1 The Steadward Center for Personal and Physical Achievement, 2 Department of Physical Education and Recreation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2H9
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ABSTRACT |
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We studied plasma leptin levels in six people with high-lesion spinal cord injury [SCI; body mass index (BMI) 25.9 ± 1.5 kg/m2, age 37 ± 3.0 yr] and six able-bodied (AB) controls (BMI 29.1 ± 1.9 kg/m2, age 35 ± 3.5 yr) before and after 12, 24, and 36 h of fasting. The plasma leptin levels significantly decreased during 36 h fasting by 48.8 ± 4.5% (pre: 11.3 ± 2.3, post: 6.2 ± 1.5 ng/ml) and 38.6 ± 7.9% (pre: 7.6 ± 5.0, post: 4.2 ± 1.0 ng/ml) in SCI and AB, respectively. Plasma leptin started to decrease at 24 h of fasting in the SCI group, whereas plasma leptin started to decrease at 12 h of fasting in the AB group. The current study demonstrated that plasma leptin decreased with fasting in both SCI and AB groups, with the leptin decrease being delayed in the SCI group. The delayed leptin response to fasting in the SCI group may be because of increased fat mass (%body fat, SCI: 33.8 ± 3.0, AB: 24.1 ± 2.9) and sympathetic nervous system dysfunction.
spinal cord injury; tetraplegia; ob gene; diabetes; sympathetic nervous system; spinal cord injury
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INTRODUCTION |
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LEPTIN, THE PRODUCT OF THE OBESE GENE, is a 16-kDa protein produced by adipocytes (58) that is delivered to the brain, primarily to the hypothalamus (6, 18). Administration of exogenous leptin to the medial basal hypothalamus in normal mice (2), rats (56), and monkeys (50) effectively decreases food intake and increases energy expenditure. Also, synthesis and secretion of leptin are increased in proportion to the degree of adiposity in several models of rodent obesity (15) and human obesity (4, 9), suggesting that leptin may represent one of the defense mechanisms against the development of obesity (30).
There is increasing evidence that another important function of leptin is to regulate the neuroendocrine response to fasting (1). In lean persons, plasma leptin concentrations decline markedly within the first 24 h of fasting, which may be important in regulating substrate metabolism and energy expenditure during early starvation (5, 17, 55). Weiss et al. (55) reported up to a 66% decline in plasma leptin levels after 1 wk of energy restriction. Decreases in the fasting-induced plasma leptin levels were prevented by maintaining euglycemia via glucose infusion during 72 h of fasting (5). Sonnenberg et al. (48) reported that plasma leptin levels declined steadily and significantly during 26 h of fasting. However, when the plasma leptin levels remained constant through glucose infusion, leptin levels did not change. These studies have provided convincing evidence that leptin has a role as an afferent signal of glucose availability to the central nervous system for modulating both long-term and short-term energy imbalance (1, 17, 54). This function of leptin defends the body from excess energy expenditure in the face of limited energy intake (1, 56).
One of the possible mechanisms of the modulation of leptin secretion
during fasting may involve the sympathetic nervous system (SNS; see
Ref. 14). Sivitz et al. (47) reported that
the administration of -methyl-p-tyrosine methyl ester
(AMPT-ME) increased plasma leptin 15-fold, increased epididymal fat
leptin mRNA up to 2.5-fold, increased interscapular brown adipose
tissue leptin mRNA, and decreased lumbar sympathetic nerve activity.
Rayner et al. (41) also presented complementary findings
by showing that administration of AMPT produced hyperleptinemia in
mice. Because AMPT-ME inhibits catecholamine production, the increased
leptin levels after administration of AMPT-ME most likely suggest that
catecholamines are required for normal leptin secretion and lack of
sympathetic nerve innervation would increase leptin levels. In
addition, epinephrine and norepinephrine infusion acutely decreases
ob gene expression and plasma leptin levels (8,
39). It is assumed that a regulatory pathway involving the
suppression of leptin release acts through sympathetic activation of
adipose adrenergic receptors (41, 43, 47). The data
suggest that the SNS may play a key role in the modulation of leptin
during fasting.
People with spinal cord injury (SCI) have experienced the dysfunction of the SNS, which results in an altered hormonal and metabolic response during fasting in humans (49, 56). Palmer et al. (38) investigated the catecholamine response to insulin-induced hypoglycemia in subjects with high-lesion SCI and in able-bodied (AB) subjects. They found that catecholamine did not increase in people with high-lesion SCI, whereas it increased >200% in AB controls. This result was confirmed by another study (32) that reported a 12.8-fold increase in norepinephrine during insulin-induced hypoglycemia in AB controls while no changes were observed in the high-lesion SCI group. Although the afferent limb of the baroreceptor arc is intact, the lesion in people with high-lesion SCI disrupts the sympathetic component of the efferent limb in the cervical spinal cord. This results in their inability to increase sympathetic nerve activity during fasting (32).
Because intact SNS is required for normal leptin action (7, 8) and catecholamine response to fasting, it is important to determine the leptin response to short-term fasting in people with high-lesion SCI. However, leptin response to fasting has not been investigated in people with SCI whose SNS is impaired. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to determine the leptin response to 0, 12, 24, and 36 h of fasting in the SCI and AB groups.
