mRNA localization in polarized intestinal epithelial cells

Vicki M. Houle1, Wei Li2, Robert K. Montgomery1, and Richard J. Grand1

1 Gastrointestinal Cell Biology Research, Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Harvard Digestive Disease Center, Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston 02115; and 2 Department of Immunology, New England Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02111


    ABSTRACT
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

An important feature of enterocyte maturation is the asymmetrical distribution of cellular functions including protein localization. mRNA sorting is one mechanism for establishment and maintenance of this process in other systems, and we have previously demonstrated differential localization of mRNAs in human enterocytes. To study regulation of mRNA sorting, we established a model in polarized Caco-2 cells. Proxy cDNA constructs containing beta -galactosidase (beta -gal)/green fluorescence protein (GFP) and the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) of either human sucrase-isomaltase or villin were transfected transiently or stably. A control construct contained poly-A sequence in place of 3'-UTR. Expression of GFP was observed by confocal microscopy; intracellular location of the construct mRNA was imaged by in situ hybridization. The sucrase-isomaltase mRNA proxy localized to an apical position in Caco-2 cells as in native enterocytes; the villin mRNA proxy did not show significant localization. The control construct was not localized and was found diffusely throughout the cell. Proxy GFP proteins tended to localize with their mRNA proxies, but with less precision. This study establishes a valuable model for the investigation of mRNA localization in intestinal epithelial cells. Mechanisms controlling asymmetrical distribution of intestinal mRNAs can be now be elucidated.

enterocyte; Caco-2 cells; sucrase-isomaltase; villin


    INTRODUCTION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

AN IMPORTANT FEATURE OF ENTEROCYTE maturation is the differentiation of cell structure and function and the asymmetrical distribution of cellular components. While mechanisms that control this process are poorly understood, it is known that mRNA sorting is one mechanism for establishment and maintenance of cell polarity. mRNA sorting was first described in 1983 (11) in oocytes in which asymmetrical distribution of maternal mRNA was thought to contribute to the divergent differentiation of daughter cells that occurs during embryogenesis. Subsequently, mRNA sorting has been described in a variety of polarized cell types, including fibroblasts (7, 12), oligodendrocytes (6), and intestinal epithelial cells (20). Localization of different mRNAs to various intracellular domains helps to maintain mRNA and protein gradients that contribute to cell shape and differentiation. Disruption of mRNA sorting leads to an altered cellular phenotype in fibroblasts (13), implying an important physiological role for this process.

Investigations in other cell types, such as oocytes and fibroblasts, have revealed that the sequences that drive mRNA sorting are predominantly located within the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) of the mRNA. Complexes formed of cellular proteins, mRNA, and ribosomes are translocated along the cytoskeleton and anchored at the final destination of the mRNA in the cell (13).

We (2, 15, 16, 20) previously demonstrated specific mRNA localization in intact adult intestinal epithelial cells and suggested that localization of mRNAs in enterocytes might function as a mechanism for protein sorting and maintenance of cellular polarity. The study of this process has been hampered by the lack of an appropriate model. Because small intestinal epithelial cells cannot be maintained more than a few days in primary culture, enterocyte-like cell lines have become the standard substitute. Of the few available, only Caco-2 cells demonstrate a polarized phenotype that includes a well-developed cytoskeleton, transcellular transport, and apical expression of marker proteins, such as sucrase-isomaltase (SI), typical of native enterocytes (8-10, 19, 23).

Very little is known about the mechanisms that drive mRNA sorting within the enterocyte, and advances in this field require a reliable in vitro model system that will reproduce observations in intact intestine. The model must also permit transfection of proxy mRNA constructs, mutational analysis, and mapping of sequences responsible for mRNA sorting in cultured polarized cells. Therefore, the goal of the present study was to develop a reliable in vitro model system for investigating mRNA sorting in intestinal cells.


    MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Vectors. Fusion reporter genes were synthesized to contain beta -galactosidase (beta -gal) and enhanced green fluorescence protein (GFP) linked upstream to the 3'-UTR of the mRNA of interest and were cloned into vector pCA13 (Microbix, Toronto, Ontario, Canada), under the control of the cytomegalovirus promoter (PCMV). A polyadenylation signal (PAS) was inserted downstream to ensure mRNA stability. Results were confirmed by vector sequencing (Tufts University Sequencing Core Facility, Department of Physiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA). Three expression vectors were constructed: for SI mRNA, PCMV/beta -gal/GFP/SI-3'-UTR/PAS/pCA13; for villin mRNA, PCMV/beta -gal/GFP/villin-3'-UTR/PAS/pCA13; and for the control, PCMV/beta -gal/GFP/PAS/pCA13. beta -Gal is a large protein that in short-term culture remains at the site to which its mRNA is targeted in fibroblasts (13). The linked GFP provided a fluorescent tag that could be analyzed by confocal microscopy. We further hypothesized that the addition of beta -gal to GFP as a large fusion protein might enhance its capacity as a proxy marker for the position of its mRNA.

Transient transfections. Caco-2 cells were chosen due to their capacity to express a phenotype similar to differentiated absorptive enterocytes (8-10, 19, 23). Preconfluent cells were transfected by using electroporation (14) with 10 µg of expression plasmid (40 µg total DNA) and plated at 100% confluence on fibrillar-collagen cell culture inserts (Becton-Dickinson, Bedford, MA) in DMEM supplemented with 10% FCS (GIBCO-BRL, Rockville, MD). Cells were maintained at 37°C under 5% CO2 with 100% humidity. Media were changed three times per week during the indicated culture periods.

At the indicated times after transfection, cells were washed twice with PBS and then fixed and permeabilized in a 40:40:20 solution of acetone/methanol/water for ~15 s. After cells were washed twice again with PBS, orientation within the cell was elucidated by staining nuclei with 2 µg/ml propidium iodide (Sigma, St. Louis, MO) and staining the microvillus membrane of the cells with either 0.33 µM rhodamine-conjugated or Texas red-conjugated phalloidin (Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR) for 1 h at room temperature. Cells were then rinsed with PBS, mounted on glass slides with SlowFade Light mounting medium (Molecular Probes), coverslipped, and sealed with nail polish.

Stable transfections. The SI, villin, and control inserts described above were cut out of the pCA13 vectors and cloned into the backbone vector pEGFP-N1 (containing a neomycin-resistance cassette; Clontech, Palo Alto, CA) in place of the GFP coding sequence at the SalI and BamHI sites.

Preconfluent Caco-2 cells were transfected with 2 µg plasmid by using Effectene (Qiagen, Valencia, CA) and maintained in DMEM/10% FBS + 500 µg/ml G418 for ~2 wk until untransfected controls were dead. Cells were then trypsinized and selected by fluorescence-activated cell sorting for high levels of GFP expression. One thousand cells per line were collected and replated in DMEM/10% FBS + 500 µg/ml G418. Cells were split on reaching confluence and replated three times per week thereafter, with continuing maintenance in 500 µg/ml of G418.

In situ hybridization. The mRNAs for the marker proteins were detected by using in situ hybridization. Antisense oligonucleotides (30 nt) to the 3'-UTR of either SI or villin were synthesized and end labeled with a Cy-5 fluor (Tufts University Sequencing Core Facility). Probe sequences were as follows: antisense probes for SI, 5'-GGGCTATTCAAATTTTGTTAAATATGCCTT-3' and 5'-AATAACTTTTCGATGTTATGAA- AGCTATAT-3'; sense probe for SI, 5'-AAGGCATATTTAACAAAATTTGAATAGCCC-3'; antisense probes for villin, 5'-GGTGAGAAAATGAGACCCTACAATCAGGGT-3' and 5'-AAAACTGGCATTTGCCACAGAAGTTTGTGC; sense probe for villin, 5'-GCACAAACTTCTGTGGCAAATGCCAGTTTT-3'.

