Electrical rhythmicity and spread of action potentials in longitudinal muscle of guinea pig distal colon

Nick J. Spencer, Grant W. Hennig, and Terence K. Smith

Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, University of Nevada School of Medicine, Reno, Nevada 89557


    ABSTRACT
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Using simultaneous intracellular recordings, we have characterized 1) electrical activity in the longitudinal muscle (LM) of isolated segments of guinea pig distal colon free to contract spontaneously and 2) extent of propagation of spontaneous action potentials around the circumference of the colon. In all animals, rhythmical spontaneous depolarizations (SDs) were recorded that are usually associated with the generation of action potentials. Recordings from pairs of LM cells, separated by 100 µm in the circumferential axis, revealed that each action potential was phase locked at the two electrodes (mean propagation velocity: 3 mm/s). However, at an increased electrode separation distance of 1 mm circumferentially, action potentials and SDs became increasingly uncoordinated at the two recording sites. No SDs or action potentials ever propagated from one circumferential edge to the other (i.e., 13 mm apart). When LM strips were separated from the myenteric plexus and circular muscle, rhythmically firing SDs and action potentials were still recorded. Atropine (1 µM) or tetrodotoxin (1 µM) either reduced the frequency of SDs or temporily abolished activity, whereas nifedipine (1 µM) always abolished SDs and action potentials. Kit-positive interstitial cells of Cajal were present at the level of the myenteric plexus and circular and longitudinal muscle. In summary, SDs and action potentials in LM propagate over discrete localized zones, usually <1 mm around the circumference of the colon. Furthermore, in contrast to the classic slow wave, rhythmic depolarizations in LM appear to be generated by an intrinsic property of the smooth muscle itself and are critically dependent on opening of L-type Ca2+ channels.

interstitial cells of Cajal; slow wave; pacemaker cell


    INTRODUCTION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

MOST INTRACELLULAR MICROELECTRODE recordings of electrical activity in the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal tract have been made from the relatively thick circular muscle (CM) layer. These studies (5, 7, 10-12, 17, 25, 27-30, 41) have consistently reported spontaneous depolarizations (SDs) in membrane potential (slow waves) in a variety of species. In contrast to the CM, very few intracellular recordings have been made from the longitudinal muscle (LM) layer that largely exhibits spontaneous action potentials superimposed on slow waves (5-7, 12, 21, 22, 29, 34, 35). As a result, little is known about the electrical events underlying the movements of the LM. During propulsive movements, such as peristalsis, it is now clear that in both the small and large bowels, the LM and CM contract and relax together (31-32). Moreover, in stretched preparations during nonpropulsive movements, the LM layer is characterized by a high degree of spontaneous activity (5, 6, 12, 14, 18, 21, 22, 34, 35, 37, 38) yet, little is known about the ionic mechanisms underlying rhythmicity in the LM.

Although slow waves are common in intestinal smooth muscle of many mammalian species, they are rarely reported from the guinea pig intestine with microelectrodes (21, 22, 27). In the guinea pig ileum, Kuriyama and Tomita (22) reported that the LM fired irregular bursts of action potentials, or alternatively, a tonic discharge of action potentials. There have been very few intracellular recordings from LM in guinea pig colon (34, 35). A recent study from this region found that the LM fired spontaneous burst action potentials in unparalyzed preparations (34, 35). Slow waves have been reported from the guinea pig distal colon using extracellular suction electrodes (28).

Little is known of the morphological characteristics of LM cells in guinea pig distal colon. When neurobiotin is injected into one of these LM cells (dimensions 300 × 10 µm), it often spreads into neighboring cells (35). Also, calcium waves, which appear to depend on the conduction of action potentials, spread across many (>50) LM cells (37). These observations suggest that LM cells in the guinea pig distal colon are coupled, but by what mechanism remains unclear.

Interestingly, electron microscopy studies of the colon have found little evidence for functional gap junctional coupling between LM cells and between interstitial cells of Cajal at the level of the myenteric plexus and LM (2, 7, 8, 40). Further support for this comes from a recent study (40) using electron microscopy to show that immunoreactivity to connexin 43 was not observed in regions lacking gap junctions. Therefore, the mechanisms of propagation of slow waves and action potentials in LM remains unclear. It has been suggested that both low-resistance pathways through gap junctions and electric field coupling between adjacent smooth muscle cells (39) may coordinate the spread of excitability in gastrointestinal smooth muscles. It is clear, however, that electrotonic potentials, which decrease exponentially with distance, can be generated in LM cells of guinea pig intestine (4) and taenia coli (22), suggesting that current flow between neighboring cells is possible within this muscle layer. It was recently found with simultaneous calcium imaging of LM and CM (38) and during simultaneous electrical recordings from LM and CM (35) that neither spontaneous calcium waves nor action potentials in the LM ever propagated into the CM and vice versa. This suggests poor electrotonic coupling between the two muscle layers, supporting previous findings with electron microscopy studies. In contrast to myenteric interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC-MY), intramuscular ICC (ICC-IM) make close contacts with CM (9), usually <20 nm, and have been shown to have morphological connection via gap junctions to neighboring smooth muscle (2, 9).

