Department of Medicine I, University of Ulm, D-89081 Ulm, Germany
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ABSTRACT |
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Bile acids, amphipathic detergent-like molecules synthesized from cholesterol, are highly conserved by means of enterohepatic circulation. They participate in the generation of bile flow and biliary lipid secretion and also promote absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and lipids. Conversion of cholesterol to bile acids represents a quantitatively important route to eliminate cholesterol from the body. Regulation of bile acid synthesis involves a complex and interrelated group of transcription regulators that link bile acid synthesis to cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism. Targeting key steps of bile acid synthetic pathways as well as the metabolic network that maintains homeostatic levels of lipids should provide exciting novel opportunities for the treatment of cardiovascular and liver diseases.
cholesterol; sterol carrier protein 2; steroid acute response; transcription factors; atherosclerosis
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INTRODUCTION |
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BILE ACIDS ARE NATURAL end products of cholesterol. They are exclusively synthesized in the liver in a process that is regulated by many factors including nutrients, hormones, and bile acids. It is well established that regulation of bile acid synthesis occurs in a feed-forward mechanism by modulating intracellular cholesterol availability. After their absorption from the intestine, bile acids return to the liver and inhibit their own synthesis in a feedback regulatory loop. Recently, both regulatory mechanisms have been shown to mainly occur at the transcriptional level. The synthesis of bile acids was initially thought to involve a single major pathway. In fact, employing modern biochemical and molecular biological tools have facilitated the cloning of key regulatory enzymes of additional bile acid synthesis pathways. Each pathway differs in the initial steps, and cholesterol from extrahepatic tissues (e.g. macrophages, brain) may be used for bile acid formation too. Studying the regulation of bile acid synthetic enzymes in vitro and in vivo revealed that not only well-known key enzymes, but also cholesterol delivery to mitochondria may represent a rate-limiting step in bile acid synthesis. Extensive research into nuclear receptor-mediated regulation of bile acid synthesis highlighted a complex interrelationship between bile acid and oxysterol regulation of additional enzymes of bile acid, cholesterol, and fatty acid metabolism. The purpose of this review is to highlight new developments and to point out common molecular and biochemical principles that broaden our understanding of the complex biological processes that link bile acid synthesis to lipid metabolism.
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PATHWAYS OF BILE ACID SYNTHESIS |
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Cholic acid (CA) and chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA), the two major
human bile acids, are synthesized from cholesterol in a series of
reactions catalyzed by enzymes located in the endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria, cytosol, and peroxisomes. In the past, it has
become clear that synthesis of CA and CDCA occurs via several pathways (Fig. 1). Each pathway differs in the
initial steps and involves distinct hydroxylases that modify the
steroid nucleus and the steroid side chain, thereby converting
water-insoluble cholesterol molecules into water-soluble bile acids.
Initial branching in early steps of bile acid synthesis involves
7-hydroxylation of either cholesterol or one of three oxysterols
containing a hydroxyl group at the C24, C25, or C27 position of the
side chain (11).
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Cholesterol 7-Hydroxylase Pathway
The Sterol 27-Hydroxylase Pathway
This biosynthetic pathway is commonly referred to as the "acidic" bile acid synthesis pathway. CDCA is the main product synthesized by this pathway in which oxidative cleavage of the side chain precedes modifications of the steroid nucleus. The initial step is catalyzed by CYP27A1, which resides on inner mitochondrial membranes and also catalyzes 27-hydroxylation of bile acid intermediates of the CYP7A1 pathway, 5In the adrenal gland, delivery of cholesterol to the inner mitochondrial membrane by steroid acute response (StAR) protein is essential for steroidogenesis. StAR protein also has been shown to stimulate CYP27A1 activity (33). It is therefore attractive to speculate that increasing cholesterol delivery to and into mitochondria may increase bile acid synthesis via CYP27A1. Sterol carrier protein 2 (SCP2) has been implicated in cholesterol transport to mitochondria (5), where it may stimulate 27-hydroxylation of cholesterol. Localization of SCP2 in liver cytosol and mitochondria is fully consistent with this concept. In addition, hepatic overexpression as well as homozygous disruption of Scp2 demonstrated that both CYP27A1 and CYP7B1 are under control of SCP2-mediated intracellular trafficking events (20, 37). Recent elegant in vitro studies demonstrated that elevated StAR protein levels are associated with increased CDCA synthesis that is more pronounced than achieved by elevated CYP27A1 expression (22). In addition, by overexpressing StAR in the bile fistula rat, a model believed to achieve maximal bile acid synthesis rates, a significant increase in bile acid synthesis occured. These findings are in line with the concept that cholesterol transport to the inner mitochondrial membrane is the predominant rate-limiting step in this pathway. Although the liver lacks StAR expression, transport of cholesterol to the inner mitochondrial membrane is absolutely required for 27-hydroxylation, which may be accomplished by StAR-like proteins such as StAR4 and StAR5 (30).
