1 Department of Surgery, University of Sydney, and 2 The Kolling Institute of Medical Research, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales 2065, Australia
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ABSTRACT |
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Our aim was to
investigate the effects of modifying the carbohydrate-to-lipid ratio of
parenteral nutrition (PN) on body composition and the anabolic actions
of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and growth hormone (GH).
Adolescent male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomized to receive 7 days
of GH, IGF-I (3.5 mg · kg1 · day
1 for both)
or placebo while receiving high-carbohydrate PN (CHO-PN), high-lipid PN
(L-PN), or an oral diet (chow) (the PN protocols were isonitrogenous
and isocaloric). PN impaired muscle growth, which was reversed by GH in
the CHO-PN group only (P < 0.03). PN increased carcass
lipid (P < 0.02), the effect being greater in the L-PN
than in the CHO-PN group (P < 0.001). Visceral lean tissue growth was significantly impaired by PN (P < 0.001). IGF-I reversed this impairment, but GH had no effect. PN
impaired the normal increase in hepatic protein and DNA
(P < 0.001) and produced liver steatosis
(P < 0.001). However, this steatosis was less in L-PN
than in CHO-PN (P < 0.001). Serum IGF-I and the
acid-labile subunit (ALS) were decreased by PN (P < 0.001) and were not affected by GH during PN treatment. However, GH
significantly increased serum ALS concentrations in the chow-fed rats
(P = 0.032). In conclusion, modifying the CHO-to-L
ratio of PN had no significant effect on IGF-I action, but CHO-PN
increased the peripheral effect of GH. L-PN increased carcass lipid
significantly and decreased hepatic steatosis. Nevertheless, PN caused
significant liver steatosis and profound impairment of hepatic cell
growth, which was associated with relative hepatic GH resistance.
growth hormone; parenteral nutrition; organ composition; body composition; insulin-like growth factor I treatment; steatosis; liver impairment
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INTRODUCTION |
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MALNUTRITION AND THE LOSS of lean body mass are significant factors leading to poor outcome in surgical and critically ill patients (1). Thus parenteral nutrition (PN) remains an important therapy for many of these patients who are unable to adequately nourish themselves by oral nutrition. However, PN is plagued by a number of problems that limit its wider use. These problems include atrophy of the intestinal mucosa (31), impaired immune function (11), hepatic dysfunction (38), and poor efficacy compared with oral nutrition to promote growth and tissue restitution (30). The poor efficacy of PN is compounded by the fact that many of the patients requiring PN are stressed and therefore resistant to the anabolic effect of nutrition on protein metabolism.
There has been much interest in the use of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and growth hormone (GH) to improve the efficacy of PN and to reduce the net loss of nitrogen in stressed patients. However, the early promise of GH treatment in moderately stressed patients (32, 36) has not been generally observed in more-stressed individuals (44). In the early stages of critical illness, IGF-I levels are low despite the elevated GH concentrations. It is this suppression of IGF-I secretion that is thought to attenuate the protein anabolic effects of GH in these conditions. Consequently, it has been suggested that IGF-I may be more effective than GH in attenuating the loss of muscle protein. Although studies in stress-induced states (i.e., dexamethasone treatment and starvation) in rats (29, 43) and humans (8) indicate that IGF-I has protein-anabolic actions, this has not been consistently observed in critically ill patients (44). Although the mechanism for this is still unknown, it is thought to be due to changes at the receptor or postreceptor level (17). There are a number of studies suggesting that GH plus IGF-I may be more anabolic and have fewer side effects than either hormone alone (23, 28).
In a recent study, we observed that young adolescent rats maintained on PN were resistant to the anabolic effects of IGF-I on skeletal muscle protein (21). This was despite a complete suppression of the PN-induced visceral atrophy. The cause of this peripheral resistance was not identified in this study, but the relatively high lipid intake of these rats may have contributed (27). Alternatively, the relatively high insulin concentrations that occur during PN may have antagonized the peripheral effects of IGF-I. High-carbohydrate PN is also associated with significant hepatic dysfunction (e.g., cholestasis, steatosis), and this may contribute to the decreased concentrations of liver-derived IGF-I and the acid-labile subunit (ALS) [part of the 150-kDa IGF/IGF-binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) ternary complex] that occurs during PN treatment (21). Increasing the lipid-to-carbohydrate ratio of PN is thought to reduce its hepatotoxic effects and may attenuate development of hepatic GH resistance and increase the actions of exogenous GH. Therefore, in the present study, we have examined the influence of the lipid-to-carbohydrate ratio on the peripheral and visceral actions of exogenous IGF-I and GH. This has significant clinical implications, as there is some debate about the relative benefits of "lipid"- vs. "carbohydrate"-based PN.