One of the major obstacles in characterizing the propagation of action potentials in smooth muscle is that they usually generate contraction and muscle movement therefore, making microelectrode impalements difficult. As a result, Ca2+-channel blockers are commonly used to paralyze the muscle (prevent action potentials) and aid microelectrode impalements. However, it has recently become clear that muscular paralysis has profound effects on the spontaneous neuronal activity in the bowel (19, 20, 36), which may have pronounced effects on slow-wave activity. For example, it has long been known that ongoing enteric neuronal inputs can modify colonic slow waves (25). To avoid these limitations, we have recorded from the LM layer in the absence of an antagonist for L-type Ca2+ channels. Therefore, the major aims of this study were to 1) characterize the spontaneous electrical activity in the LM layer of a contracting (unparalyzed) tissue, 2) determine the ionic basis of this activity, and 3) investigate the extent of propagation of spontaneous action potentials around the circumference of the colon using simultaneous intracellular recordings from pairs of LM cells. A preliminary form of these data has been presented in abstract form (34).


    METHODS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Guinea pigs weighing 200-350 g were euthanized by CO2 inhalation overdose, in accordance with the animal ethics committee of the University of Nevada School of Medicine. The abdominal cavity was opened, and the terminal 10 cm of distal colon were removed, the mesenteric attachment was trimmed away, and the lumen was flushed clean with modified Krebs solution composition.

Dissection Procedure

The distal colon was opened along the mesenteric attachment, and the terminal distal region was pinned to the base of a Sylgard (Dow Corning)-lined Petri dish, so that the mucosal surface faced uppermost. The mucosa and submucosa were then sharp dissected from this open region to expose the underlying CM. Strips of CM were then dissected from the preparation to expose the underlying myenteric plexus and LM layer (as shown previously in Ref. 35). Therefore, these preparations included an island of LM and associated myenteric plexus that remained in neural continuity with the CM. This dissection procedure enabled us to clearly visualize the myenteric ganglia and underlying LM in one region while also identifying the thicker CM in the same field of view as we have previously described (35). Therefore, microelectrodes could be positioned so as to record unequivocally from LM cells. In vitro preparations studied were ~25 mm in length, and when pinned out in a recording chamber, the circumferential axis measured 11-13 mm (approximately twice their resting width). In all experiments, preparations were pinned serosal side down, in a recording chamber whose base consisted of a microscope coverslip lightly coated with a fine layer of Sylgard silicon (Dow Corning, Midland, MI). Unambiguous identification of the LM layer was aided by the use of an inverted microscope (model CK2; Olympus, Napa, CA). In some experiments, we recorded from LM strips devoid of any myenteric ganglia. In these preparations, LM strips were peeled off the myenteric plexus. These were between 2-5 × 10-15 mm in length when stretched to approximately twice their resting width. Confirmation that these preparations were devoid of myenteric ganglia was readily made with the use of an inverted microscope and by immunohistochemical studies that revealed these tissues only contained ICC-IM (see Fig. 10B).

Electrical Recording Technique

Simultaneous intracellular microelectrode recordings were made from LM cells with the use of two independently mounted microelectrodes whose fine positioning could be adjusted using two micromanipulators (model M3301L; World Precision Instruments, Sarasota, FL). Electrodes were filled with 1.5 M KCl solution and had resistances of about 120 MOmega . Electrical signals were amplified using a dual-input high-impedance amplifier (Axoprobe 1A; Axon Instruments, Foster City, CA), using two Axon HS-2 headstages (gain 0.1 liter). Output signals from the amplifier were digitized on an A/D converter, and filtering frequencies ranging from 0.66 to 1.5 kHz were used. Recordings were simultaneously visualized and recorded onto a personal computer running Axoscope (version 8.0; Axon Instruments, Foster City, CA) and also onto a digital four-channel oscilloscope (model 1604; Gould, Ilford, Essex, England, UK). Because atropine, or an L-type Ca2+ channel antagonist, was not routinely used during recordings from the LM, a major obstacle of the impalements in this study was muscle movement. We largely overcame this by extensively pinning the preparation using ~60-100 micropins (Ø = 25 µm) obtained from platinum iridium wire and locally isolating a small region for electrode placements.

Analysis of the Coordination of Electrical Activity Between Two Recording Sites

Recordings of membrane potential changes from two separate recording electrodes were imported into a modified version of NIH Image 1.62 software. The two traces were resampled (1,000 Hz for 0.1 and 1.0 mm; 500 Hz for 13 mm electrode separation) and smoothed (25-ms average, 2 iterations). The two traces were then differentiated (sampled in time steps of 1 ms for 0.1 and 1.0 mm and 2 ms for 13 mm electrode separation) and plotted against each other such that the rates of change in membrane potential (dV/dt) from electrode 1 were plotted on the x-axis, and the rates of change in membrane potential from electrode 2 were plotted on the y-axis (see Fig. 2). Ideally, if electrical activity (i.e., depolarization and repolarization phases) was identical and coincident at both electrodes, this would be reflected as a line extending at 45° through both positive and negative quadrants, as the changes in membrane potential in one axis were matched by the changes in membrane potential in the other axis. In practice, however, even the waveforms of well coordinated electrical activities differ considerably, because their electrical waveforms have varying rates of rise and decay. In addition, shifting pacing sites and differing conduction pathways between the two electrodes produce irregular conduction velocities that also contribute to meandering trajectories that tend to the 45° line (see Fig. 2A). In contrast, any activity occurring solely in one electrode and not at the other would appear as a single line along its respective axis; unrelated activities at both electrodes generating a cruciform appearance (see Fig. 2, D and E, 1 mm circumferential separation).