Cells were hybridized by using a variation of the method developed by R. Singer (http://singerlab.aecom.yu.edu/protocols). After fixation and permeabilization as described above for transient transfections, cells were washed twice with 2× SSC and then incubated at room temperature in 2× SSC/40% formamide for 5 min. The insert membranes were then cut in half with RNase-free scissors, and each half was then hybridized overnight at 42°C in 100 µl of hybridization solution containing 2× SSC, 40% formamide (Fisher Scientific, Fair Lawn, NJ), 10 µg/µl tRNA (Sigma), 0.02% RNase-free BSA (Sigma), 1% RNasin (Promega, Madison, WI), and 30 µg of labeled oligo probe. If multiple probes against different sequences were used, equal amounts of each were used to reach the microgram total amount.

Inclusion of dextran sulfate in the hybridization buffer created large amounts of background as the dextran sulfate appeared to absorb the fluorescent stains and furthermore interfered with equilibration of the SlowFade mounting medium, resulting in rapid quenching of the signal under the laser. Removal of the dextran sulfate from the hybridization buffer recipe and incubating the membranes in a double-humidified chamber to guard against evaporation in the absence of the dextran sulfate yielded satisfactory images. Interestingly, the chosen sense probes demonstrated an intermittent level of nonspecific organelle binding that made them unacceptable for this purpose. Because we were previously unable to detect native expression of the villin and SI mRNAs in the Caco-2 cells, the probe for SI was used as a negative control for the transfected villin construct and vice versa.

On day 2, membranes were rinsed briefly with 2× SSC/40% formamide and then washed as follows: 2× SSC/20% formamide, 15 min, room temperature; 2× SSC/10% formamide, 15 min, room temperature; 2× SSC, 15 min, room temperature; 1× SSC, 15 min, 42°C. Cells were then counterstained and coverslipped as described above for transient transfections.

Imaging. Visualization of the marker GFP after transient transfections was accomplished by using a Bio-Rad Zeiss fluorescent laser scanning confocal microscope. To determine the intracellular location of the GFP marker proteins, monolayers were selected at random when their apical and basal positions were clearly defined, a signal was present, and the control at the same intensity and contrast settings did not display a detectable signal (n = 85). Once the top and bottom positions of the monolayer were established, the monolayer was optically sectioned into 0.5-µm slices on an x-z plane by using the appropriate laser channel for each stain and merging all channels to create the final image. These z-section monolayer images were scored on a blinded basis by two of the investigators for apical, perinuclear, or basal location of the GFP protein in each cell visualized in the selected monolayer. After the scoring was performed, results were correlated with the transfected proxy construct and expressed as the percentage of specifically localized GFP in each region. Statistical analysis was performed by using a two-tailed ANOVA (GraphPad Instat Software, San Diego, CA), and significance was assigned as P < 0.05.

For detection of GFP in stable transfection experiments, horizontal fluorescent images were obtained every 0.5 or 1.0 µm on an Odyssey XL laser scanning confocal microscope (Noran), and the images were recorded with Noran Intervision 2D/3D Image Analysis software. Intracellular location of the GFP was established by determining the apical and basal membranes of randomly selected single cells (n = 33) containing observed GFP and recording the 0.5-µm intervals at which the GFP was visualized. Control monolayers were imaged by using the same contrast and intensity settings to verify that no detectable signal was present. The data were expressed as the percentage of GFP localized in the intracellular compartment of interest. Statistical analysis was conducted by using two-tailed ANOVA (GraphPad Instat Software), and significance was assigned at P < 0.05.