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METHODS |
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Recombinant human GH.
Recombinant human GH (rhGH) was kindly supplied by Pharmacia & Upjohn
(Stockholm, Sweden). It was administered subcutaneously, twice daily
(in the morning and evening) at a dose of 3.5 mg · kg body
wt1 · day
1, based on the weight of
the rats at the start of PN infusion. Saline (placebo) injections were
given to rats not treated with GH.
Recombinant human IGF-I. Recombinant human IGF-I (rhIGF-I; GroPep, Adelaide, Australia) was dissolved in 0.1 M HCl, diluted with bovine serum albumin (1 mg/ml), and added to fresh PN solution each day for continuous intravenous infusion, as previously described (21). The dose of rhIGF-I was 3.5 mg/kg body wt daily, based on the weight of the animals at the start of treatment (day 0).
These doses of rhIGF-I and rhGH were found to be anabolic by other investigators (28).Experimental protocol. The study design was approved by the Animal Care and Ethics Committee of Royal North Shore Hospital and University of Technology, Sydney. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were received (Gore Hill Animal Research Laboratory, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia) at 4 wk of age (75-90 g) and placed individually in metabolic cages in a light- (12:12-h light-dark cycle) and temperature- (23-25°C) controlled environment. The animals were then acclimatized for ~7 days in their metabolic cages, during which time they were given free access to water and rat chow (Gordon's Specialty Stock Food, Australia, providing 20% protein, 6% fat, and 5% crude fiber and 12.0 MJ/kg of metabolizable energy). When the animals reached 140-150 g, a catheter was implanted aseptically into the superior vena cava through the right external jugular vein, as described previously (22). This method has been shown to provide PN to rats, free of sepsis, for 7-10 days.
After surgery, the animals were allowed 2 days of postoperative recovery, when they received (0.8 ml/h) intravenous isotonic saline infusions and were given continued access to chow and water. On the morning of the 2nd postoperative day, the animals were randomized to receive 75% lipid-25% carbohydrate parenteral nutrition (L-PN), 5% lipid-95% carbohydrate PN (CHO-PN), or ad libitum chow (Chow). Within each nutritional group, there were three subgroups receiving GH, IGF-I, or placebo treatment. A baseline group of rats were also included, which were killed on the 3rd postoperative day to assess the changes in hormone levels and body and organ composition with treatment. Both the chow-fed and baseline groups were infused with isotonic saline at the same rate as the PN infusion to control for the stress associated with intravenous infusion. PN was introduced in the morning of the 2nd postoperative day, at one-half of the target rate, for 1 day and thereafter for 7 consecutive days at the target rate of PN infusion. Chow was withdrawn at the start of target rate PN infusion. Animals were monitored daily for their body weight, urinary and fecal output, and water and food (control groups) consumption.PN solutions. The PN solutions were prepared aseptically daily in a laminar flow hood. The L-PN consisted of a 2:1:3 mixture of Synthamin 17 (Baxter HealthCare, Sydney, Australia), 50% glucose (Baxter HealthCare), and 20% Intralipid (Kabi Pharmacia, Stockholm, Sweden). The CHO-PN was made of a 20:38:2 mixture of Synthamin 17, 50% glucose, and 20% Intralipid. Minerals and trace elements were added to all PN solutions, and essential vitamins were supplemented on day 5 of PN.