To quantify the degree of coordination of electrical activity between the two electrodes, the following method was used. The proportion of the total trace, in which positive (depolarizing) membrane potential changes occurred at both electrodes, was calculated by adding all the time points located in the upper right hand quadrant (trace 1 positive/trace 2 positive quadrant; see Fig. 2A) and dividing it by the total number of time points spent in all quadrants (excluding any time points less than the electrode noise level of 25-50 µV/ms). Thus this proportion expressed the percentage of the total trace in which coordinated depolarizations (CDs) were present.

It was expected that at greater electrode separation distances the time taken for the action potential to spread through the LM syncitium would increase. To account for this delay, a sequence of plots was constructed where the two recordings of membrane potential were time shifted with respect to one another (-4.0 to +4.0 s, 5-ms increments). If the two traces still had coordinated electrical activity, this would appear as a distinct peak of %CD at some time shift (see Fig. 2C). Examples can be seen in Fig. 3, A and D. An average plot of %CD versus time shift was constructed for each electrode separation (n = 9 for 0.1 and 1 mm; n = 5 for 13 mm). Using the time at which peak coordination occurred, traces were then phase shifted by this amount, and revised trajectory plots were constructed that showed the most synchronized orbits that could be obtained for this level of coordination. For example, the more coordinated trajectory in Fig. 2B is the result of phase shifting the trajectories shown in Fig. 2A by -15 ms, which represents the average conduction delay between the two sites.

Immunohistochemistry

Freshly dissected segments of distal colon were incised along the mesenteric border and pinned out in a small Sylgard-lined Petri dish in room temperature Krebs solution. The mucosa and submucosa were sharp dissected off the tissue so that the CM layer faced uppermost. The tissues were then fixed in acetone at 4°C for 10 min. Tissues were then washed several times with PBS buffer (0.01 M) for ~2 h to remove the acetone. Preparations were then blocked for 1 h using 1% BSA at room temperature, and then the primary antibody (ACK2; GIBCO-BRL, Gaithersburg, MD) was applied (5 µg/ml) overnight. In the morning, preparations were then washed for 3-4 h with PBS at room temperature and the secondary antibody was applied (IGG raised against rat) and tagged with FITC (1:100 dilution) for 1 h. Tissues were then rinsed in PBS for ~3-4 h (changing solutions every 20 min), and a confocal microscope (Bio-Rad MRC 600) was used to visualize ICC using excitation wavelength appropriate for FITC fluorescence (488 nM). Z-series of up to 11 images through depths of 1 µm were collected, and final images were projected using Bio-Rad COMOS software.

Drugs and Solutions

The following drugs were used throughout the current study: atropine sulfate, nifedipine, and TTX, (all from Sigma, St. Louis, MO). Nifedipine was prepared at a stock concentration of 10-2 M in ethanol and diluted to a final concentration of 10-6 M in Krebs solution. Atropine and TTX were made up in distilled water as a stock concentration of 10-2 and 10-3 M, respectively. The composition of the modified Krebs solution was (in mM) 120.35 NaCl, 5.9 KCl, 15.5 NaHCO3, 1.2 NaH2PO4, 1.2 MgSO4, 2.5 CaCl2, and 11.5 glucose. Krebs solution was gassed continuously with a mixture containing 3% CO2 and 97% O2 (vol/vol), pH 7.3-7.4.

Measurements and Statistics

Student's paired t-tests were used where appropriate. A minimum significance level of P < 0.05 was used throughout. The use of n in the results section refers to the number of animals on which observations were made, and data are presented as means ± SE. Measurements of amplitude and half-width and time-to-peak response were made using Axoscope 8.0 (Axon Instruments, Foster City, CA). The propagation velocity of action potentials was established by dividing the distance an action potential traveled over the time taken to travel this distance (measured from the half-amplitude point on the rising phase of the spike). Because SDs in LM usually generated smooth muscle action potentials and it was not possible to clearly discern the amplitude of the spike from the amplitude of the SD, in RESULTS, the amplitudes of the action potentials include the amplitude of the underlying SD. These were measured from 10% peak amplitude point (on the rising phase) to the peak of the action potential.


    RESULTS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Spontaneous Electrical Activity in Unparalyzed LM

In a spontaneously contracting, stretched preparation of distal colon, simultaneous intracellular recordings were made from 61 pairs of LM cells (n = 20). In all LM cells, the resting membrane potential was highly unstable and showed SDs that often reached threshold for the generation of smooth muscle action potentials (Fig. 1). When SDs did not reach threshold for the generation of action potentials, the mean amplitude of the SD was 12 ± 1 mV (range 4-24 mV, 66 LM cells, n = 20; taken from the 10% peak amplitude point of the rising phase of the SD) and had a mean half duration of 198 ± 22 ms (range 15-802 ms, 66 LM cells, n = 20). There was some variability in the mean interval of SDs between animals (mean interval 3.4 ± 0.4 s, range 0.3-12.8 s, n = 20). The mean resting membrane potential of the LM, measured after dislodgement of the electrode was -36 ± 1 mV (range -24 to -54 mV, 64 cells, n = 20). In preparations where spontaneous action potentials arose during the rising or plateau phase of each SD, typically only one or two spikes were generated in the LM and these rarely overshot resting membrane potential (Fig. 1) Action potentials in LM were rarely overshooting 0 mV and had a mean amplitude of 22.4 ± 1.4 mV (range <=  39 mV, 44 LM cells, n = 17), where the mean spike half duration was 18 ± 3 ms (range 5-60 ms). In some preparations, spontaneous inhibitory junction potentials were recorded. These were not investigated further in this study.


