Institute for Environmental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
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ABSTRACT |
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Abrupt cessation of lung perfusion induces a rapid endothelial response that is not associated with anoxia but reflects loss of normal shear stress. This response includes membrane depolarization, H2O2 generation, and increased intracellular Ca2+. We evaluated these parameters immediately upon nonhypoxic ischemia using fluorescence videomicroscopy to image in situ endothelial cells in isolated, ventilated rat lungs. Lungs labeled with 4-{2-[6-(dioctylamino)-2-naphthalenyl]ethenyl}1-(3-sulfopropyl)-pyridinium (di-8-ANEPPS; a membrane potential probe), Amplex Red (an extracellular H2O2 probe), or fluo 3-AM (a Ca2+ indicator) were subjected to control perfusion followed by global ischemia. Endothelial di-8-ANEPPS fluorescence increased significantly within the first second of ischemia and stabilized at 15 s, indicating membrane depolarization by ~17 mV; depolarization was blocked by preperfusion with the K+ channel agonist lemakalim. Increased H2O2, inhibitable by catalase, was detected in the vascular space at 1-2 s after the onset of ischemia. Increased intracellular Ca2+ was detected 10-15 s after the onset of ischemia; the initial increase was inhibited by preperfusion with thapsigargin. Thus the temporal sequence of the initial response of endothelial cells in situ to loss of shear stress (i.e., ischemia) is as follows: membrane depolarization, H2O2 release, and increased intracellular Ca2+.
fluorescence microscopy; perfused lung; shear stress
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INTRODUCTION |
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ENDOTHELIAL CELLS LINING THE microvasculature are normally subjected to mechanical forces, including both mechanical strain resulting from intravascular pressure and shear stress associated with blood flow. Either of these forces can cause mechanical distortion of the cell that might be expected to induce a cellular response. Thus an increase of shear stress on endothelial cells in culture results in alignment of cells with their long axis in the direction of flow, induction of a spectrum of proteins, and a signaling response including the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO; see Refs. 8, 10, 11, 14, 19).
In contrast to these studies of increased shear, our studies have investigated the response of endothelial cells to the abrupt reduction of shear stress, i.e., ischemia, as might be caused in situ by obstruction of an afferent vessel. We used the isolated rat lung preparation, which is continuously ventilated, to avoid the changes in cellular oxygenation that accompany ischemia in other organs (5). We have shown that, within the initial several minutes after ischemia, lung endothelium responds with plasma membrane depolarization, generation of ROS and NO, and an increase in intracellular Ca2+ (3-5, 22). To simulate these conditions in vitro, bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells were cultured in a parallel plate chamber (16) or in an artificial capillary system (24). Cells adapted to flow for 24-48 h demonstrated a response similar to that observed with the intact lung, although no response was shown for cells cultured under static conditions.
The goal of the present study was to determine the temporal relationships among the observed endothelial cell changes with ischemia to better understand their interrelationships. We used a microfluorographic technique to image ischemia-mediated endothelial cellular events in the intact rat lung using fluorescent dyes as reporter molecules. For monitoring membrane potential, a membrane-localizing fast-response probe, [4-{2-[6-(dioctylamino)-2-naphthalenyl]ethenyl}1-(3-sulfopropyl)-pyridinium (di-8-ANEPPS)], was selected. This hydrophobic dye is nonfluorescent in solution, becomes fluorescent upon binding to phospholipids in the plasma membrane, and increases in fluorescence upon membrane depolarization (12). For ROS detection, a cell-impermeable H2O2-sensitive probe (Amplex Red) was used to assess the release of H2O2 into the intravascular medium. For intracellular Ca2+ measurements, we used fluo 3-AM, a widely used Ca2+ indicator that is cell membrane permeable. We have previously described the temporal relationships for the change in intracellular Ca2+ and generation of NO in the intact lung in response to ischemia (3). The present studies describe the temporal relationships of changes in endothelial membrane potential, ROS generation, and intracellular Ca2+ during the first minute of ischemia.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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Materials. Di-8-ANEPPS, Amplex Red, and fluo 3-AM were obtained from Molecular Probes (Eugene, OR). Lemakalim, a K+ channel agonist, was a gift from SmithKline Beecham Pharmaceuticals. Thapsigargin was purchased from Calbiochem (La Jolla, CA). Catalase was obtained from Boehringer Mannheim (Indianapolis, IN).
