Departments of 1 Pediatrics and 4 Physiology and Functional Genomics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610; and Departments of 2 Child Health and 3 Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211
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ABSTRACT |
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Endotoxemia stimulates endogenous nitric oxide formation, induces transcription of arginine transporters, and causes lung injury. Hypothermia inhibits nitric oxide formation and is used as a means of organ preservation. We hypothesized that hypothermia inhibits endotoxin-induced intrapulmonary nitric oxide formation and that this inhibition is associated with attenuated transcription of enzymes that regulate nitric oxide formation, such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and the cationic amino acid transporters 1 (CAT-1) and 2 (CAT-2). Rats were anesthetized and randomized to treatment with hypothermia (18-24°C) or normothermia (36-38°C). Endotoxin was administered intravascularly. Concentrations of iNOS, CAT-1, CAT-2 mRNA, iNOS protein, and nitrosylated proteins were measured in lung tissue homogenates. We found that hypothermia abrogated the endotoxin-induced increase in exhaled nitric oxide and lung tissue nitrotyrosine concentrations. Western blot analyses revealed that hypothermia inhibited iNOS, but not endothelial nitric oxide synthase, protein expression in lung tissues. CAT-1, CAT-2, and iNOS mRNA concentrations were lower in the lungs of hypothermic animals. These findings suggest that hypothermia protects against intrapulmonary nitric oxide overproduction and nitric oxide-mediated lung injury by inhibiting transcription of iNOS, CAT-1, and CAT-2.
lipopolysaccharide; nitrotyrosine; arginine transport
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INTRODUCTION |
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INDUCIBLE NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE (iNOS) has been shown in rat models of endotoxemia (47), gram-positive sepsis (15), and ischemia-reperfusion injury (41, 42) to be primarily responsible for endogenous intrapulmonary nitric oxide overproduction. Endotoxins stimulate various cell types within the lung, including bronchial epithelia (7), pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (30), macrophages (47), and neutrophils (52), to overexpress iNOS. Increases in exhaled concentrations of nitric oxide have been shown to be a noninvasive indicator of lung injury during endotoxemia (38).
Recently, inhibition of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) has been considered as a possible treatment for endotoxemia. Selective inhibition of iNOS has been shown to decrease exhaled concentrations of nitric oxide and attenuate lung injury (45). Endotoxin infused into iNOS-knockout mice fails to induce intrapulmonary nitric oxide formation and causes less lung injury than it does in wild-type mice (17). Interestingly, one group of investigators found that nonselective inhibition of NOS during endotoxemia decreases exhaled nitric oxide concentrations yet promotes lung injury (1). Whether nitric oxide mediates or simply indicates endotoxin-induced lung injury remains controversial.
As with all NOS isoforms, iNOS catalyzes the formation of nitric oxide and citrulline from arginine. In macrophages (50) and other cell types (37), cytosolic access to extracellular arginine is regulated by membrane-bound cationic amino acid transporters, such as CAT-1 and CAT-2. CAT-1 has been found to transport arginine in the lung as well as a variety of other tissues (9, 23, 37). CAT-2 has a higher affinity for arginine than does CAT-1 (22) and has been found in alveolar macrophages (8) and pulmonary artery endothelial cells (27). Using a silica-exposed rat model, a group of investigators recently showed that increases in intrapulmonary arginine uptake correspond with coinduction of CAT-1 and CAT-2 (26). Macrophages isolated from mice deficient in CAT-2 exhibit dramatically impaired ability to shuttle arginine intracellularly and produce nitric oxide in response to endotoxin (28). Interestingly, arginine-deficient diets have been shown to limit nitric oxide production in rats (50). We therefore believe that the cationic amino acid transporters are key regulators of intrapulmonary overproduction of nitric oxide by endotoxin.
Albeit controversial, hypothermia has been used clinically and experimentally as an anti-inflammatory therapy for injury associated with increases in systemic nitric oxide production such as cardiopulmonary bypass (4, 11, 43), brain trauma (3), and severe bacterial meningitis (2, 13, 33, 46). Hypothermia was shown to decrease circulating concentrations of nitrates and nitrites in all these models (13, 31, 34, 53). The effect of hypothermia on intrapulmonary nitric oxide formation remains unclear. Moreover, the effect of temperature regulation on intrapulmonary nitric oxide by CAT-1 and CAT-2 has not been previously studied.