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Fig. 1.   Propagation of action potentials in unparalyzed longitudinal muscle (LM). Simultaneous intracellular recordings were made from 2 LM cells (LM1 and LM2) separated by 100 µm in the circumferential axis. It can be seen that spontaneous depolarizations (SDs) propagate between the 2 recording sites, because activity is phase locked.

Extent of Propagation of Action Potentials in LM

Circumferential axis. Using simultaneous recordings from pairs of LM cells, investigations were made as to how far spontaneous action potentials and SDs would propagate around the circumference of the distal colon. In nine pairs of LM cell recordings (n = 8), when the two electrodes were separated by 100 µm circumferentially, SDs and associated action potentials were phase locked between the two recording electrodes (Fig. 1). The mean propagation time between the two electrodes at 100 µm separation was 32 ± 9 ms (range 6-81 ms, 9 LM pairs, n = 8). This gave a mean propagation velocity of 3.1 mm/s circumferentially (range 1.2 to 18 mm/s, 9 LM pairs, n = 8). The coordinated electrical activity was also apparent in plots of dV/dt (Fig. 2, A and B), where the majority of activity occurred in the trace 1 + ve, trace 2 + ve, trace 1 - ve, and trace 2 - ve quadrants. In some instances, the location where the action potential was detected first was not stable, at first leading for a period of time in one electrode before moving closer to the other electrode. This can be seen in the example in Fig. 2A, where a bifurcation in the shape of the orbit occurred producing two distinct depolarizing trajectories that gave rise to a "wishbone shape" (c.f., arrows 1 and 2 in Figs. 2A and 6D). This suggests that the location of pacemaker activity is not fixed for long periods of time.


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Fig. 2.   Coordination of electrical events at 0.1 and 1 mm circumferential separation between recording electrodes. Plots of coordinated electrical activity were generated by plotting the changes in membrane potential (dV/dt) from the first electrode (x-axis) against the changes in membrane potential from the second electrode (y-axis). If electrical activity from the first electrode was mirrored in the second electrode (i.e., identical coincident waveforms), all points would lie along a 45° line, because any increase in voltage in 1 axis would be exactly matched in the other axis (A). If there was no coordination between electrodes, then all points would run parallel to each respective axis, because any increase in voltage in 1 axis would not be displaced in the other axis (D). At 0.1 mm, circumferential electrode separation (A), the depolarizing phase (top right quadrant) from both electrodes was well coordinated, in that no action potential occurred independently of action potentials in the other recording electrode (i.e., no points lie in parallel to either axis). However, there was a small delay between the onset of action potentials, shown by 2 distinct depolarizing trajectories (see arrowheads 1 and 2), 1 more parallel to the y-axis, indicating action potentials in trace 2 were slightly preceding action potentials in trace 1, and vice versa for trajectories more parallel to the x-axis. The peak of coordinated depolarization (%CD see inset in C) occurred at -15 ms (B and C), indicating there was very little delay in conduction of action potentials between the electrodes. At 1 mm circumferential electrode separation (D), very few action potentials were coordinated, shown by the large number of points in parallel to the x- and y-axes. The time shift plot (F) shows 2 peaks at a time shift of approximately ±500 ms, indicating there was a considerable delay in the conduction of action potentials between the 2 electrodes. However, the degree of coordination (see Fig. 3) was significantly less than the peak at 0.1 mm circumferential separation, suggesting there was much more variability in whether an action potential propagated between the 2 electrodes. TS, time shift.

The plot of %CD at different time shifts (Fig. 3A) shows a distinct peak close to 0 s time shift, with very few other peaks being observed at other time shifts. This indicates that the majority of coordinated activity occurred simultaneously at an electrode separation distance of 0.1 mm. The example plot in Fig. 2C shows the appearance of the membrane potential plots at the peak of the %CD.


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Fig. 3.   Average plots of time shift and %CD at different electrode separation distances. A: at 0.1 mm circumferential separation (n = 9), only 1 peak was observed at ~0 ms time shift, indicating that the activity at both electrodes was highly coordinated. B: at farther distances of electrode separation (i.e., 1 mm apart, n = 9), no distinct peak of coordination was observed at any time shift, suggesting that action potential propagation was more varied or that electrodes may have been in separate pacemaking regions. Small peaks represent periods where particular time shifts (of ~1,000 ms) show greater degrees of correlation between the 2 recordings. That is, the 2 LM cells are likely to be depolarizing at similar points in time. C: no peaks can be seen when the 2 electrodes were separated by 13 mm (n = 5), suggesting that the 2 recordings were completely uncorrelated, regardless of the degree of time shift applied. When electrodes were separated in parallel with the LM (D, 1 mm, n = 5) electrical activity was well coordinated, with only small delays between onset of action potentials between the electrodes, indicating the LM was well coupled in the longitudinal direction.

We then increased the separation distance between the two electrodes to 1 mm apart in the circumferential axis. Interestingly, at this distance, it was found that in seven of nine pairs of LM cell recordings (n = 8), action potentials generated at one recording electrode were not found to propagate to the second electrode 1 mm away (Fig. 4). In the remaining two of nine pairs, spikes recorded at one electrode were found to consistently propagate over 1 mm and reach the second electrode. A graph showing the cumulative data from all nine pairs of recordings at 1 mm circumferential separation is presented in Fig. 3B.