Isolated lung perfusion. The isolated perfused rat lung model used for this study has been described previously (4). Briefly, Sprague-Dawley male rats (Charles River Breeding Laboratories, Kingston, NY) weighing 180-220 g were anesthetized with intraperitoneal pentobarbital sodium (50 mg/kg). A tracheostomy was performed, and ventilation was maintained by positive-pressure ventilation at 60 cycles/min, 2 ml of tidal volume, and 2 cmH2O end-expiratory pressure. The chest was incised, and the pulmonary circulation was cleared through a cannula inserted in the main pulmonary artery, exiting from a cannula inserted in the left atrium. The perfusate was Krebs-Ringer bicarbonate solution (KRB; in mmol/l: 118 NaCl, 4.7 KCl, 1.2 MgSO4 · 7H2O, 1.3 CaCl2 · 2H2O, 1.2 KH2PO4, and 24.9 NaHCO3) with added 5% dextran and 10 mM glucose. In experiments with high K+, NaCl was replaced equivalently with KCl to maintain isosmolality. Perfusion was maintained using a peristaltic pump at a constant flow rate of 8 ml/min with a recirculating volume of 40 ml. Lungs were ventilated with 95% air-5% CO2 (all gases were supplied by BOC Group, Murray Hill, NJ). The cleared lungs were removed from the chest and were placed horizontally on a 48 × 60-mm coverglass window in a specially designed chamber. The use of rats for this study was approved by the University of Pennsylvania Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
Intravital subpleural microvascular endothelial cell microscopy. Intravital microscopy was performed as described previously (4). Briefly, the chamber with an isolated rat lung was placed on the stage of an epifluorescence microscope fitted with a ×60 objective (Nikon Diaphot TMD) and equipped with an optical filter changer (Lambda 10-2; Sutter Instrument, Novato, CA). A local anesthetic (0.05 mg of xylazine) was injected subepicardially in the posterior wall of the right atrium to abolish lung movement artifacts resulting from contraction of remaining cardiac muscle. Excitation of the lung surface was accomplished with a mercury lamp fiber- optic light source and the appropriate filter set as follows: for di-8-ANEPPS, 440 ± 15 nm excitation, 505 LP dichroic, 530 ± 20 emission; for Amplex Red, HQ-41002b with 545 ± 15 excitation, 565 LP dichroic, and 610 ± 37.5 emission; and for fluo 3, HQ-41001 with 480 ± 20 excitation, 505 LP dichroic mirror, and 535/40 emission (Chroma Technology, Brattleboro, VT). An inverted Nikon TMD epifluorescence microscope, a Hamamatsu ORCA-100 digital camera, and MetaMorph imaging software (Universal Imaging, West Chester, PA) were used for high-resolution digital imaging. To image membrane potential or intracellular Ca2+, lungs were preperfused for 30 min with di-8-ANEPPS (5 µM) or fluo 3 (1.1 µM), and the intravascular dye was then removed by perfusion with dye-free medium for 5 min to reduce background fluorescence. To image H2O2 generation, lungs were preperfused with Amplex Red (25 µM) plus horseradish peroxidase (25 µg/ml), which was allowed to remain in the lung during the ischemic period. Some lungs were pretreated by perfusate administration during the dye equilibration period with 30 µmol/l lemakalim, a K+ channel agonist, or with 1 µmol/l thapsigargin to deplete intracellular Ca2+ stores. Other lungs were perfused during the equilibration period with Ca2+-free KRB containing 1 mM EGTA.