For in situ hybridization experiments, transfected construct mRNA was detected by confocal microscopy on the Bio-Rad Zeiss laser scanning confocal microscope as described above. Laser intensity and contrast levels were set by using the negative controls (as described above) to establish background. The image was kept if it met the following selection criteria: a monolayer of intact nuclei, visible microvillus membrane staining, and visible probe. The Bio-Rad .pic file format was converted to a .tif format, and 47 individual cells that displayed a visible probe were digitally cut out of the image by using PaintShop Pro 7 (Jasc Software, Eden Prairie, MN) and pasted into an unlabeled collage. The intracellular position of probe within each cell in the collage was then assessed by two separate investigators on a blinded basis and scored as follows: 0 = no sorting; 1 = mostly apical; 2 = apical/perinuclear; 3 = mostly perinuclear; 4 = perinuclear/basal; 5 = mostly basal.

Statistical analysis. Statistical significance was determined by using a coded, nonparametric contingency table, with the null hypothesis assigned as equal distribution into each intracellular region (GraphPad Instat Software). Significance was defined as P < 0.05.


    RESULTS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Morphology of monolayer. Under the conditions used in these experiments, we initially established that Caco-2 cells grown on plastic were not sufficiently or reproducibly polarized to allow assessment of mRNA sorting (data not shown). In contrast, cells grown on fibrillar-collagen inserts demonstrated a polarized appearance including a well-developed microvillus membrane at approximately day 3 postconfluence, as shown also by others (8-10, 19, 23). This morphology persisted at all subsequent time points studied (Fig. 1). When grown on other substrates, collagen I, fibronectin, or laminin, the Caco-2 cells demonstrated distinctly sparser microvilli and a shorter cell height, resulting in a squat, almost squamous appearance, compared with cells grown on the fibrillar-collagen matrix at the same time points. Accordingly, all subsequent experiments were conducted with the fibrillar-collagen-coated inserts.


View larger version (40K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 
Fig. 1.   Hematoxylin and eosin-stained section of Caco-2 monolayer. Caco-2 cells were grown on a fibrillar-collagen insert for 6 days postconfluence. The apical portion of the cell is marked by the arrow.

Transient transfections. It had been shown previously that SI mRNA expression levels in Caco-2 cells peak at approximately day 10 postconfluence, plateau for ~5 days, and then decline thereafter (5, 23). Assuming that the subcellular machinery for sorting mRNAs would be operational at the time of maximum expression, we initially chose 10 days postconfluence as the time point for examining the sorting of SI and villin mRNAs. However, once the Caco-2 cells became differentiated, they proved entirely refractory to transfection by either electroporation or lipid techniques; therefore, it was necessary first to transfect preconfluent cells and then to culture them to the appropriate level of differentiation. By using this approach, optimal expression of GFP after transient transfection by either electroporation (10 µg) or Effectene (2 µg; Qiagen) occurred between 3 and 8 days postconfluence, with some fluorescence remaining after 14 days (data not shown). Because electroporation yielded a greater percentage of cells transfected, this method was chosen as the vehicle of choice for all further transient tranfection experiments. Interestingly, in contrast to the ease of detection of transfected mRNA proxies, the abundance of native SI and villin mRNA per cell was lower than the detection limit by using in situ hybridization (data not shown).

Localization of the GFP proxy within the cell was determined by optical sectioning of the cells in 0.5-µm slices from the apical membrane through the basal surface and then scoring masked images to establish the intracellular location of the GFP. The data are shown in Fig. 2. Most of the SI proxy protein (GFP) appeared to sort to the apical portion of the cell in concordance with the in vivo expression (n = 32) (2). The villin proxy protein, on the other hand, appeared predominantly perinuclear and basal (n = 30). Due to variability in the intracellular localization of the GFP, there was no statistically significant difference in the intracellular location of any of the construct proteins. The control construct protein was found evenly distributed within the cells (n = 23).