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Fig. 4.   Simultaneous recordings from 2 LM cells when the recording electrodes were separated by 1 mm in the circumferential axis. A: in LM1, spontaneous action potentials arise from small SDs. Some of the action potentials recorded from LM1 also propagated to LM2 (arrow). However, the majority of action potentials in LM1 do not propagate to LM2, but instead die out over this distance and cause small subthreshold depolarizations in LM2 (* in B) that do not reach action potential threshold. The period represented by the bar in A is shown on expanded time scale in B, and the inability of action potential propagation from LM1 to LM2 can be clearly seen.

Plots of membrane potential show there was minimal coordinated activity at 0 s time shift, with the majority of activity being located on each axis (Fig. 2D). Plots of %CD versus time shift show a number of peaks over the entire time-shift range (Fig. 2F). The absence of a single peak suggests that activity was not well coordinated (Fig. 2F). The average plot of %CD versus time shift shows no prominent correlation peaks (Fig. 3B), suggesting that overall there was very little consistent correlated activity. This is further demonstrated by the membrane potential plot at the greatest %CD peak (see Fig. 2F). Whereas some action potentials were coordinated, as seen by trajectories in the +ve +ve quadrant, a large proportion of the trace was not coordinated, with trajectories located to the x- and y-axis.

This suggests that in most recordings, spikes that occur at one site in the LM are not likely to propagate around 1 mm of the circumference of the colon. An example where action potentials that occur at one site and die out in <1 mm around the circumference of the bowel is shown in Fig. 4.

To confirm this, we recorded from two LM cells located at either circumferential cut edge (13 mm apart). It was found that SDs and action potentials generated at one circumferential edge of the colon always occurred independently of activities at the other circumferential edge (Fig. 5). Lack of coordination of electrical activity between the two electrodes at 13 mm circumferential separation can be seen in plots of membrane potential (see example in Fig. 6, A and B) and the complete absence of prominent peaks in plots of %CD versus time shift (Figs. 3C and 6, B and C).


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Fig. 5.   Simultaneous recordings from 2 LM cells when recordings were separated by 13 mm in the circumferential axis. When the 2 electrodes were separated by 13 mm circumferentially; i.e., the distance between 1 circumferential cut end to the other, the electrical activity was always uncoordinated at the 2 recording sites, suggesting that spontaneous action potentials and SDs occur independently at either circumference edge and do not propagate this distance in an open sheet preparation.



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Fig. 6.   Coordination of electrical events at 13 mm circumferential and 1 mm longitudinal separation between recording electrodes. Very little activity was coordinated at 13-mm circumferential separation, shown by the majority of points in parallel to the x- and y-axes (A and B). Variability in the coordination of activity is demonstrated by the range of trajectories produced when traces were time shifted with respect to each other, resulting in a constant low level of coordinated activity, presumably due to random chance (C). In contrast, at 1 mm longitudinal separation, all action potentials were well coordinated, each having a similar trajectory (D and E). This was reflected on the time shift plot, with a single peak of coordinated depolarizations at ~0 ms time shift.

Longitudinal axis. SDs and action potentials were found to propagate considerably more rapidly in the longitudinal axis than in the circumferential axis. In the longitudinal axis, the mean conduction time for slow waves to propagate over 1 mm was 17.3 ± 4.1 ms (range 9-25 ms, 4 LM pairs, n = 3). This gave a mean propagation velocity of 57.8 mm/s (range 40-111 mm/s, 4 LM pairs, n = 3). In five of five pairs of LM cells (n = 3), the activity of SDs and action potentials was compared between the two electrodes when separated by 1 mm in the longitudinal axis. At this separation distance, spontaneous action potentials were found to consistently propagate between the two electrodes (Fig. 7, A and B).


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Fig. 7.   Simultaneous recordings from 2 LM cells when recordings were separated by 1 mm in the longitudinal axis. A, spontaneous action potentials can be seen to propagate between the 2 recording electrodes, because the intervals between activities in both LM cells are phase locked. B: period represented by black bar in A is shown on expanded time scale in B. B: direction of propagation of action potentials changed (i.e., dotted lines).

Plots of membrane potential changes show the majority of activity occurred along a 45° line (Fig. 6D), which demonstrates that the changes of membrane potential at one electrode were almost completely mirrored at the other electrode. This is also demonstrated by the single peak in the plot of %CD versus time shift (Figs. 3D and 6F).

Is There a Role for TTX-Sensitive Na+ Current in Rhythmicity and Action Potential Generation in LM?

TTX was applied to the colon to test whether blockade of enteric nervous activity may modify spontaneous electrical activity in LM. The effects of TTX on rhythmic activity were somewhat variable between animals. In four of the five animals, TTX caused an initial block or marked reduction of all spontaneous spiking without any significant effect on the resting membrane potential (control 37.9 ± 3.2 mV, TTX 38.9 ± 3.3 mV, P = 0.38, n = 5) (Fig. 8A). In three of these animals, interestingly, rhythmic spiking resumed spontaneously in the LM layer after 3-10 min. In one animal, however, TTX abolished spontaneous activity and was not restored, even 20 min after the application of the drug. In another animal, TTX did not abolish spontaneous spiking, but slowed the frequency of rhythmical spiking. In the four animals where spontaneous action potential firing was restored while in the maintained presence of TTX, it was found that there was no significant effect of TTX on the spike amplitude (control 29.3 ± 4.6 mV, TTX 25.3 ± 5.1 mV, n = 5, P = 0.38) or half duration (11.3 ± 2.5 ms, TTX 26.2 ± 16.3 ms, P = 0.39, n = 5). In these four animals where spontaneous spiking was finally restored, there was no overall significant effect of TTX on the interval between action potentials (control 1.33 ± 0.46 s, TTX 7.82 ± 5.95 s, P = 0.32, n = 4).