Fluorescent images of di-8-ANEPPS- or fluo 3-stained vascular endothelial cells and intravascular Amplex Red were taken from the same area either as a stream (18 frames/s) for up to 10 s or every 30 s for up to 30 min. Ventilation was suspended during the period of data acquisition. Although movement of tissue resulting from flow cessation did occasionally shift the field of observation out of view, this could be minimized by maintaining an appropriate alveolar static inflation pressure during the observation period. Images were acquired during a control period of continuous perfusion that lasted at least 10 min and then after the peristaltic pump was stopped to create ischemia.Statistical analysis. For quantitation, randomly selected endothelial cells were outlined, and the fluorescence intensity of each was measured over time. Mean fluorescence intensities of four to seven endothelial cells were averaged to calculate the response for each lung. For each condition, fluorescence intensity of three to four lungs was calculated and is expressed as means ± SE. Comparison among conditions was made using ANOVA with Bonferroni's test using SigmaPlot 2000 (SPSS). Differences were considered to be significant at P < 0.05.
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RESULTS |
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Endothelial cells in situ in subpleural microvessels of rat lungs
demonstrated a stable level of di-8-ANEPPS fluorescence during a 30-s
period of control perfusion (Fig.
).
With cessation of shear stress (i.e., ischemia), there was an
increase in di-8-ANEPPS fluorescence that was maximal within the
first second, indicating rapid membrane depolarization (Fig.
lA). The fluorescence level increased slightly over the next
14 s and then stabilized. The increase in fluorescence represented
nearly 7% of the baseline value and was quite reproducible (Fig.
1C). When images were recorded in a single endothelial cell
on a more expanded time scale, a gradual depolarization with
ischemia was observed during the first second (Fig.
1C, inset). Pretreatment with a K+
channel activator (lemakalim) completely blocked the increase in
di-8-ANEPPS fluorescence with ischemia (Fig. 1, B
and C). The slight but progressive decrease in fluorescence
observed during ischemia in the presence of lemakalim
presumably was the result of photobleaching. There was a slight
decrease in fluorescence during the equilibration period in the
presence of lemakalim (data not shown), compatible with endothelial
hyperpolarization by the K+ channel agonist.
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Endothelial depolarization by perfusion with increased
K+-containing medium was used to provide an approximate
calibration for the di-8-ANEPPS fluorescence signal. Lungs were loaded
with the di-8-ANEPPS dye, perfused under control conditions with KRB (5.9 mM K+) to obtain baseline fluorescence, and then
abruptly changed to high-K+ KRB containing either 7.5 mM
K+, 10 mM K+, or 12 mM K+. Two
lungs were studied under each condition, and the result for each lung
represents the mean of fluorescence images from three endothelial cells
(Fig. 1, D and E). By extrapolating the results
with high K+, a 6.7% increase in di-8-ANEPPS fluorescence
observed at 15 s of ischemia would require perfusion with
a 11.6 mM KCl solution. Calculation using the Nernst relationship and
assuming an initial endothelial cell membrane potential of 70 mV
indicates that the decrease in cell membrane potential with
ischemia was 17 mV.
Amplex Red fluorescence in the lumen of subpleural microvessels was
stable during control perfusion but exhibited a progressive increase in
fluorescence during ischemia, indicating
H2O2 release in the medium (Fig.
2A). The
initial change was observed between 1 and 2 s after flow cessation
and reached an apparent plateau at ~8 s (Fig. 2D).
However, we determined that this plateau was artifactual as a
result of photobleaching because of continuous exposure during image
acquisition at 18 frames/s. When images were acquired every
30 s, Amplex Red fluorescence continuously increased during 30 min of ischemia, indicating sustained
H2O2 generation (Fig. 2E). The
increase in Amplex Red fluorescence with ischemia
was completely blocked by catalase pretreatment (Fig. 2, B
and D), but removal of extracellular Ca2+
(plus EGTA) had no effect (Fig. 2, C and D).
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Endothelial cell intracellular Ca2+ as indicated by fluo 3 fluorescence remained stable during 30 s of control perfusion
(Fig. 3).
Ischemia led to increased intracellular Ca2+ in
endothelial cells (Fig. 3A) that was observed between 10 and 15 s after cessation of flow (Fig. 3D). There was an
apparent plateau in intracellular Ca2+ concentration at
15-20 s followed by a subsequent further increase. The increase in
intracellular Ca2+ was partially prevented by replacement
of the usual perfusate with Ca2+-free medium containing
EGTA (Fig. 3B). The initial increase in intracellular
Ca2+ was abolished by pretreatment with thapsigargin, an
inhibitor of Ca2+-ATPase of endoplasmic reticulum, although
Ca2+ subsequently increased to a value similar to that
observed with Ca2+-free medium (Fig. 3, C and
D). These results suggest that the ischemia-mediated
increase in endothelial cell Ca2+ is the result of an
initial Ca2+ release from intracellular stores
followed by influx of Ca2+ from the extracellular
medium.