The PN infusion started on postoperative day 2, at one-half the target rate for the 1st day and thereafter for 7 consecutive days at the target rate of infusion. The rate was adjusted according to the body weight of the animal every morning. The PN solutions provided daily requirements of energy (1.3 MJ · kg body wtOrgan and carcass analysis. The organs were minced and homogenized in deionized water by means of a Polytron Tissue Homogenizer (model PT10St "OD" S, Kinematica, Lucerne, Switzerland). The eviscerated carcass (consisting of all remaining tissues after the aforementioned viscera were removed and comprising the head, brain, tail, skin, feet, muscles, and bones) was minced using a domestic kitchen mincer and was homogenized in ~400 ml of isotonic saline with a blender (model BLE-37, Breville, Sydney, Australia). Aliquots of organ and eviscerated carcass homogenates were taken for total water, lipid, and nitrogen determination, as previously described (22). Total protein content was calculated by multiplying total nitrogen content by 6.25. The DNA content of the liver was determined using the ethidium bromide method described by Prasad et al. (37).
The body composition of the rats at the start of treatment was estimated using their body weight and the average composition of the reference group. By use of this value and the composition at end point, the change in body composition was calculated. Serum glucose was determined using a commercially available kit based on the glucose oxidase method (Peridochrom, Boehringer Mannheim, Sydney, Australia). Serum nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) were measured by an in vitro enzymatic (acyl-coenzyme A synthetase-acyl-coenzyme A oxidase) colorimetric method (Wako NEFA C kit, Osaka, Japan). Serum insulin was determined by a rat-specific radioimmunoassay (RIA; Linco Research, St. Charles, MO). Rat serum IGFBP-1, ALS, and total IGF-I (endogenous rat IGF-I + rhIGF-I) concentrations were determined by an in-house RIA assay, as previously described (21, 22).Statistical analysis. Results are presented as means ± SE. The Levene's test was performed to assure homogeneity of variance together with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov (Lilliefors) test to check for normality of the data (41). If the above tests were not satisfied, then the results were normalized by logarithmic or square root transformation.
With the use of a fractional 2 × 2 × 3 factorial design (5), with the factors being IGF-I, GH, and nutrition (L-PN, CHO-PN, and Chow), ANOVA of means and interactions of factors were examined (SPSS 8.0 software, Chicago, IL). If statistically significant differences were detected by ANOVA, individual comparisons were made between groups with the post hoc Fisher's least significant difference (LSD) test ( ![]() |
RESULTS |
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Eighty-eight rats were required to complete the study, with a total dropout rate of 20% (n = 18). Of these, 5 dropouts were perioperative and related to the anesthetic procedure, 2 were due to equipment failure, and only 11 were true dropouts related to the treatment protocol. The dropout rate was 9% in the saline and L-PN groups and 25% in the CHO-PN group. The threefold greater dropout rate in the last group was probably due to the higher osmolality of the CHO-PN solution, resulting in more phlebitis and catheter blockage.
Body weight.
Daily body weights are shown in Fig. 1.
There was no difference among groups in the starting weight of the
animals at the time of catheterization (day 0).
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Peripheral tissue composition.
The weight and composition of the carcass and peripheral muscles (right
soleus and gastrocnemius) are shown in Table
1 and Fig.
2. Wet eviscerated carcass weight was
increased in all groups compared with the baseline group (reference
group, Table 1). However, this weight gain was greater in the orally
fed compared with the parenterally fed rats (P < 0.001; Fig. 2). Carcass protein was also significantly higher in the
orally vs. parenterally fed animals (P < 0.001; Fig.
2). When the GH groups were pooled, GH significantly increased the
estimated "change in carcass weight" (P = 0.001;
Fig. 2), but on post hoc analysis, it only increased the change in
carcass weight of the orally fed animals (LSD test, P = 0.005; Fig. 2). There was no effect of IGF-I or GH on the protein or
lipid content of the carcass.
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Nonhepatic visceral composition.
The weight and composition of the nonhepatic viscera are shown in Table
2 (the results for the whole small
intestine were similar to those for small intestine mucosa; hence, for
simplicity, only the latter is included in the table). PN prevented the
normal gain in the visceral tissues (P < 0.001). IGF-I
attenuated this relative loss of visceral weight; however, the effect
of IGF-I was more pronounced in the CHO-PN group, where visceral weight gain was similar to that in the chow-fed controls, whereas in the L-PN
it was still significantly lower (P = 0.006). IGF-I
also significantly increased total visceral weight (P < 0.001) in the orally fed group. GH had no significant effect on the
total visceral weight in any of the groups.