CYP27A1 is not only expressed in hepatocytes, but also in peripheral
tissues such as macrophages and vascular endothelium. Most of the
27-hydroxycholesterol generated is packed into lipoproteins and
transported to the liver. After receptor-mediated uptake and generation
of free sterols, 7-hydroxylation occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum. Subsequent transformation to
5
-cholestane-3
,7
,27-triol and
5
-cholestane-3
,7
,12
,27-tetrol occurs before completion of
side-chain oxidation in the mitochondria and peroxisomes to yield CDCA
and CA, respectively.
The Cholesterol 25-Hydroxylase Pathway
Cholesterol 25-hydroxylase is expressed at low levels in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus in most tissues. Regulation of this enzyme not belonging to the cytochrome P-450 family is unknown. Cholesterol 25-hydroxlase is a substrate for oxysterol 7The Cholesterol 24-Hydroxylase Pathway
Brain cholesterol resides mainly in plasma membranes of myelin sheaths and contains ~25% of total body cholesterol mass. Because the blood-brain barrier prevents cholesterol exchange with circulating lipoproteins, cholesterol removal from brain appears to require side-chain hydroxylation and formation of oxysterols, which facilitate the ability to pass plasma membranes and the blood-brain barrier. Cholesterol 24-hydroxlase (CYP46), a cytochrome P-450 enzyme, almost exclusively expressed in the endoplasmic reticulum of brain, catalyzes the formation of 24-hydroxycholesterol (17). So far, mechanisms regulating the expression and activity of CYP46 are not well known. The fact that the daily flux of 24-hydroxycholesterol from the brain into the jugular vein is similar to the uptake of 24-hydroxycholesterol by the liver is consistent with the brain as the major producer and the liver as the major excretory organ of 24-hydroxycholesterol. Recent studies (4) suggest that approximately one-half of 24-hydroxycholesterol is excreted into bile following conjugation with sulphuric and glucuronic acid. Formation of bile acids from the other half of 24-hydroxycholesterol requires 7Relative Contributions of the Different Synthetic Pathways
The relative contribution of CYP7A1 and CYP27A1 to total bile acid synthesis was studied in adult patients that had their gallbladders removed. The efficient conversion of [3H]7Relatively little data are available in humans to generate a complete picture of bile acid synthesis at neonatal age where CYP7A1 is absent (28). In contrast to maternal bile, fetal gallbladder bile is composed of a high proportion of CDCA that cannot be attributed to placental exchange alone. This supports the concept of a metabolic pathway that begins with CYP27A1 and generates monohydroxy bile acids. Proper expression of CYP7B1 at this age is critical, as evident from severe cholestatic liver disease in the absence of CYP7B1 activity (28). It is unknown, however, at what time during development that the CYP7A1 pathway contributes to and later on dominates bile acid synthesis.
In patients with chronic liver disease, however, the situation appears to be quite different. Numerous acidic but few neutral pathway intermediates are present in plasma of cirrhotic patients, which almost exclusively synthesize CDCA, albeit at low levels (11). Bile acid and cholesterol metabolism may be quite different between humans and rodents. This becomes evident with respect to the acidic pathway, which may contribute >50% to total bile acid synthesis in the rat and mouse. Thus, when it comes to bile acid and cholesterol metabolism, findings in rodents may not necessarily reflect the situation in humans.