View larger version (31K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 
Fig. 2.   Intracellular location of the green fluorescence protein (GFP) proxy protein for the sucrase-isomaltase (SI), villin, and control constructs at 8 days postconfluence. Caco-2 cells were grown on fibrillar-collagen cell culture inserts. Data are expressed as the percentage of expressed GFP specifically localized in the apical, perinuclear, or basal region of the cell for each construct. Although there was a trend toward apical localization of the SI construct and perinuclear localization of the villin construct (P = 0.06), no significant difference in intracellular location was observed for any of the three constructs. SI proxy, n = 32; villin proxy, n = 30; control, n = 23.

Stable transfections. In an effort to control for the variation in location of GFP, and to attempt to increase expression, stably transfected Caco-2 cell lines were created for the SI and villin constructs. Cells were imaged as described above from days 3 through 7 postconfluence. Images obtained by using cells at 3 days postconfluence (n = 33 cells) are shown in Fig. 3. These data demonstrate that the predominant sorting of the SI mRNA construct tended to be apical and perinuclear and that the predominant localization of the villin proxy mRNA tended to be perinuclear and basal. However, these differences were not statistically significant. No significant differences were noted in GFP sorting when additional time points were compared.


View larger version (22K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 
Fig. 3.   Intracellular location of the GFP proxy protein in stably transfected Caco-2 cells cultured on fibrillar-collagen inserts for 3 days postconfluence. No significant difference was observed in the localization of either the SI proxy or the villin proxy (n = 33).

In situ hybridization. Because of the variability in the localization of GFP seen in Figs. 2 and 3, it was possible that the GFP/beta -gal fusion protein might not anchor at the final destination of the mRNA as reported by others (13). Accordingly, detection of transfected construct mRNA was accomplished by using transient transfection techniques followed by in situ hybridization to localize the proxy mRNAs within single cells on a reconstructed x-z axis.

In situ hybridizations were conducted by using fluor-conjugated oligonucleotides against the 3'-UTRs of the transiently transfected constructs at days 6-8 postconfluence. Initial experiments were performed with a hybridization temperature of 50°C, in accordance with the protocol established for in situ hybridization of adult intestinal sections in this laboratory (2, 15, 16). Hybridization in cell monolayers, however, proved difficult at this temperature, because the cells were too fragile and morphology was unacceptably compromised. Others (12) have reported successful hybridization of fibroblast cell cultures by using labeled DNA oligonuceotide probes at 37°C (see also http://singerlab.aecom.yu.edu/protocols). This temperature, however, did not provide a sufficient hybridization signal. Accordingly, an intermediate temperature of 42°C was adopted with reproducible results (Fig. 4).


View larger version (53K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 
Fig. 4.   In situ hybridization of Caco-2 cells showing intracellular location of transfected mRNA. Caco-2 cells were cultured for 6 days postconfluence. N, nucleus, BB, brush border (both delineated in green; the probe is shown in red). A: negative control of villin probe against SI-transfection. B: SI probe against SI transfection. The probe is shown in red at the apex of the cell. C: villin probe against villin transfection (arrow). The probe is shown in red at the inferior pole of the cell.

Forty-seven well-oriented cells that displayed a discernable brush-border, basal membrane, and intact nucleus were scored masked for intracellular mRNA localization by two different investigators. The 47 cells were chosen from 19 different experiments. Analysis of those cells suitable for morphometry showed that 76% of the SI proxy mRNA localized to the top half of the cell (defined as apical or a combination of apical and perinuclear sorting), whereas 49% of the villin proxy mRNA localized to the basal half of the cell (defined as basal or a combination of basal and perinuclear sorting) (P < 0.001) as shown in Fig. 5. The significant localization of the transfected SI construct mRNA contrasts with the lack of significant localization of the GFP protein proxy as shown in Fig. 2.


View larger version (23K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 
Fig. 5.   Intracellular localization of tranfected proxy constructs for SI and villin mRNAs identified by in situ hybridization in Caco-2 cells at 8 days postconfluence. Note that 76% of the SI proxy mRNA is found within the apical portion of the cell (n = 47 cells analyzed; P < 0.001). No significant differences in the intracellular localization of the villin mRNA proxy construct were observed.