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Liver composition.
The liver composition at end point and the change in composition with
treatment are presented in Table 3 and
Fig. 3, respectively. Although there
was an increase in the liver weight in all groups, this gain was
significantly less in the PN groups compared with the orally fed group
(P < 0.001). Furthermore, in the orally fed animals,
this growth was due to lean tissue (protein and water) gain, whereas in
the parenterally fed animals, it was due to lipid and water gain. The
increase in DNA content of the liver, a marker of cell number, was also
significantly greater in the chow-fed than in the PN-fed animals
(P < 0.001), and there was no overall effect of
hormonal intervention (Table 3). In contrast to the orally fed group,
there was a significant increase in liver lipid for both PN protocols
(P < 0.001) and a significant decrease in protein gain
(P < 0.001). The CHO-PN group had also significantly higher hepatic lipid content than the L-PN group (P < 0.001).
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Serum parameters.
Serum insulin, IGF-I, IGFBP-1, and ALS are shown in Fig.
4 and NEFA in Table
4.
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DISCUSSION |
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In this study, PN administration to young peripubescent male rats resulted in a marked suppression of the normal increase in hepatic cellular DNA and protein that occurs in these actively growing animals. These findings are unlikely to be due simply to PN-induced hepatic steatosis, because the high-lipid PN regimen resulted in less hepatic fat deposition than the high-carbohydrate PN but had no effect on DNA or protein content. Furthermore, the hepatic steatosis was modest, but there was marked suppression of cell growth. The consequences of this are unclear, but in the current study, there was a suggestion of hepatic GH resistance in the PN-fed rats, as GH treatment increased serum ALS in the chow-fed rats but had no effect in the PN-fed groups. It is also of note that the PN-induced visceral atrophy was reversed by exogenous IGF-I, but IGF-I had no effect on the attenuated growth of peripheral tissues. Furthermore, GH administration resulted in a gain in gastrocnemius muscle protein, indicating that GH did maintain its peripheral effects during PN.
Peripheral effects of GH and IGF-I treatment. In agreement with several previous studies (2, 28), in this study, GH treatment significantly increased skeletal muscle (gastrocnemius) protein mass in the CHO-PN and chow-fed groups. That IGF-I concentrations were also not significantly altered by GH treatment in the chow-fed rats and rats on CHO-PN suggests that the increase in muscle protein was due either to a direct effect of GH or to an increase in intramuscular IGF-I concentrations. Germane to this point is the recent study by Liu and LeRoith (26), who treated genetically engineered IGF-I-null mice with exogenous GH and found no effect on postnatal body weight gain. This suggests that the growth-promoting activity of GH is not due to its direct effect on muscle growth but is more likely due to the paracrine/autocrine actions of IGF-I in the muscle or to the interactions between IGF-I and its binding proteins.