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Fig. 8.   Effects of tetrodotoxin, atropine, and nifedipine on spontaneous electrical activity in LM. Single microelectrode recording from a spontaneously contracting LM cell. A: application of tetrodotoxin (1 µM; arrow) caused a reduction in the frequency of spontaneous action potential firing in both cells, without a membrane potential change. After ~1-2 min, there is a partial recovery of spontaneous action potential firing. Note tetrodotoxin did not appreciably alter the resting membrane potential of the LM. B: application of atropine (1 µM; arrow) caused a small hyperpolarization and reduced the frequency of SDs and associated action potential firing. SDs and action potentials persisted in the presence of atropine. C: effects of muscular paralysis on spontaneous electrical activity in LM. Application of nifedipine (1 µM; arrow) immediately abolished action potential firing and the underlying SDs. Note there is no detectable membrane potential change in LM after the addition of nifedipine.

Effects of Nifedipine and Atropine on SDs and Action Potentials

Slow waves reported in other intestinal smooth muscles such as the mouse ileum (41) and guinea pig stomach (11) are resistant to L-type Ca2+ channel blockers such as nifedipine. We tested whether nifedipine would affect the SDs and action potentials in the LM. In all of five animals tested, nifedipine (1 µM) abolished action potentials and also, surprisingly, the underlying SD (Fig. 8C). Resting membrane potential was not significantly modified by blockade of L-type Ca2+ currents (control 43 ± 1 mV, nifedipine 42 ± 2 mV, P = 0.88, n = 4) (Fig. 8C). To test whether activity in cholinergic motor neurons may be involved in rhythmic activity in the LM, we applied atropine to the colon. Atropine (1 µM) was applied to four spontaneously contracting tissues and was found to hyperpolarize the LM layer by 8 ± 2 mV (n = 4). In three of these four animals, atropine caused an increase in the interval between SDs and spikes (Fig. 8B) or a brief (<5 min) abolition of all activity after which SDs returned and normal spiking resumed. In one animal, SDs and spikes were abolished and not restored after 5 min after atropine infusion.

Does Electrical Hyperpolarization Inhibit Action Potential Propagation?

We tested whether the invasion of action potentials from distant sites could be inhibited by local membrane hyperpolarization of LM cells, via local current injection into single LM cells. To do this, we recorded from two LM cells simultaneously, when the two electrodes were separated by 1 mm in the longitudinal axis. In four pairs of LM cells (n = 3), spontaneous action potentials were found to be phase locked between the two electrodes, and action potentials clearly propagated between the two electrodes. In these preparations, when brief hyperpolarizing currents (range 1-8 nA) were passed of one microelectrode, the membrane was locally hyperpolarized by up to 50 mV at the current passing electrode (after neutralization of the voltage drop across the tip resistance). Also, interestingly, there was no inhibitory effect on the propagation of the action potentials from one electrode to the other (Fig. 9). That is, local hyperpolarization, even up to 80 mV at the current passing electrode did not modify the characteristics of spontaneous action potentials. The control spike amplitude and half durations before hyperpolarization were 28.3 ± 2 mV and 26.1 ± 9.1 ms, respectively, and during hyperpolarization were 31.8 ± 2.5 mV and 25.8 ± 7.2 ms (n = 4). These values were not significantly different from one another (amplitude P = 0.30; half duration P = 0.91).


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Fig. 9.   Effects of electrical hyperpolarization on the propagation of action potentials in LM. Simultaneous intracellular recordings were made from 2 LM cells separated by 1 mm in the longitudinal axis. Action potentials were found to propagate from LM1 to LM2. When inward hyperpolarizing current (-1 nA) was passed into LM1 and LM2, it locally hyperpolarized the membrane at each cell but did not change the membrane potential at the neighboring cell. Moreover, the propagation of action potentials from LM1 and LM2 were not blocked by electrical hyperpolarization generated in either cell. Note that in both LM1 and LM2, hyperpolarizing current was injected into each cell and had similar effects.

Electrical Activity in Isolated LM Strips

We tested whether the SDs we recorded from the LM of intact segments of distal colon would still occur if we separated the LM from the myenteric plexus and CM layer. In seven of eight animals tested, SDs and rhythmically firing action potentials were still recorded from isolated LM strips that were not different from the activity recorded from LM in intact segments of colon (Fig. 10A). The mean interval between action potentials was 1.2 ± 0.2 s (n = 7), where the mean action potential half duration and amplitude were 25 ± 4 ms and 31 ± 2 mV (n = 7), respectively. There was no significant difference in the interval between action potentials from isolated and intact segments of distal colon (P > 0.05; Student's unpaired t-test). In one of these eight animals, the LM was electrically silent. When the preparations were observed visually, it could be seen that each action potential was associated with brief contractions of the LM strip. Nifedipine (1 µM) abolished SDs and action potentials (Fig. 10B) and did not reveal any underlying unitary events (n = 5), nor display membrane noise, as has been reported in the gastric antrum of the guinea pig (16). When these LM strips were stained for c-Kit, ICC-IM were present (Fig. 10C), as was found in the intact preparations.