We tested the hypothesis that hypothermia inhibits iNOS, CAT-1, and CAT-2 mRNA and decreases exhaled nitric oxide in the lungs of endotoxemic rats. We also sought to determine whether hypothermia could attenuate nitric oxide-mediated injury as indicated by decreased intrapulmonary nitrotyrosine concentrations. We speculate that exhaled nitric oxide concentrations could eventually serve as a useful indicator of temperature-mediated influences on lung inflammation. We also speculate that dissecting the nitric oxide-related mechanisms affected by hypothermia could lead to improved organ preservation strategies.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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Surgical Preparation and Endotoxin Administration
Fifteen male Sprague-Dawley rats (Charles River Laboratory, Key Lois, FL; 280-350 g) were fed a standard laboratory chow and provided water ad libitum until the day of the experiment. The Institutional Animal Use and Care Committee of the University of Florida approved the experiments, and the care and handling of the animals were in accordance with National Institutes of Health (NIH) guidelines. Animals were anesthetized with halothane followed by an intramuscular injection of a mixture of ketamine and xylazine (100 and 10 mg/kg body wt, respectively). Three rats were sham instrumented to control for the effects of instrumentation. The other rats were randomized into two groups: hypothermia (n = 6, 18-24°C) and normothermia (n = 6, 36-38°C). The rats in the hypothermia group were placed on an ice pack; the rats in the normothermia and sham groups were placed on a heating pad. A rectal temperature probe was inserted, and temperature was maintained within the temperature range for the group. Polyethylene (PE-50) catheters were inserted in the right carotid artery for continuous blood pressure monitoring using a polygraph (model MP 100, Biopac, Santa Barbara, CA) and for fluid infusion. A tracheostomy was then performed, and a 14-gauge catheter was secured in the trachea and connected to a mechanical breathing circuit.After the airway was secured, all animals were paralyzed with
pancuronium bromide (1 mg/kg iv). Ventilation was controlled with a
small animal ventilator (rodent model 683, Harvard Apparatus, South
Natick, MA) using a 4-ml tidal volume of room air at 35 breaths/min.
Samples of arterial blood (70 µl) were analyzed using a commercial
blood gas analyzer (I-STAT, Princeton, NJ). Before the experiments were
started, the ventilation rate was adjusted to ensure arterial
PCO2 between 40 and 45 mmHg. The animals were then allowed to acclimate to the experimental conditions for 20 min
before collection of data. When the animals had acclimated to the
conditions, Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (15 mg/kg; Sigma-Aldridge, St. Louis, MO) was given intravascularly to the normothermic and hypothermic rats to induce endotoxemia. An identical volume of normal saline (1 ml) was given intravascularly to the sham
group. Animals were monitored for 150 min after the infusion of endotoxin.
Exhaled Nitric Oxide Measurement
The exhaled gas was collected in a 250-ml polyvinyl bag that was connected to the exhaust outlet of the ventilator. The exhaled nitric oxide concentration was measured every 30 min by connection of the polyvinyl bag to a chemiluminescence nitric oxide analyzer (model 280, Sievers, Boulder, CO). Before each experiment, the analyzer was calibrated using nitrogen stock passed through a charcoal filter and a 1,300-ppb nitric oxide stock tested against standards traceable to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (Air Liquide, Houston, TX).Tissue Sample Collection
At the end of the experiment, the animals were killed. The lungs were quickly removed, snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored atRT-PCR
RT. Total RNA was extracted from snap-frozen lung samples using TRIzol Reagent (Life Technologies, Rockville, MD). The integrity of isolated total RNA was determined using 1% agarose gel electrophoresis, and RNA concentrations were determined by ultraviolet light absorbance at a wavelength of 260 nm. RNA samples were incubated with RNase-free DNase 1 (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, Piscataway, NJ) for 15 min at 37°C and extracted by a phenol-chloroform technique. Moloney murine leukemia virus reverse transcriptase and random hexamer primers (Ready-to-Go RT-PCR beads, Amersham) were used to reverse transcribe all mRNA species to cDNA. The reaction was incubated for 30 min at 42°C in a thermocycler. The cDNA samples were then incubated at 95°C for 5 min in the thermocycler to inactivate the reverse transcriptase. Samples were screened for genomic DNA contamination by carrying samples through the PCR procedure without addition of reverse transcriptase.
PCR.
