transiently increase the intracellular content of unbound iron
before sequestration within ferritin, leading to enhanced oxidant
stress (5). Concentrations of transferrin-bound iron in alveolar
structures are increased in patients with acute respiratory distress
syndrome, and our findings suggest that alveolar TNF- and IL-1
present in this disorder may reduce iron uptake by alveolar epithelial
cells and promote H-type ferritin synthesis (14, 27). Reduced iron
uptake and enhanced ferritin synthesis induced by TNF-
and IL-1
would have potential protective effects, limiting availability of
intracellular iron and decreasing the potential for iron-catalyzed
oxidant injury to alveolar cells (14, 29).
Although increased alveolar concentrations of iron are present in a
variety of pulmonary disorders, it is unclear how effectively iron is
bound by alveolar transferrin. In some disorders, the capacity of
alveolar transferrin to bind iron may be limited. In patients with
cystic fibrosis, for example, intrapulmonary iron concentrations are
increased and neutrophil-derived proteases in alveolar structures of
these patients can cleave transferrin, impairing its capacity to
effectively sequester iron (4, 28). In addition, alveolar
concentrations of transferrin appear to be reduced in some types of
respiratory failure, which may limit the capacity of alveolar
transferrin to completely bind alveolar iron (27). The findings of this
study suggest that TNF- and IL-1
can promote the uptake of
non-transferrin-bound iron by alveolar epithelial cells. In addition,
the increased iron uptake may enhance TNF-
-mediated cytotoxicity to
epithelial cells.
Our finding that TNF- and IL-1
induce synthesis of H-type
ferritin in A549 cells both with and without supplemental iron is
consistent with prior observations reported with different cell lines
(19, 30). Although exposure to iron alone induced synthesis of almost
solely L-type ferritin in A549 cells, ferritin synthesized in response
to iron and cytokines was more evenly divided between L-type and H-type
ferritin, with TNF-
inducing synthesis of >50% H-type ferritin.
The substantial increase in synthesis of H-type ferritin in response to
TNF-
and IL-1
may enhance sequestration of intracellular iron and
thereby contribute to limiting iron-catalyzed oxidative injury (8).
The findings of this study suggest that release of TNF- or IL-1
by alveolar macrophages or other alveolar cells could decrease the
uptake of transferrin-bound iron and enhance the synthesis of total
ferritin in alveolar cells in response to iron uptake. These effects
would decrease the intracellular availability of catalytic iron.
Consistent with this hypothesis, there was no evidence of increased
cytotoxicity in A549 cells exposed to transferrin-bound iron and
cytokines. In contrast, both cytokines increased the uptake of unbound
iron, with substantial increases by 4 h after treatment. Increased
synthesis of H-type ferritin in response to iron and cytokines was also
induced by both cytokines; however, a substantial increase in the cell
content of H-type ferritin did not develop until between 8 and 24 h
after exposure, resulting in an initial phase of increased cell iron
content relative to ferritin stores. The greater cytotoxicity
associated with TNF-
and non-transferrin-bound iron may be due, at
least in part, to the decreased synthesis of L-type ferritin, which was
induced by TNF-
but not by IL-1
. TNF-
also decreases the A549
cell content of glutathione within 4 h, and glutathione is important in
protecting against iron-induced tissue injury (17, 21). TNF-
-induced
increases in the cell iron-to-ferritin ratio during the initial 8 h of
iron exposure, together with the negative effects on intracellular
glutathione, may promote lipid peroxidation and loss of cell viability.
Treatment with TNF- or IL-1
decreased expression of TfRs in A549
cells, a finding similar to the effects previously reported in a
monocyte cell line (8), although enhanced expression has been noted in
other cell lines (30). Consistent with this observation, both cytokines
decreased the uptake of transferrin-bound iron in vitro. In contrast,
both cytokines increased the uptake of non-transferrin-bound iron,
indicating enhanced transferrin-independent pathways of iron uptake.
The mechanisms contributing to enhanced transferrin-independent iron
uptake induced by TNF-
or IL-1
are not clear from our studies.
However, a prior study (22) has described a transferrin-independent
pathway for cellular iron uptake that is stimulated by hydroxyl radical
generation, and TNF-
-induced intracellular generation of reactive
oxygen species may promote hydroxyl radical generation (15). The
mechanism by which IL-1
promotes transferrin-independent iron uptake
by A549 cells, however, is not clear from these studies.
A role for intracellular oxidants in TNF--mediated cytotoxicity is
supported by prior observations that antioxidants, including iron
chelators, inhibit TNF-
-induced lysis of L929 cells (24, 26). Our
finding that combined exposure to non-transferrin-bound iron and
TNF-
induced lipid peroxidation and enhanced cell death compared
with TNF-
alone supports the concept that intracellular iron is
involved in TNF-
-mediated cell injury. Although the mechanism of
enhanced cytotoxicity is uncertain, increased concentrations of unbound
iron may catalyze intracellular generation of highly reactive hydroxyl radicals.