    DISCUSSION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

This study demonstrates that Caco-2 cells in culture achieve and maintain sufficient polarity to allow visualization of intracellular events, including differential sorting of transfected mRNAs to specific intracellular locations. The value of this cell line as an in vitro model for native enterocytes has been well established (8-10, 19, 23). Furthermore, the model system described in this study displays distinct sorting patterns for SI and villin mRNA proxy constructs. This provides a means for investigating the control of mRNA sorting and its potential role in development and in the maintenance of intestinal epithelial cell polarity.

Investigations in other cell types have identified similarities in some of the mechanisms of mRNA sorting. Trans-acting, sequence-specific regions in the 3'-UTR of sorted mRNAs bind specific proteins that then complex with motor proteins to form a translocation particle. These particles move along the cytoskeletal apparatus until they reach their final intracellular destination, in which they anchor by an as yet incompletely understood process (17). The cytoskeletal components involved may be either microtubules, microfilaments, or both at alternate points in the sorting process (4). The differential sorting displayed in the current experiments by the SI and villin proxy constructs will facilitate a delineation of the mechanisms responsible for localization of these mRNAs in intestinal epithelial cells.

In the present experiments, the SI proxy mRNA localized apically within the cell, mimicking the pattern of SI mRNA localization seen in native human enterocytes (2, 15). The detection of the 3'-UTR sequence apically in the cells may indicate that the mRNA was anchored at its site of function. The apical localization of this mRNA presumably facilitates translation as well as the insertion of the mature SI enzyme into the apical membrane. It is important to note that the SI construct mRNA was more distinctly localized than that of the SI proxy protein GFP. This was most likely due to intracellular diffusion of the GFP synthesized during posttransfection culture of the Caco-2 cells. Accordingly, GFP cannot be used as a marker for SI localization in this model, unlike the findings of Kislauskis et al. (12) in fibroblasts in which beta -gal could be used as a proxy marker for beta -actin mRNA in short-term culture. Having established a reliable model system, we have now begun mutational analysis and mapping of the SI 3'-UTR to determine the specific sequences necessary for this localization.

In contrast to native enterocytes, in which villin mRNA is predominantly localized basally (15), in Caco-2 cells the villin proxy mRNA is localized less precisely. There are two possible explanations for this observation. First, there might be altered sorting mechanisms in Caco-2 cells in culture compared with enterocytes in vivo. Bacchi and Gown (1) found that, although villin protein was usually expressed apically in colonic adenocarcinomas, cytoplasmic and basolateral mislocalization was also identified. Because Caco-2 cells derive originally from colon carcinoma, this might contribute to a sorting pattern for the villin mRNA that is distinct from that seen in vivo in small intestine (15). Alternatively, a second possible explanation is that villin may be one of the rare genes whose sequences that govern sorting and/or anchoring of mRNA at the intracellular destination do not lie completely within the 3'-UTR (18). Experiments are currently underway to clone other portions of the mRNA into the villin proxy construct to determine whether this is the case.

An important component of the mRNA sorting system is the trans-acting mRNA binding protein(s) that mediate(s) attachment of the mRNA to the motor assembly (18). These proteins have been identified and cloned for several mRNA species with the use of electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Investigations in other genes have shown that the sequences that govern sorting are often multipartite (13) and widely spaced within the 3'-UTR, implying that folding and secondary structure of the mRNA is critical in protein binding to these sequences. Further support for this theory comes from the proteins involved in sorting beta -actin in fibroblasts and Veg1 mRNA in Xenopus oocytes (21, 22). These proteins display a significant homology to one another but bind to different primary sequences in their respective mRNAs. However, analysis of these mRNAs by computational folding programs predicts a similar stem-loop structure within each of the mRNAs at the sequences shown to be necessary for their localization (3). As a consequence of the present study, it will now be possible to establish which proteins and elements of the cytoskeleton (microtubules and/or microfilaments) are involved in the sorting mechanisms for these intestinal mRNAs and to elucidate the predicted protein intermediates (likely, the cytoskeletal motor proteins), which may also mediate the translocation of these mRNAs.