Reverse transcriptase-generated cDNA encoding iNOS, CAT-2, and 18S rRNA
were amplified using PCR. 18S rRNA was used as an internal control.
cDNA from 18S rRNA was amplified with a QuantumRNA primer-competimer
set (Ambion, Austin, TX) to allow semiquantitation of ethidium bromide
bands. Because 18S rRNA was far more abundant than the mRNA studied in
this experiment, the 18S rRNA amplification reaction was inhibited by
addition of competimers. Pilot experiments were performed to
optimize the ratio of primers to competimers, the cycle number, and the
amount of cDNA to yield multiplex PCR products that were in the linear
range of amplification. The PCR cocktail consisted of 5 µl of an 18S
rRNA primer-competimer (4:6) mix, 2.5 µl of 10× high-fidelity PCR
buffer (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA), 0.5 µl of 10 mM dNTP mixture, 5 µl of 1 µM forward target primer, 5 µl of 1 µM reverse target
primer, 1 µl of 50 mM MgSO4, 0.25 µl of platinum
Taq high-fidelity (Invitrogen), 4 µl of template DNA, and
1.75 µl of H2O. PCR was performed in a thermocycler (MJ Research, Watertown, MA). The PCR procedure consisted of 2 min at
94°C followed by 34 cycles of denaturing for 40 s at 94°C, annealing for 40 s at 55°C, and extension for 40 s at
68°C. The oligonucleotide primer sequences are shown in Table
1 and were designed from published rat
DNA sequences from the nucleotide database of the National Library of
BioInformatics for iNOS, CAT-1, and CAT-2. A negative control for each
set of PCR contained water instead of the DNA template. All PCR
products were electrophoretically separated on a 1% agarose gel and
then stained with ethidium bromide. A gel documentation system (Gel Doc
2000, Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA) was used to visualize the PCR
products. Densitometric techniques were then performed to quantify the
DNA band densities using National Institutes of Health software (Scion,
Frederick, MD).
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Real-Time PCR
Quantitative real-time PCR was performed using the GeneAmp 5700 sequence detection system (Applied Biosystems), SYBR green core reagents (catalog no. 4304886, Applied Biosystems), and Ampli-Taq gold polymerase. Primer sequences for each real-time PCR are listed in Table 2. Varied concentrations of cDNA were used to generate the calibration curve for each primer set. Forty cycles of PCR were performed twice for each primer set using 25-µl reactions, and cDNA loading was normalized to rat 18S rRNA according to the Applied Biosystems protocol. The amount of gene transcript was measured using the comparative (2
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Immunoblotting Assay
For the detection of iNOS and endothelial NOS (eNOS), frozen lung samples were thawed immediately before analysis and homogenized in 5 vol of boiling lysis buffer (1% SDS, 1.0 mM sodium orthovanadate, and 10 mM Tris, pH 7.4). After the crude homogenates were microwaved for 10-15 s, they were centrifuged at 15°C for 5 min at 16,000 g, and the supernatants were collected for analysis. The protein concentration of each sample was measured using a bicinchoninic acid protein assay kit (Pierce Chemical, Rockford, IL). An equal volume of 2× sample buffer (250 mM Tris, pH 6.8, 4% SDS, 10% glycerol, 0.006% bromphenol blue, and 2%Proteins were separated by SDS-gel electrophoresis. Equal amounts of protein (65 µg) were loaded onto each well of 7.5% Tris-glycine precast polyacrylamide gels (Bio-Rad) and separated by gel electrophoresis at 50 V of constant voltage for 180 min using a Mini-Protean electrophoresis system (Bio-Rad). The proteins were then transferred from gels to nitrocellulose membranes (Bio-Rad) at 100-V constant voltage for 60 min in transfer buffer (25 mM Tris, 190 mM glycine, 20% methanol, and 0.05% SDS). The nitrocellulose membranes were then immediately placed into blocking buffer (5% nonfat dry milk, 10 mM Tris, pH 7.5, 100 mM sodium chloride, and 0.1% Tween 20) and left at room temperature for 60 min. After the membranes were blocked, they were incubated overnight at 4°C in primary antibody solution (1:1,000 dilution in blocking buffer, murine monoclonal iNOS, IgG2a, antibody; Transduction Laboratories, Lexington, KY; or 1:1,000 dilution in blocking buffer, murine monoclonal eNOS, IgG2a, antibody; Transduction Laboratories). According to the manufacturer, neither antibody cross-reacts with other isoforms of NOS. Horseradish peroxidase-conjugated sheep anti-mouse IgG antibody (1:2,000 dilution in blocking buffer; Amersham) was used as a secondary antibody. Bound antibody was detected by chemiluminescence (ECL plus kit, Amersham). The bands were expected at a size of 130 and 140 kDa for iNOS and eNOS, respectively. Densitometric techniques were performed to quantify the protein band densities using NIH software (Scion).