In summary, these studies demonstrate that both TNF- and IL-1
alter iron metabolism by A549 cells, with differing effects on
transferrin-bound and non-transferrin-bound iron. Both cytokines decreased cell expression of TfRs and decreased cell uptake of transferrin-bound iron. In contrast, both cytokines enhanced the uptake
of non-transferrin-bound iron by A549 cells. Both cytokines also
increased H-ferritin synthesis; however, H-type ferritin synthesis was
not fully protective because combined exposures to
non-transferrin-bound iron and TNF-
were associated with enhanced cytotoxicity compared with exposure to TNF-
alone. These findings suggest, therefore, that the increased availability of
non-transferrin-bound iron within the lungs could enhance
TNF-
-mediated toxicity to alveolar epithelial cells.
![]() |
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
---|
We thank Dr. Barry S. Skikne for critical reading of the manuscript and valuable discussions.
![]() |
FOOTNOTES |
---|
This work was supported by the American Heart Association, Kansas Affiliate, and the Department of Veterans Affairs Research Service.
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. §1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Address for correspondence: L. J. Wesselius, Department of Medicine, Kansas City Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 4801 Linwood Boulevard, Kansas City, MO 64128 (E-mail: wesselius.lewis_J+{at}Kansas-city.med.va.gov).
Received 21 September 1998; accepted in final form 6 April 1999.
![]() |
REFERENCES |
---|
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
---|
1.
Baz, M. A.,
A. J. Ghio,
V. L. Roggli,
V. F. Tapson,
and
C. A. Piantodosi.
Iron accumulation in lung allografts after transplantation.
Chest
112:
433-439,
1997.
2.
Bergman, I.
The relation of endogenous non-haem iron in formalin-fixed lungs to radiological grade of pneumoconiosis.
Ann. Occup. Hyg.
13:
163-169,
1970[Medline].
3.
Bomford, A.,
C. C. Hollingshead,
and
H. N. Munro.
Adaptive responses of rat tissue isoferritins to iron administration. Changes in subunit synthesis, isoferritin abundance, and capacity for iron storage.
J. Biol. Chem.
256:
948-955,
1981
4.
Breuer, W.,
E. Greenberg,
and
Z. I. Cabantchik.
Newly delivered transferrin iron and oxidative cell injury.
FEBS Lett.
403:
213-219,
1997[Medline].
5.
Britigan, B.,
M. Hayek,
B. Doebbeling,
and
R. Fick.
Transferrin and lactoferrin undergo proteolytic cleavage in the Pseudomonas aeruginosa-infected lungs of patients with cystic fibrosis.
Infect. Immun.
61:
5049-5055,
1993[Abstract].
6.
Cermak, J.,
J. Balla,
H. S. Jacob,
G. Balla,
H. Enright,
K. Nath,
and
G. M. Vercellotti.
Tumor cell heme uptake induces ferritin synthesis resulting in altered oxidant sensitivity: possible role in chemotherapy efficacy.
Cancer Res.
53:
5308-5313,
1993[Abstract].
7.
Cozzi, A.,
P. Santambrogio,
S. Levi,
and
P. Arosio.
Iron detoxifying activity of ferritin. Effects of H and L human apoferritins on lipid peroxidation in vitro.
FEBS Lett.
277:
119-122,
1990[Medline].
8.
Fahmy, M.,
and
S. P. Young.
Modulation of iron metabolism in monocyte cell line U937 by inflammatory cytokines: changes in transferrin uptake, iron handling and ferritin mRNA.
Biochem. J.
296:
175-181,
1993[Medline].
9.
Fish, W. W.
Rapid colorimetric micromethod for the quantitation of complexed iron in biological samples.
Methods Enzymol.
158:
357-365,
1988[Medline].
10.
Flowers, C. H.,
B. S. Skikne,
A. M. Covell,
and
J. D. Cook.
The clinical measurement of serum transferrin receptor.
J. Lab. Clin. Med.
114:
368-377,
1989[Medline].
11.
Ghio, A. J.,
R. H. Jaskot,
and
G. E. Hatch.
Lung injury after silica instillation is associated with an accumulation of iron in rats.
Am. J. Physiol.
267 (Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 11):
L686-L692,
1994
12.
Ghio, A. J.,
R. J. Pritchard,
K. L. Dittrich,
and
J. M. Samet.
Non-heme [Fe3+] in the lung increases with age in both humans and rats.
J. Lab. Clin. Med.
129:
53-61,
1997[Medline].
13.
Gutteridge, J. M. C.,
S. Mumby,
G. J. Quinlan,
K. F. Chung,
and
T. W. Evans.
Pro-oxidant iron is present in human pulmonary epithelial lining fluid: implications for oxidative stress in the lung.
Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.
220:
1024-1027,
1996[Medline].
14.
Goossens, V.,
J. Grooten,
K. De Vos,
and
W. Fiers.
Direct evidence for tumor necrosis factor-induced mitochondrial reactive oxygen intermediates and their involvement in cytotoxicity.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
92:
8115-8119,
1995[Abstract].
15.
Inman, R. S.,
and
M. Wessling-Resnick.
Characterization of transferrin-independent iron transport in K562 cells.
J. Biol. Chem.
268:
8521-8526,
1993
16.