The reason for the lack of effect of GH on skeletal muscle protein gain in the L-PN group is unclear but may be related to the lower insulin concentrations with this treatment compared with CHO-PN. However, the insulin concentrations were not decreased below control levels and not below levels thought to suppress protein anabolism (33). Alternatively, the high-lipid infusion, leading to increased adipose fat deposition, may have attenuated the GH-stimulated IGF-I expression in skeletal muscle, as has been observed in the obese Zucker rat (34). In the present study, the protein anabolic response to GH was much less in the soleus compared with the gastrocnemius muscle. These two muscles have very different myofibril type distribution, the soleus containing predominantly slow, type I, oxidative fibers and the gastrocnemius fast, type II, glycolytic fibers. In previous studies, the soleus muscle has been shown to be generally less responsive to GH than the gastrocnemius muscle (2, 16). The lack of effect of IGF-I infusion on carcass and skeletal muscle protein in chow- and parenterally fed rats agrees with results that we obtained previously in rats maintained on 50% glucose-50% lipid PN (21). This occurred despite an increase in total IGF-I concentrations. Others have shown a significant effect of IGF-I administration on carcass protein deposition in rats; however, the greatest effect of IGF-I is usually seen in weight-losing catabolic stress models (28, 42). This may partly explain the lack of effect of IGF-I in the present study, as the PN-fed rats were gaining weight, albeit at a slower rate than the chow-fed rats. Alternatively, the age of the animals may be an important factor explaining the lack of response of the carcass to IGF-I. Most previous studies examining the effect of IGF-I or GH on lean tissue growth have used young adult (8- to 10-wk-old) male rats (28, 42). The rats in the present study were peripubertal (4- to 5-wk-old) males. It is possible that exogenous IGF-I or GH is less effective in stimulating carcass lean tissue in rapidly growing adolescent rats who already have high GH and IGF-I concentrations. Support for this hypothesis comes from a recent study by Rol De Lama et al. (39), where exogenous GH was shown to stimulate skeletal growth in peripubertal female rats but not male rats. They hypothesized that GH was unable to enhance skeletal growth in peripubertal male rats because they were already growing at a biologically maximal rate due to the preexisting high GH levels. In the female, however, the increase in GH secretion at the onset of puberty is less than the male's; therefore, females may be more responsive to GH supplementation. Infusion of L-PN led to a large increase in carcass lipid deposition. This was due to the increase in substrate supply (reflected by increased serum NEFA) and insulin concentrations, leading to uptake and storage of lipid in adipose tissue (45). Although GH administration had no effect on carcass lipid deposition, it resulted in increased serum NEFA concentration. This is consistent with the direct influence of GH on adipose tissue hormone-sensitive lipase, where it promotes the release of NEFA. In contrast, high-dose exogenous IGF-I has been shown to have short-term, insulin-like, antilipolytic effects (24) and long-term lipolytic effects, the latter presumably via suppression of insulin secretion (15). However, in the present study, 7 days of IGF-I treatment had no effect on carcass lipid, even though insulin levels were suppressed more than twofold in the L-PN group. The high lipid content in the L-PN overcame any lipolytic effect of decreased insulin and/or exogenous IGF-I or GH.Visceral effects. The PN-induced loss of visceral mass (small intestine, kidneys, spleen, and thymus) was prevented by IGF-I treatment during both PN regimens, as we (21) and others (46) have previously observed. This occurred even in the CHO-PN group, where there was no significant increase in serum total IGF-I concentrations. This emphasizes the powerful proliferative effect of IGF-I on many visceral organs. In contrast, GH had no significant effect on visceral mass during PN but did increase lean tissue weight of thymus and spleen in the orally fed animals. The mechanism for this is unclear, but there was a trend toward raised serum IGF-I with GH treatment in the orally fed rats, which may have contributed to increased lean tissues in these organs.
Hepatic steatosis occurred in both the CHO-PN and L-PN groups. The increase in fat deposition was probably due to the increase in serum insulin concentration with PN, which was exacerbated in the CHO-PN group by high-level glucose infusion. Increased insulin secretion caused by high level of glucose and amino acid infusion stimulates hepatic de novo lipogenesis and inhibits fatty acid oxidation (12). Serum NEFA is unlikely to have contributed greatly to the liver steatosis, because it was decreased in the CHO-PN, which had the highest level of steatosis, and increased in the L-PN, which had less steatosis compared with the CHO-PN group. However, the combination of increased insulin and serum NEFA levels in the L-PN group may have worked in concert to produce steatosis in this group. PN also had a profound effect on hepatic protein and DNA content. In contrast to the chow-fed rats, where there was increased total liver protein and DNA with increasing weight, there was no change in these two components during 7 days of PN treatment. Increase in tissue protein content can be due to an increase in cell number (proliferation) or cell size (growth). In contrast, an increase in DNA content usually suggests increased cell number, because the DNA content of nonmalignant cells is normally constant. That both of these parameters remained constant during PN suggests that PN leads to a marked suppression of hepatocyte proliferation. Whether this is a consequence of fatty acid infiltration is unclear; however, the reduction in hepatic liver deposition in the L-PN compared with the CHO-PN group had no effect on liver protein or DNA content. That the rats in this study were not fully mature may have had an impact on the suppressive effect of PN on liver growth, as children (38) and young immature animals are more susceptible to PN-associated liver damage (e.g., cholestasis) (9).Effect of exogenous IGF or GH on serum hormones. GH is thought to increase serum insulin by directly affecting pancreatic islet cells (40). In the present study, GH failed to increase insulin levels, although there was a trend toward an increase in the orally fed and CHO-PN-fed animals. This is contrary to the results of other studies (4, 18, 28), which found an increase in insulin levels with GH treatment. The reason for this variation could be the relative degree of immaturity of the pancreas in our PN model compared with the level in latter studies. A well-reported side effect of high-carbohydrate PN is hypotrophy of the pancreas (14). Therefore, the impact of PN on the pancreas might be more severe in our younger animal model, leading to a lack of effect of GH on insulin secretion.