Nitrotyrosine Enzyme-Linked Immune Assay
Lung tissue was prepared for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay by adding potassium phosphate-EDTA buffer (PE buffer) at 15 times the weight of the tissue. PE buffer was made by adding 1.36 g of KH2PO4 and 0.37 g of Na2EDTA to 1 liter of H2O as the pH was adjusted to 7.4. The tissue was homogenized on ice for 1 min and spun in a centrifuge at 10,000 g for 10 min. The pellet was discarded, and the supernatant was stored atStatistical Analysis
The one-way analysis of variance was used to analyze all data. The Student-Newman-Keuls test was used to determine whether differences between the normothermia and hypothermia results existed when the analysis of variance yielded a significant result. A significance level was set as 0.05. Data were processed using SigmaStat for Windows (version 2.03, SPSS, Chicago, IL) and are shown as means ± SD. ![]() |
RESULTS |
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Exhaled Nitric Oxide
The mean concentrations of exhaled nitric oxide for both groups are shown in Fig. 1. In the normothermia group, exhaled nitric oxide concentrations began increasing ~60 min after infusion of the endotoxin. At the end of the experiment (at 150 min), exhaled nitric oxide concentration was 73.5 ± 12.4 ppb in this group. In the hypothermia group, exhaled nitric oxide concentrations remained unchanged throughout the experiment. The mean exhaled nitric oxide concentration at the end of the experiment in the hypothermia group was 2.4 ± 1.2 ppb. At the end of the experiment, exhaled nitric oxide concentrations were dramatically lower in the hypothermia than in the normothermia group (P < 0.001). Also, at the end of the experiment, exhaled nitric oxide concentration for three sham-treated controls was 4.6 ± 1.2 ppb.
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RT-PCR Assay
Quantitation using densitometry showed that the relative densities of iNOS mRNA bands normalized to 18S rRNA in rat lungs were lower in the hypothermia than the normothermia group (P < 0.001; Fig. 2). Likewise, the relative densities of CAT-1 and CAT-2 mRNA in the rat lungs were lower in the hypothermia than in the normothermia group [P < 0.001 (Fig. 3) and P < 0.001 (Fig. 4)].
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Real-Time PCR
Analysis with quantitative PCR using the manufacturer's protocol showed that hypothermia decreased iNOS, CAT-1, and CAT-2 mRNA levels in the rat lungs. The sham-instrumented animals served as baseline for the calculation of mRNA expression for each gene of interest. Quantitation utilizing the 2Immunoblotting Assay
Figure 5 shows Western blots performed with a monoclonal anti-iNOS antibody reacted against rat lung homogenates from the normothermia and hypothermia groups. Densitometric analysis of iNOS protein bands indicated higher levels of the protein in the lungs of the normothermia than the hypothermia group (P = 0.003). Figure 6 shows Western blots performed with a monoclonal anti-eNOS antibody against the same rat lung homogenates. Densitometric analysis of eNOS protein bands showed no significant difference between the two groups (P = 0.062).
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Intrapulmonary Concentrations of Nitrotyrosine
Figure 7 illustrates the results for the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for nitrotyrosine. The normothermia group exhibited a high concentration of intrapulmonary nitrotyrosine, and the hypothermia therapy attenuated this formation of nitrotyrosine (8.1 ± 2.8 vs. 2.19 ± 0.50 ng/g wet wt, P < 0.001). The mean concentration of nitrotyrosine in three sham-instrumented animals was 0.169 ± 0.054 ng/g wet wt.
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DISCUSSION |
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This study demonstrates in a whole animal model that hypothermia attenuates the induction of intrapulmonary iNOS, CAT-1, and CAT-2 transcription caused by endotoxemia. Decreased formation of iNOS mRNA was associated with a decrease in iNOS expression in the hypothermic rat lungs. Hypothermia also attenuated overall enzymatic formation of intrapulmonary nitric oxide, as demonstrated by decreased concentrations of nitric oxide in exhaled gas and nitrosylated tyrosine residues on lung tissue proteins.
Because the regulation of endogenous nitric oxide production varies
with each isoform of NOS, selective isoform inhibition strategies may
provide therapeutic advantages over nonselective isoform inhibition
strategies. Nonselective inhibition with
N-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester
(L-NAME) has been shown to inhibit the hypotension
(45) associated with sepsis in various animal models.