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TRANSCRIPTION REGULATORS AT THE CROSSROADS BETWEEN BILE ACID SYNTHESIS AND LIPID METABOLISM: A MARRIED LIFE |
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Liver X Receptor
Bile acid levels in the enterohepatic circulation are under tight negative feedback control, mainly achieved through transcriptional control of bile acid synthetic enzymes involving farnesoid X receptor (FXR) (6) (Fig. 2). Liver X receptor (LXR) is a master regulator of a feed-forward mechanism that helps to maintain cholesterol homeostasis. On activation by oxysterols, LXR forms heterodimers with the retinoid X receptor, which induce the expression of several genes that facilitate intestinal sterol excretion and reverse cholesterol transport. In the liver, 7
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Sterol Regulatory Element Binding Proteins
Sterol regulatory element binding proteins (SREBPs) are membrane-bound transcription factors that play crucial roles in controlling cholesterol homeostasis, fatty acid synthesis, and carbohydrate metabolism. Two sequential proteolytic cleavage steps allow binding of mature SREBPs to sterol regulatory elements within the promoter region of target genes. SREBP1 appears to regulate genes primarily involved in fatty acid synthesis, and SREBP2 is more relevant for cholesterogenic genes. With regard to bile acid synthesis, it is of interest that dietary cholesterol on one hand may activate 7Peroxisomal Proliferator Activator Receptors
Peroxisomal proliferator activator receptors (PPARs) are nuclear receptors activated by polyunsaturated fatty acids and various synthetic ligands such as fibrates. They play a dual role in the regulation of fatty acid metabolism as well as in regulating cholesterol metabolism by modulating the expression of enzymes involved in the reverse cholesterol transport pathway and bile acid synthesis. Predominantly expressed in macrophages, PPARHepatocyte Nuclear Factors
This family of nuclear receptors is highly expressed in liver and important for liver function. Hepatocyte nuclear factors (HNF)1 ![]() |
PRIMARY DEFECTS IN BILE ACID SYNTHESIS |
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Liver disease due to defects of bile acid synthesis is related to
deficiencies of CYP7B1, 3-hydroxy-
5-C27
steroid oxidoreductase, and 3-oxo-
4-steroid
5
-reductase enzymes (11). Until recently, detection of
accumulated bile acid precursors in serum and urine has facilitated diagnosis of these rare disorders. Clinical manifestations include neonatal hepatitis, progressive cholestasis, fat malabsorption, and
neurological symptoms. Because these diseases may be treated with bile
acids, early diagnosis is important.
Contrary to these defects, CYP7A1 deficiency in adults apparently is not associated with severe liver disease but rather with hyperlipidemia, premature atherosclerosis, and gallstone formation (23). As expected, upregulation of the CYP27A1 pathway occurred but could not prevent accumulation of hepatic cholesterol and probably also of oxysterols. Hypertriglyceridemia under these conditions may be explained by LXR-mediated induction of SREBP1c with subsequent elevated synthesis of triglycerides (25). Because low bile acid levels may downregulate apoC-II in a FXR-dependent fashion, this may cause insufficient removal of triglycerides by hepatic lipase.
In patients with cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis, CYP27A1 mutations decrease total bile acid synthesis, particularly of CDCA. Despite normal serum cholesterol levels these patients develop tendon xanthomatosis, accumulation of cholesterol in tissue, progressive neurological dysfunction, and premature atherosclerosis, most likely reflecting reduced elimination of cholesterol from macrophages. This is in line with a flux of 27-hydroxycholesterol to the liver for further transformation into bile acids. Early diagnosis of cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis is important, because progression of this disease may be prevented by treatment with bile acids and inhibitors of cholesterol synthesis.
The availability of mice with disruption of genes encoding bile acid synthetic enzymes such as Cyp7a1, Cyp7b1, and Cyp27a1 has provided novel insights into bile acid synthesis pathways and cholesterol homeostasis. Due to species differences in genes that govern bile acid synthesis, however, knockout mouse models may be of limited use when extrapolating results to the situation in humans.
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WHERE NO ONE HAS GONE BEFORE |
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Having summarized in brief some of the achievements of bile acid research in the past, I will also attempt to highlight two important challenges for the future: one is bile acid biochemistry and the other is bile acids as modulators of cholesterol metabolism.