By extending the current findings, it may also be possible to identify the role of mRNA sorting in the establishment and maintenance of intestinal epithelial cell polarity during differentiation and in diseases that alter enterocyte shape, such as gluten-sensitive enteropathy. The model system we report here is a crucial first step in investigating this important process.


    ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank Drs. Stephen D. Krasinski and Marian R. Neutra for constructive discussions; Lauren Dowling for technical support; Drs. Ira Herman and Robert Wilson, Douglas Jefferson, and Anne Kane, GRASP Digestive Disease Center (Tufts University, Boston) for imaging and cell culture support and plasmid preparations, respectively; and Dr. Susan Hagen and Daniel Brown, Harvard Digestive Disease Center, for confocal microscopy support. Sequencing of molecular probes was performed in the Sequencing Core of the Department of Physiology, Tufts University School of Medicine (Michael Berne, Director).


    FOOTNOTES

This study was supported by National National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases Grants R37-DK-32658, P30-DK-34928, P30-DK-34854, and T32-DK-07471.

Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: R. J. Grand, Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 300 Longwood Ave., Boston, MA 02115 (E-mail: richard.grand{at}tch.harvard.edu).

The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

First published December 18, 2002;10.1152/ajpgi.00458.2002

Received 25 October 2002; accepted in final form 2 December 2002.


    REFERENCES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

1.   Bacchi, CE, and Gown AM. Distribution and pattern of expression of villin, a gastrointestinal-associated cytoskeletal protein, in human carcinomas: a study employing paraffin-embedded tissue. Lab Invest 64: 418-424, 1991[ISI][Medline].

2.   Barth, JA, Li W, Krasinski SD, Montgomery RK, Verhave M, and Grand RJ. Asymmetrical localization of mRNAs in enterocytes of human jejunum. J Histochem Cytochem 46: 335-343, 1998[Abstract/Free Full Text].

3.   Bassell, GJ, Oleynikov Y, and Singer RH. The travels of mRNA through all cells large and small. FASEB J 13: 447-454, 1999[Free Full Text].

4.   Bassell, GJ, and Singer RH. mRNA and cytoskeletal filaments. Curr Opin Cell Biol 9: 109-115, 1997[ISI][Medline].

5.   Beaulieu, JF, and Quaroni A. Clonal analysis of sucrase-isomaltase expression in the human colon adenocarcinoma Caco-2 cells. Biochem J 280: 599-608, 1991[ISI][Medline].

6.   Carson, JH, Worboys K, Ainger K, and Barbarese E. Translocation of myelin basic protein mRNA in oligodendrocytes requires microtubules and kinesin. Cell Motil Cytoskeleton 38: 318-328, 1997[ISI][Medline].

7.   Cheng, H, and Bjerknes M. Asymmetric distribution of actin mRNA and cytoskeletal pattern generation in polarized epithelial cells. J Mol Biol 210: 541-549, 1989[ISI][Medline].

8.   Giannasca, KT, Giannasca PJ, and Neutra MR. Adherence of Salmonella typhimurium to Caco-2 cells: identification of a glycoconjugate receptor. Infect Immun 64: 135-145, 1996[Abstract].

9.   Grasset, E, Pinto M, Dussaulx E, Zweibaum A, and Desjeux JF. Epithelial properties of human colonic carcinoma cell line Caco-2: electrical parameters. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 247: C260-C267, 1984[Abstract].

10.   Hauri, HP, Sterchi EE, Bienz D, Fransen JA, and Marxer A. Expression and intracellular transport of microvillus membrane hydrolases in human intestinal epithelial cells. J Cell Biol 101: 838-851, 1985[Abstract].