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To summarize the temporal changes observed for pulmonary microvascular
endothelial cells in situ after the onset of ischemia, membrane
depolarization occurred within the first second, an increase in
intravascular H2O2 was detected between 1 and
2 s, and an increase in intracellular Ca2+ occurred
between 10 and 15 s (Fig. 4).
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DISCUSSION |
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Although numerous in vitro studies with endothelial cells have demonstrated a cellular response to increased shear stress (8, 10, 11, 14, 19), there have been relatively few studies of the effects of loss of shear stress, i.e., ischemia. Our previous studies with the isolated rat lung have indicated a relatively rapid response by the endothelium characterized by cell membrane depolarization (5), generation of ROS via a membrane-localized NADPH oxidase (4), increased intracellular Ca2+ (3, 22), activation of NO synthase with NO generation (3), and release of intracellular iron from its stores (6). In these studies, ventilation of the lung was continued during the ischemic period so that changes in tissue oxygenation were not responsible for the observed cellular responses and tissue ATP content was unchanged (5). We have reproduced these effects with pulmonary artery endothelial cells in vitro using both artificial capillary (24) and parallel plate (16) cell culture systems. These in vitro studies indicated that a period of flow adaptation (24-48 h) was necessary to elicit a subsequent response to ischemia. Obviously, endothelial cells in situ would be expected to be in a flow-adapted state.
To determine the temporal relationships among these responses to ischemia, we used high-speed videomicroscopy to image the temporal changes occurring in individual endothelial cells. We have shown previously, using similar dyes, that these fluorescent reporter molecules colocalize in cells that have accumulated fluorescent acetylated low-density lipoprotein and are clearly distinct from a fluorescent epithelial marker; thus, this imaging method reflects endothelial cells (4, 5, 22). In a previous investigation, we reported results for imaging endothelial NO production and intracellular Ca2+ in response to ischemia (3). In the present study, we imaged the changes in membrane potential, H2O2 generation, and intracellular Ca2+ concentration that occur during the first minute after loss of shear stress.
Our previous studies demonstrating ischemia-related endothelial depolarization used bis-oxonol, a slow-response membrane potential probe (5). Observation of fast kinetics in the present study was possible by using a fast-response probe (di-8-ANEPPS) and a near-video-rate digital-imaging technique. Dyes of the aminonaphthylethenylpridinium class have been widely used for the detection of submillisecond membrane potential changes in a variety of tissue, cell, and model membrane systems (12). Di-8-ANEPPS, an especially hydrophobic member of this class, is retained in the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane and thus reflects plasma membrane potential (12). In our observations with pulmonary endothelium, the dye had an apparent plasma membrane localization with no microscopic evidence for subcellular organellar distribution. Endothelial cells in situ exhibited increased di-8-ANEPPS fluorescence within the first second of ischemia, compatible with rapid plasma membrane depolarization. The gradual depolarization observed with a high-resolution time scale and the complete block of depolarization with lemakalim indicate that the response is not related to mechanical artifacts associated with abrupt stoppage of flow. The rapid depolarization (within a second) provides a strong indication that the phenomenon is an ion channel-mediated event. The plasma membrane electrical potential for endothelial cells in culture and perhaps in situ is maintained principally by inwardly rectifying K+ channels (1). Evidence for a role for K+ channels in ischemia-mediated depolarization is its inhibition with the K+ channel activators cromakalim (5) or lemakalim (present study).