Joshi, J. G.,
and
M. Clauberg.
Ferritin: an iron storage protein with diverse functions.
Biofactors
1:
207-212,
1988[Medline].
17.
Kawabata, T.,
T. Ogino,
and
M. Awai.
Protective effects of glutathione against lipid peroxidation in chronically iron-loaded mice.
Biochim. Biophys. Acta
1004:
89-94,
1989[Medline].
18.
Levi, S.,
A. Luzzago,
G. Cesareni,
A. Cozzi,
F. Franceschinelli,
A. Albertini,
and
P. Arosio.
Mechanism of ferritin iron uptake: activity of the H-chain and deletion mapping of the ferro-oxidase site. A study of iron uptake and ferro-oxidase activity of human liver, recombinant H-chain ferritins, and of two H-chain deletion mutants.
J. Biol. Chem.
263:
18086-18092,
1988
19.
Miller, L. L.,
S. C. Miller,
S. V. Torti,
Y. Tsuji,
and
F. M. Torti.
Iron-independent induction of ferritin H chain by tumor necrosis factor.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
88:
4946-4950,
1991[Abstract].
20.
Musser, D. A.,
and
A. Oseroff.
The use of tetrazolium salts to determine sites of damage to the mitochondrial electron transport chain in intact cells following in vitro photocynamic therapy with photofrin II.
Photochem. Photobiol.
59:
321-326,
1994.
21.
Rahman, I.,
X. Y. Li,
K. Donaldson,
D. J. Harrison,
and
W. MacNee.
Glutathione homeostasis in alveolar epithelial cells in vitro and lung in vivo under oxidative stress.
Am. J. Physiol.
269 (Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 13):
L285-L292,
1995
22.
Richardson, D. R.,
and
P. Ponka.
Identification of a mechanism of iron uptake by cells which is stimulated by hydroxyl radicals generated via the iron-catalysed Haber-Weiss reaction.
Biochim. Biophys. Acta
1269:
105-114,
1995[Medline].
23.
Ryan, T. P.,
and
S. D. Aust.
The role of iron in oxygen-mediated toxicities.
Crit. Rev. Toxicol.
22:
119-141,
1992[Medline].
24.
Schulze-Osthoff, K.,
A. C. Bakker,
B. Vanhaesebroeck,
R. Beyaert,
W. A. Jacob,
and
W. Fiers.
Cytotoxic activity of tumor necrosis factor is mediated by early damage of mitochondrial functions. Evidence for the involvement of mitochondrial radical generation.
J. Biol. Chem.
267:
5317-5323,
1992
25.
Skikne, B. S.
A commercial electrochemical method evaluated for measurement of iron status.
Clin. Chem.
33:
1645-1647,
1987
26.
Shoji, Y.,
Y. Uedono,
H. Ishikura,
N. Takeyama,
and
T. Tanaka.
DNA damage induced by tumor necrosis factor- in L929 cells is mediated by mitochondrial oxygen radical formation.
Immunology
84:
543-548,
1995[Medline].
27.
Stites, S.,
M. E. Nelson,
and
L. J. Wesselius.
Transferrin concentrations in serum and lower respiratory tract fluid of mechanically ventilated patients with COPD or ARDS.
Chest
107:
1681-1685,
1995
28.
Stites, S.,
B. Walters,
A. R. O'Brien-Ladner,
K. Bailey,
and
L. Wesselius.
Increased iron and ferritin content of sputum from patients with cystic fibrosis or chronic bronchitis.
Chest
114:
814-819,
1998
29.
Suter, P. M.,
S. Suter,
E. Girardin,
P. Roux-Lombard,
G. E. Grau,
and
J. M. Dayer.
High bronchoalveolar levels of tumor necrosis factor and its inhibitors, interleukin-1, interferon, and elastase, in patients with adult respiratory distress syndrome after trauma, shock, or sepsis.
Am. Rev. Respir. Dis.
145:
1016-1022,
1992[Medline].
30.
Tsuji, Y.,
L. L. Miller,
S. C. Miller,
S. V. Torti,
and
F. M. Torti.
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin 1-alpha regulate transferrin receptor in human diploid fibroblasts. Relationship to the induction of ferritin heavy chain.
J. Biol. Chem.
266:
7257-7261,
1991
31.
Wesselius, L. J.,
C. H. Flowers,
and
B. S. Skikne.
Alveolar macrophage content of isoferritins and transferrin. Comparison of nonsmokers and smokers with and without chronic airflow obstruction.
Am. Rev. Respir. Dis.
145:
311-316,
1992[Medline].
32.
Wesselius, L. J.,
I. M. Smirnov,
A. R. O'Brien-Ladner,
and
M. E. Nelson.
Synergism of intratracheally administered tumor necrosis factor with interleukin-1 in the induction of lung edema in rats.
J. Lab. Clin. Med.
125:
618-625,
1995[Medline].
33.
Whittaker, P.,
B. S. Skikne,
A. M. Covell,
C. Flowers,
A. Cooke,
S. R. Lynch,
and
J. D. Cook.
Duodenal iron proteins in idiopathic hemochromatosis.
J. Clin. Invest.
83:
261-267,
1989[Medline].