11.   Jeffery, WB, Tomlinson CR, and Brodeur RD. Localisation of actin messenger RNA during early ascidian development. Dev Biol 99: 408-417, 1983[ISI][Medline].

12.   Kislauskis, EH, Li Z, Singer RH, and Taneja KI. Isoform-specific 3'-untranslated sequences sort alpha-cardiac and beta cytoplasmic actin messenger RNAs to different cytoplasmic compartments. J Cell Biol 123: 165-172, 1993[Abstract].

13.   Kislauskis, EH, Zhu X, and Singer RH. Sequences responsible for intracellular localization of beta-actin messenger RNA also affect cell phenotype. J Cell Biol 127: 441-451, 1994[Abstract].

14.   Krasinski, SD, Van Wering HM, Tannemaat MR, and Grand RJ. Differential activation of intestinal gene promoters: functional interactions between GATA-5 and HNF-1alpha . Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 281: G69-G84, 2001[Abstract/Free Full Text].

15.   Li, W, Krasinski SD, Verhave M, Montgomery RK, and Grand RJ. Three distinct messenger RNA distribution patterns in human jejunal enterocytes. Gastroenterology 115: 86-92, 1998[ISI][Medline].

16.   Li, W, Wang J, Coluccio LM, Matsudaira P, and Grand RJ. Brush border myosin I (BBMI): a basally localized transcript in human jejunal enterocytes. J Histochem Cytochem 48: 89-94, 2000[Abstract/Free Full Text].

17.   Oleynikov, Y, and Singer RH. RNA localization: different zipcodes, same postman? Trends Cell Biol 8: 381-383, 1998[ISI][Medline].

18.   Palacios, IM, and St. Johnston D. Getting the message across: the intracellular localization of mRNAs in higher eukaryotes. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 17: 569-614, 2001[ISI][Medline].

19.   Peterson, MD, Bement WM, and Mooseker MS. An in vitro model for the analysis of intestinal brush border assembly II. Changes in expression and localization of brush border proteins during cell contact-induced brush border assembly in Caco-2 BBE cells. J Cell Sci 105: 461-472, 1993[Abstract/Free Full Text].

20.   Rings, EHHM, Buller HA, de Boer PAJ, Grand RJ, Montgomery RK, Lamers WH, Charles R, and Moorman AFM Messenger RNA sorting in enterocytes: co-localization with encoded proteins. FEBS Lett 300: 183-187, 1992[ISI][Medline].

21.   Ross, AF, Oleynikov Y, Kislauskis EH, Taneja KL, and Singer RH. Characterization of a beta-actin mRNA zipcode-binding protein. Mol Cell Biol 17: 2158-2165, 1997[Abstract].

22.   Schwartz, SP, Aisenthal L, Elisha Z, Oberman F, and Yisraeli JK. A 69-kDa RNA-binding protein from Xenopus oocytes recognizes a common motif in two vegetally localized maternal mRNAs. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89: 11895-11899, 1992[Abstract].

23.   Van Beers, EH, Al RH, Rings EHHM, Einerhand AWC, Dekker J, and Buller HA. Lactase and sucrase-isomaltase gene expression during Caco-2 cell differentiation. Biochem J 308: 769-775, 1995[ISI][Medline].


Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 284(4):G722-G727
0193-1857/03 $5.00 Copyright © 2003 the American Physiological Society




This Article
Abstract
Full Text (PDF)
All Versions of this Article:
284/4/G722    most recent
00458.2002v1
Alert me when this article is cited
Alert me if a correction is posted
Citation Map
Services
Email this article to a friend
Similar articles in this journal
Similar articles in ISI Web of Science
Similar articles in PubMed
Alert me to new issues of the journal
Download to citation manager
Search for citing articles in:
ISI Web of Science (2)
Google Scholar
Articles by Houle, V. M.
Articles by Grand, R. J.
Articles citing this Article
PubMed
PubMed Citation
Articles by Houle, V. M.
Articles by Grand, R. J.


HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
Visit Other APS Journals Online