Amplex Red was used to image the generation of ROS. This probe, which does not cross cell membranes, reacts with H2O2 in the presence of horseradish peroxidase to form the fluorescent product resorufin (12). The probe can detect 50 nM H2O2 (12). We have found that Amplex Red does not form resorufin in the presence of other reactive oxygen and nitrogen species such as superoxide anion, NO, peroxynitrite, and hydroxyl radical (data not shown). Complete inhibition of the ischemia-induced increase in Amplex Red fluorescence with catalase confirms specificity of the reaction for H2O2 under these conditions. Because the dye is not taken up by endothelial cells and fluorescence is retained in the perfusate, it serves as a marker of H2O2 released extracellularly. Although H2O2 is freely diffusible and could have originated from intracellular sites of generation, the rapid time course of its appearance (1-2 s) is suggestive of its formation from extracellularly released superoxide. Superoxide released on the endothelial cell outer surface can be converted spontaneously to H2O2 and more rapidly by the presence of membrane-bound extracellular superoxide dismutase. We propose that the superoxide-producing enzyme is a membrane-bound endothelial NADPH oxidase analogous to the oxidase of phagocytic cells. Endothelial cells possess the components of this superoxide-generating enzyme (4, 13), and we have shown its involvement in generation of ROS during ischemia by the loss of response in gp91phox knockout mice (4). The temporal response for H2O2 generation by the enzyme in the endothelial cells in situ appeared to be significantly faster than the response of phagocytes, where a longer lag period is observed between application of stimulus and enzyme activation (15). This lag period for phagocytes has been attributed to the requirement for translocation of cytosolic components to the membrane and assembly of the enzyme complex during activation (9). It is possible that the NADPH oxidase in endothelial cells is constitutively assembled but is minimally active under resting conditions; however, with ischemia, the activity may be enhanced as a result of some other regulatory mechanisms. The Ca2+ independence of the ischemia-mediated increase of Amplex Red fluorescence in the present study indicates that influx of Ca2+ is not required for activation of endothelial cell NADPH oxidase.
Fluo 3 was used as an intracellular probe that markedly increases in
fluorescence emission upon binding free Ca2+
(12). An increase in fluo 3 fluorescence indicated an
increase in intracellular Ca2+ that occurred after
10-15 s of ischemia. This initial increase of
intracellular Ca2+ was inhibited by preperfusion with
thapsigargin. At a later stage (>25 s), the increase in
Ca2+ was less sensitive to thapsigargin but was inhibited
by elimination of Ca2+ from the perfusate. This suggests a
two-phase process, with an initial Ca2+ elevation resulting
from release from intracellular stores and a subsequent influx of
extracellular Ca2+. The Ca2+ influx could be
through Ca2+ release-activated channels (17).
Alternatively, depolarization could lead to opening of slowly
responding voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels (e.g., T-type
channels). Previous reports have indicated that voltage-dependent
Ca2+ channels are not present in cultured endothelial cells
(18), although a voltage-dependent Ca2+
current compatible with a T-type channel has been shown for freshly isolated bovine adrenal capillary endothelial cells (7)
and recently for rat lung microvascular endothelial cells
(21). We have proposed that pulmonary endothelial cells in
situ constantly exposed to shear stress possess these channels although
they may be lost during static cell culture (22). The
estimated change in endothelial cell membrane potential of 17 mV with
ischemia would be sufficient to reach the activation potential
for T-type Ca2+ channels (17).
The temporal relationships thus established by combining this and our
previous study using the isolated rat lung (3) indicate the following sequence of events occurring in endothelial cells during
the first minute of ischemia: membrane depolarization, H2O2 generation, increase in intracellular
Ca2+, and NO generation. This sequence is similar to that
observed with bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells adapted to flow in vitro in a parallel plate chamber (16). These initial
events with ischemia are followed by activation of nuclear
factor-B and activator protein-1 and endothelial cell proliferation
(24). The fast and orderly occurrence of the initial
responses indicates that shear stress and its sensing by appropriate
sensors play an important role in homeostasis of the endothelial cell.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank Elaine Primerano for typing the manuscript.
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FOOTNOTES |
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This research was supported by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Grant HL-60290 (Specialized Center of Research in Acute Lung Injury).
The data in this manuscript have been presented in part at the annual meeting of the American Thoracic Society held in San Francisco, CA, May 18-23, 2001.
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: A. B. Fisher, Institute for Environmental Medicine, Univ. of Pennsylvania, Medical Center, One John Morgan Bldg., 3620 Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104 (E-mail: abf{at}mail.med.upenn.edu).
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Received 5 February 2001; accepted in final form 30 May 2001.
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