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Fig. 10.   Spontaneous electrical activity in an isolated strip of LM removed from the myenteric plexus and circular muscle (CM). A: in an isolated strip preparation of LM, spontaneous action potentials still persist and fire rhythmically despite LM being separated from the myenteric plexus and CM layer. B: addition of nifedipine (1 µM) abolished all electrical events in strip preparations of LM. C: in this same strip of LM recorded in A, immunohistochemical staining for c-Kit revealed intramuscular interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC-IM) were still present.

ICC in the Distal Colon

Recent evidence has shown that the ICC, which are mostly located near the myenteric plexus (ICC-MY), are pacemaker cells underlying the initiation of slow waves in CM (11). Although the presence of ICCs has been reported in the proximal colon of the guinea pig (3, 26), their existence in the distal colon is not known. c-Kit immunohistochemistry has been routinely used as a selective technique for labeling ICC in the guinea pig gastrointestinal tract.

We consistently observed at least two classes of ICC in the distal colon, similar to the different classes of ICC that have been previously reported in the proximal colon of the guinea pig (3, 26). Dense c-Kit-like immunoreactivity (c-Kit-LI) was found at the myenteric plexus (ICC-MY), where Kit-positive cells surrounded myenteric ganglia and densely innervated internodal strands (Fig. 11A). In addition to ICC-MY, branching ICC-IM were also present in both the LM and CM layers. ICC-IM showed polarized projections and were orientated in the long axis of both the LM and CM fibers. An example of ICC-IM in CM and LM is shown in Fig. 11, B and C, respectively.


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Fig. 11.   Immunohistochemical staining for c-Kit in the distal colon. A: confocal micrograph (z-series through a depth of 11 µm) through a region of the myenteric plexus. Cells with dense c-Kit-like immunoreactivity (c-Kit-LI) are shown to surround myenteric (MY) ganglia and internodal strands (ICC-MY). Some c-Kit-LI can also be seen in background LM and CM layers. A is a composite of 11 Z-series (1-µm stacks) taken on a ×20 objective. B: confocal micrograph (z-series through a depth of 8 µm) taken in the CM layer. Note ICC-IMs are oriented in the long axis of the CM fibers. B is a composite of 8 z-series (1 µm stacks) taken on a ×40 objective. C: confocal micrograph (z-series through a depth of 8 µm) taken in the LM layer. Note also the long processes of c-Kit-LI cells are oriented in the long axis of the LM fibers. C is a composite of 6 z-series (1 µm stacks) taken on a ×40 objective. Scale bar: A = 140 µm; B and C = 70 µm.


    DISCUSSION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

There have been remarkably few studies regarding the intracellular electrical activity of the LM muscle of the small bowel and even less is known about the colon. In this study, we have characterized the electrical activity of the LM layer in stretched preparations of distal colon that are free to contract spontaneously. There are a number of major findings of the current study. First, rhythmic SDs and action potentials occur not only in intact preparations, but also in isolated strips of LM, devoid of myenteric ganglia and CM. Second, the ionic mechanisms underlying SDs and action potentials in LM are critically dependent on the opening of L-type Ca2+ channels. Third, the circumferential propagation and coordination of SDs and action potentials are restricted to localized domains; activity rarely propagating at distances >1 mm around the circumference.

Ionic Dependence of Electrical Activity

In previous studies (7, 10, 11, 41), slow waves have been reported in the CM of isolated bowel from many species and such activity has been shown to persist in the presence of dihydropyridines, such as nifedipine. Therefore, the upstroke phase of these slow waves is clearly generated by an inward current not carried by Ca2+ through L-type Ca2+ channels. However, in this study, we report the existence of rhythmic SDs and action potentials abolished by nifedipine, suggesting that L-type Ca2+ channels are critically important for the cyclical ionic conductances in this muscle layer. It is also noteworthy that the resting membrane potential of LM cells in our study was about -36 mV, which is around the activation voltage for L-type Ca2+ current in smooth muscle. It is possible that these rhythmic activities are largely a consequence of stretch applied to the smooth muscle itself or to ICC, which have been proposed as stretch-sensitive elements (7).

The waveform of SDs showed some variation between animals; from the classic slow-wave configuration, where a clear plateau phase was observed, to small prepotentials that did not have a marked plateau phase but were associated with spontaneous rhythmical action potential firing. In the latter case, spontaneous action potentials appeared to resemble the slow diastolic potential observed in cardiac action potential (see Fig. 7B) and the spontaneous spike discharges reported in the T. coli (22). Similar to our findings, Kuriyama and Tomita (22) also reported that the amplitude of the slow potentials in the Taenia "... varies not only from preparation to preparation, but also from cell to cell and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish clearly between the slow potential and the spike."

Effects of Intracellular Current Injection on Propagated Activity

Interestingly, when currents were passed of the recording electrode, either hyperpolarizing or depolarizing, there was no detectable difference in the amplitude of the action potentials (Fig. 9). It is not clear why even large currents (<= 8 nA) did not affect the characteristics of the spike. Also, the frequency of SDs and action potentials was unaffected by hyperpolarizing or depolarizing currents. Indeed, Kuriyama and Tomita (22) also reported that "... when polarization was applied intracellularly, a change in frequency of electrical activity was never observed." However, action potential propagation in a syncitium requires the coordinated polarization of a minimum width of a muscle bundle of 100-150 µm (1). Therefore, injecting hyperpolarizing or depolarizing current into an individual cell from a local point source (i.e., the microelectrode) only effects neighboring cells, because it dissipates rapidly and is unable to space clamp a three dimensional syncitium. The coordinated nature of the action potential is supported by the fact that coordinated calcium waves, which appear to be dependent on the conduction of action potentials, propagate circumferentially as a coherent wave front (>1 mm perpendicular to the direction of propagation) across many LM cells (37, 38).