ALS is a liver-derived protein under GH and nutritional regulation. With PN there was a general suppression of ALS and IGF-I levels and a lack of response of serum ALS to exogenous GH treatment. Addition of IGF-I to PN further decreased ALS levels, possibly through negative feedback inhibition of endogenous GH by IGF-I, as seen in human studies (23). The development of hepatic GH resistance leading to lower IGF-I and ALS may contribute to the poorer growth of lean tissues in animals and humans. Using a similar rat model, Ney et al. (35) found that infusion of high-CHO PN to rats led to significant hepatic steatosis without altering serum IGF-I concentrations, although hepatic IGF-I mRNA was significantly depressed. Perhaps the peripubescent rats used in the present study were more susceptible to PN-derived liver damage than young adult rats (6). In this regard, it is well known that the incidence of PN-associated cholestasis is much higher in children than in adults. Perhaps the central cause of the GH resistance in the rats in the present study was the accumulation of bile salts rather than steatosis itself. In fact, there are a number of reports suggesting that hepatic GH resistance develops in cholestatic liver disease in children and in rat bile duct cannulation models (7, 20). It remains to be determined whether there is a link between PN-derived cholestasis and hepatic GH resistance. The hepatic production of IGFBP-1 is under complex regulation by many factors, including insulin, nutrients (amino acids), glucocorticoids, and cytokines. Insulin is a dominant suppressor of IGFBP-1 production (13), although its activation by nutrient deprivation is independent of insulin (25). Circulating IGFBP-1 is thought to have an important glucoregulatory function (3) and can complex with IGF-I, cross the endothelial layer, and presumably inhibit IGF-I's actions. As a liver-derived protein suppressible by insulin, IGFBP-1 serves as a useful index of hepatic insulin sensitivity. In our previous study (21), we found that amino acid deficiency elevated serum IGFBP-1 levels, presumably through enhanced hepatic production. This has been confirmed in hepatocyte cell culture experiments (19). In the current study, we found that IGFBP-1 was increased in the PN-fed animals compared with the chow-fed controls, possibly blocking some of the effect of GH by reducing free IGF-I levels (10). We also found (3) that, compared with CHO-PN, the L-PN regimen led to increased IGFBP-1 levels, presumably due to low carbohydrate infusion. The results of this study also suggest that, during PN, there was some degree of hepatic insulin resistance in the PN groups, particularly in the CHO-PN group, where, despite high levels of serum insulin, there was no suppression of IGFBP-1.Perspectives. PN-associated liver dysfunction (steatosis, cholestasis) is a major complication of PN treatment, particularly in the young. The association of major changes in liver composition with hepatic GH resistance in parenterally fed rats in this study is potentially an important observation. It may provide an explanation for the harmful effects of PN after liver resection. Low serum IGF-I and ALS, and by inference GH, may limit the effectiveness of PN to support the normal growth of peripheral lean tissue and visceral organs. Understanding the causes of these observations may have important clinical implications.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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Sources of support for this study were G. J. Tattersall's Pty Ltd., Pharmacia & Upjohn, the National Health and Medical Research Council, and the Cancer Surgery Research Foundation.
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FOOTNOTES |
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Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: R. C. Smith, Dept. of Surgery, Univ. of Sydney, Wallace Freeborn Bldg., Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards, NSW 2065, Australia (E-mail: rsmith{at}med.usyd.edu.au).
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Received 27 March 2001; accepted in final form 13 July 2001.
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