From Biochemical Pathways to Detection of Genetic Defects
Healthy humans synthesize approximately twice as much CA as CDCA. This is intriguing, because 7Targeting Bile Acid Synthesis to Prevent Deposition of Excess Cholesterol
A second area of future research that will generate much interest is the liver as a therapeutic target for atherosclerotic vascular disease, the leading cause of death in the industrialized world. Formation of 27-hydroxycholesterol returning to the liver for bile acid synthesis removes cholesterol deposited in the vascular endothelium and may be regarded as an antiatherogenic mechanism able to reduce the accumulation of cholesterol. This is supported by the fact that premature atherosclerosis and accumulation of excess cholesterol in xanthoma is observed in individuals with cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis. The relative importance of this mechanism in relation to the high-density lipoprotein-mediated reverse cholesterol transport, however, is unknown. It is reasonable to hypothesize that persistence of the CYP27A1 pathway into adulthood would protect against later development of atherosclerosis. Increasing bile acid synthesis by targeting biosynthetic enzymes directly may represent an antiatherogenic mechanism. CYP27A1 overexpression in a transgenic mouse model demonstrated no significant increase in bile acid synthesis (18), suggesting that this may not be a suitable approach to decrease serum cholesterol levels. However, one has to consider that substrate delivery to mitochondria is rate limiting and, therefore, increasing cholesterol delivery to mitochondria may be required for sufficient upregulation of bile acid synthesis. Employing mice with overexpression of StAR or StAR-like protein should give the answer. Nevertheless, increasing net cholesterol movement from extrahepatic tissues to the liver may not necessarily augment cholesterol flux through the entire reverse cholesterol transport pathway (2), indicating that multiple steps have to be targeted at the same time to achieve a sufficient metabolic response. Alternatively, targeting 7Strategies targeted at LXR may hold great promise as future treatments for atherosclerosis. Although LXR activation is associated with upregulation of SREBP1 target genes (25), causing fatty livers and elevated triglyceride levels, the latter may be short lived. The answer may be LXR modulators that induce the cholesterol-metabolizing pathway but not the fatty acid pathway. Although this will require a diligent approach, there is a precedent in selective estrogen-receptor modulators. Unfortunately, the CYP7A1 gene is not stimulated by dietary cholesterol, which is attributable to the inability of the CYP7A1 gene promoter to interact with LXR (1). It thus remains a significant challenge to achieve induction of CYP7A1 expression in a therapeutic intervention. FXR antagonists should prevent feedback regulation of bile acid synthesis and stimulate CYP7A1 expression. Because an increase in bile acid synthesis may, in turn, stimulate FXR, thereby inhibiting bile acid synthesis, a combination therapy of FXR antagonists and LXR agonists or compounds that activate both nuclear receptors may be used alternatively. Reducing intestinal bile acid absorption by administration of bile acid sequestrants is yet another possibility to induce bile acid synthesis. More potent forms of these drugs have recently been developed, but inhibitors of the ileal bile acid transporter may be more effective in increasing bile acid synthesis (26). With recent concern over rhabdomyolysis with statins, particularly when combined with fibrates, there may be renewed interest in inhibitors of bile acid absorption as an alternative or complementary approach.
Over the past decades, the field of bile acid research has witnessed a number of both basic and clinical discoveries. Initially, it was believed that measurements of serum bile acids are of diagnostic value. Then physicians' attention was caught by the discovery that bile acid administration promotes dissolution of gallstones. In the past decade the use of ursodeoxycholic acid in cholestatic liver disease reawakened interest in the field of bile acid research. Detection of genetic defects in bile acid synthesis has been followed by successful replacement treatment as well as cloning some of the key enzymes in bile acid synthesis. Although the lipid research community has been delighted, so far only a small number of patients have benefited from these advances. Pharmacologically manipulating the conversion of cholesterol to bile acids could lead to new therapeutic modalities for atherosclerosis and likely will generate great interest in the years to come. Physicians will have no choice but to be aware of the potential advantages and pitfalls of such interventions, which certainly will have impact on their future patient care. Although I have made some cautious predictions about the future, one should always be aware of the remarkable number of erroneous statements that have been made before even by famous scholars (5).
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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The author is indebted to E. F. Stange for advice, fruitful discussions, and friendship.
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FOOTNOTES |
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This work is supported, in part, by a grant from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Fu 288/5-1).
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: M. Fuchs, Dept. of Medicine I, Univ. of Ulm, Robert-Koch-Str, 8, D-89081 Ulm, Germany (E-mail: michael.fuchs{at}medizin.uni-ulm.de).
10.1152/ajpgi.00468.2002
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