Extent of Action Potential Propagation

The extent of propagation of spontaneous action potentials around the circumference of the colon was investigated using simultaneous recordings from pairs of LM cells. When recordings were made 100 µm apart in the circumferential axis, spikes were always phase locked and clearly propagated between the two electrodes. However, when recordings were made 1 mm apart circumferentially, only two of nine pairs of recordings showed unambiguous propagation from one electrode to the other, suggesting that spikes die out rapidly within 1 mm around the circumference of the large bowel. In support of this, when recordings were made at 13 mm apart circumferentially, activities were always independent at the two recording sites. In contrast, action potentials were well correlated in the longitudinal direction, at least up to 1 mm (the maximum distance investigated). Ca2+ waves, which appear to depend on action potential propagation, in the LM of guinea pig ileum and distal colon have also been shown to propagate over localized zones often <1 mm in the circumferential direction and up to 10 mm in the longitudinal direction, which also shift over time. Also, recent multielectrode array studies of the surface of the feline duodenum (muscle layer unspecified) demonstrate that spikes, unlike slow waves, are confined to small "patches" of activity, which are usually <40 µm (23). Thus, in the absence of stimulation, the LM is unlikely to ever contract synchronously around the entire circumference but rather generate localized constrictions that would periodically change direction as the dominant pacing site shifted. This hypothesis is supported by recent video imaging of LM contractions observed to originate in small centers of activity (pacing sites) around the circumference of the LM that periodically merge and change location to possibly produce mixing movements (14).

Chaotic Electrical Activity

Meandering trajectories produced by coordinated action potentials recorded from closely associated sites (see Figs. 2 and 6) suggest that the electrical activity in LM has the characteristics of a chaotic system (see Ref. 42). The bifurcating, fairly stable orbits [see Figs. 2A (arrowheads) and 6D], which deviate from the 45° line, suggest that recording sites that have coordinated muscle activity are subject to the periodic dominance by at least two major pacing regions (24, 37). Presumably, a pacing region is formed by spontaneous action potential firing in one dominant area of muscle, which entrains neighboring regions of muscle. Two pacing regions, combined with local changes in conductance, produce changes in interval and waveform and periodic reversal in direction of action potential conduction.

Role of the Enteric Nerves in Spontaneous Electrical Activity in LM

TTX and atropine either reduced the frequency of SDs and action potentials or, alternatively, caused a temporary abolition of all spontaneous activity. The observation that TTX did not affect the action potential configuration or underlying SD, suggests that Na+ influx is probably not a major player in the inward current underlying the upstroke of SD or the action potential. The reason for the reduction in frequency or temporary abolition of SD activity after TTX is unclear. We suspect that atropine and TTX may have acted to remove cholinergic tone in the muscle (33). In support of this, we have found that in TTX, the further addition of ACh or TEA depolarized the LM and restored spontaneous rhythmicity (unpublished observations). It is not known, however, how TTX or atropine modified SDs in tissues where the resting membrane potential was not altered or how recovery after these blockers occurs. Perhaps, the removal of the effects of ongoing neurotransmission by these drugs leads to adaptation of stretch sensitive elements in the tissue.

Propagation Velocities of Action Potentials in Longitudinal and Circumferential Axis

A wide range of variation was noted in the propagation velocity of spikes around the circumference of the colon, suggesting that spike propagation velocity is not constant. Similar observations have been reported in this tissue using Ca2+ imaging techniques (37, 38). Action potentials in LM were found to propagate ~19 times faster in the longitudinal axis of the colon compared with the circumferential axis. These propagation velocities measured with intracellular recording techniques are similar to the values reported in recent Ca2+ imaging experiments of the distal colon, which calculated that Ca2+ waves propagate about ten times faster in the longitudinal axis than the circumferential axis. In the urinary bladder, spontaneous action potentials were recently reported to propagate ~40 times faster in the axial direction compared with the transverse direction (13). Interestingly, Brookes et al. (2a) recently reported that extracellular recordings from the CM of guinea pig ileum revealed that action potentials do not propagate further than 1 mm in the longitudinal axis.

In conclusion, SDs and action potentials occur rhythmically in the LM layer of the distal colon, and such activity propagates over discrete localized zones in the circumferential axis of the bowel (often <1 mm). Spikes in LM are unlikely to propagate around the entire circumference of the colon, and this may be responsible for generating local constrictions within the LM, possibly underlying the mixing movements associated with this muscle layer. Also, in direct contrast to the slow waves reported in the CM layer of other mammals, SDs in LM are critically dependent on the opening of L-type Ca2+ channels. Such rhythmicity appears to be under ongoing enteric neuronal control.


    ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Yulia Bayguinov and Sean Ward for expert assistance with confocal microscopy and immunohistochemistry.


    FOOTNOTES

This study was supported by National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases Grants RO1-DK-45713 (to T. K. Smith) and PO1-DK-41315 (to core facilities of the program project).

Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: T. K. Smith, Dept. of Physiology and Cell Biology, University of Nevada School of Medicine, Reno, Nevada 89557 (E-mail: tks{at}physio.unr.edu).

The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

10.1152/ajpgi.00345.2001

Received 3 August 2001; accepted in final form 15 January 2002.


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DISCUSSION
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