However, inhibition of NOS using L-NAME has been shown to
increase mortality (25) and worsen lung (1),
heart (20, 49), and liver (20, 21) injury
during endotoxemia. This phenomenon has been attributed to
L-NAME's inhibition of eNOS-derived nitric oxide, which
preserves endothelium vasodilation (6) and prevents
leukocyte adhesion (32). Selective inhibition of iNOS, on
the other hand, has been shown to inhibit nitric oxide-dependent hypotension (16, 39, 48) and to ameliorate lung
(29), heart (49), and liver damage
(20) during septic shock. Selective iNOS inhibition has
also been shown to decrease mortality in endotoxin-treated mice and
rats (19, 20, 40). Our results reveal that the effects of
hypothermia on nitric oxide formation mimic those of selective iNOS inhibition.
The downregulation of CAT-1 and CAT-2 in hypothermic lungs is an important finding of this study. We (37) and others (9) have demonstrated in cell culture models that these transporters regulate nitric oxide production by iNOS. One group of investigators found that intranasal instillation of the fungus Fusarium kyushuense induces intrapulmonary mRNA expression of CAT-2 mRNA and argininosuccinate synthetase, an enzyme responsible for regeneration of arginine from citrulline (23). Another group of investigators found that exposure to silica induced an eightfold increase in CAT-1 and CAT-2 mRNA in rat lungs (26). This increase in mRNA expression of arginine transporters was associated with an increase in arginine uptake. Realizing that several studies (9, 24, 27), including our own (37), have shown that changes in arginine uptake ordinarily parallel changes in CAT-1 and/or CAT-2 mRNA expression, we believe that our data support the idea that hypothermia inhibits endotoxin-induced intrapulmonary arginine uptake.
Although we found that hypothermia can decrease endotoxin-induced
nitric oxide production by inhibiting transcription of iNOS and CAT-2,
the exact mechanism remains unknown. Several studies suggest the
involvement of IL-10, which increases during hypothermia (18,
43). IL-10 has been shown to induce apoptosis in
neutrophils (5) and monocytes (35), two of
the cells responsible for nitric oxide production. We have shown that
IL-10 directly attenuates nitric oxide production in murine macrophages
by downregulating iNOS and CAT-2 (12). Others have shown
that IL-10 inhibits nitric oxide production by inhibiting nuclear
factor-B (10, 51), the transcription factor responsible
for iNOS and CAT-2 expression. Thus the effects of hypothermia on IL-10
and nuclear factor-
B warrant further investigation.
The inhibition of nitric oxide formation caused by hypothermia may offer important insight into mechanisms controlling the well-recognized adaptive advantages regarding vasomotor control of heat preservation. Previous studies have shown that formation of nitric oxide mediates cutaneous vasorelaxation caused by hyperthermia (14). Other studies have shown that inhibition of nitric oxide formation mediates vasoconstriction in the brain (36, 44). We speculate that arginine transporters and nitric oxide may be involved in regulating heat preservation through their effects on vascular tone.
Several important limitations to our study exist. One limitation relates to interspecies differences suggested by the finding that our rats continued to have a normal cardiac rhythm at a core temperature of 18-24°C. At these temperatures, human subjects ordinarily spontaneously arrest their cardiac function. Another limitation is that the effects of rewarming on nitric oxide formation in our model are unknown; however, we intentionally designed the study to reveal the effects of hypothermia on nitric oxide formation, rather than provide rationale for hypothermia therapy.
In summary, hypothermia inhibits the formation of iNOS during endotoxemia at the transcriptional level. This inhibition of iNOS abrogates intrapulmonary nitric oxide formation and the resultant oxidative protein injury. The inhibition of nitric oxide expression by hypothermia may explain some of the therapeutic benefits of hypothermia that have been observed in patients who have meningitis and who undergo cardiac surgery. Elucidating the therapeutic mechanisms of hypothermia may lead to improved means of organ preservation.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank K. M. Kelly for assisting in performing the PCR assays.
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FOOTNOTES |
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This work was supported, in part, by NIH Grant 5M01RR000082-390655 and American Heart Association Grant 0151064B awarded to J. W. Skimming.
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: J. W. Skimming, Dept. of Child Health, One Hospital Dr., Columbia, MO 65211 (E-mail: skimmingj{at}missouri.edu).
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
August 2, 2002;10.1152/ajplung.00102.2002
Received 5 April 2002; accepted in final form 16 July 2002.
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