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METHODS |
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Subjects.
Six male subjects with complete SCI
(C5-C7, complete lesion) and six male AB
subjects participated in the study. Subjects were matched by age,
weight, height, body mass index (BMI), and waist circumference, and no
participants had type 2 diabetes mellitus or coronary heart disease.
Written informed consent was obtained before participation in the
study, which was approved by the University of Alberta Ethics Review
Board. Subjects were asked to abstain from any strenuous physical
activity during the period of study. Subject characteristics are
summarized in Table 1.
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Experimental procedure.
At 1800, subjects consumed a standard meal (55% carbohydrate, 30%
fat, and 15% protein) containing 12 kcal/kg body wt for lean subjects
and 12 kcal/kg adjusted body weight for obese subjects [BMI >30;
adjusted body wt = ideal body wt + (actual body wt ideal body wt × 0.25); see Ref. 31]. At 2100, a
snack (140 kcal, 27 g carbohydrate, 2.7 g fat, and 8.8 g
protein) was ingested by every subject. After the snack, subjects were
asked not to consume any food except water until 0900 of day
3. At 0900 and 2100 of day 2 and 0900 of day
3 (12, 24, and 36 h of fasting, respectively), subjects were
asked to come to the laboratory, and blood samples (18 ml) were
collected in heparinized tubes. Blood samples were centrifuged
immediately (4°C), separated, and frozen (
80°C) until an analysis
was performed.
Resting metabolic rate. Oxygen consumption at rest was used to calculate the resting metabolic rate (RMR) and fuel utilization. RMR were measured at 0800 of day 2 and day 3. The subjects rested in a supine position for 30 min before measurement. A transparent canopy was placed over the heads of the subjects while oxygen consumption was measured. Subjects were not permitted to sleep or move during the testing. Energy expenditure was calculated using the Weir equation (model CPX-D; MedGraphics, Minneapolis, MN; see Ref. 54).
Body composition. Fat mass, fat-free mass (FFM), abdominal obesity, and percent body fat were determined by a trained technician using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA; Hologic QDR 4500A; Hologic, Waltham, MA) on all subjects according to a previously published procedure (21). With the participant lying supine, and with all metal objects removed, a series of transverse scans was made from head to toe at a standardized transverse scan speed of 5 cm/s. DEXA has been shown to be the most practical and accurate way to measure body composition in people with SCI (21).
Analytical procedures. All samples from each subject were analyzed in one assay to avoid between-assay variation. Plasma leptin levels (ng/ml) were measured in duplicate at each time point by RIA (Human leptin RIA; Linco Research, St. Charles, MO). The limit of sensitivity was 0.5 ng/ml. The intra-assay coefficient of variation (CV) was 4.7%. Plasma insulin levels (µU/ml) were measured in duplicate at each time point by RIA (Diagnostic Products, Los Angeles, CA). The intra-assay CV was 6.9%. Growth hormone (GH) levels were measured in duplicate at each time point by RIA (Diagnostic Products). The intra-assay CV was 10.5%. Glucose levels were measured by the enzymatic method (Glucose analyzer II; Beckman Instrument, Irvine, CA). Plasma epinephrine (pmol/l) and norepinephrine (nmol/l) levels were measured by HPLC with electrochemical detection (electrochemical detector model 1045; Hewlett-Packard, Waldbronn, Germany; see Ref. 26). The intra-assay CV for these assays was 7% for epinephrine and 9.8% for norepinephrine.
Statistical analysis. The statistical analysis was performed by a two-way ANOVA repeated measurement; between-groups (SCI vs. AB) and within-subject (0, 12, 24, and 36 h of fasting) factors and their interaction were considered. Comparisons among the variables between the two groups were made by independent t-tests. Pearson's product-moment correlation was used to measure the strength of association between the variables. Stepwise multiple linear regression was used to determine the strongest predictor for RMR (dependent variable) among leptin, FFM, and GH (independent variables). All data have been expressed as means ± SE. Statistical significance was set for P < 0.05.
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RESULTS |
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Plasma leptin response to fasting.
At 0 h of fasting, plasma leptin was higher in the SCI group
compared with the AB group; however, the difference did not
reach statistical significance. During the 36-h fasting period, plasma leptin decreased significantly below the prefasting level in both the
SCI (0 h fasting: 11.34 ± 2.27 vs. 36 h fasting: 6.16 ± 1.46 ng/ml) and the AB (0 h: 7.58. ± 2.05 vs. 36 h: 4.18 ± 1.01 ng/ml) groups. Plasma leptin started to decrease at 24 h
and continued to decrease until 36 h of fasting in the SCI group,
whereas it started to decrease at 12 h and started to plateau
after 24 h of fasting in the AB group (Fig.
1). When the BMI was controlled, the
two-way ANOVA repeated measurement showed an interaction between leptin
responses to fasting in the groups (P = 0.011).
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Plasma hormone and metabolite response to fasting. There was no significant difference in plasma glucose, insulin, cortisol, and GH before fasting between the groups. There was no significant difference in the hormones and the glucose response during 36 h of fasting in either group.
RMR.
Absolute RMR (kcal/day) was higher in the AB vs. SCI group at both 12 and 36 h of fasting. However, there were no differences between
the groups in relative RMR
(kcal · day1 · kg
FFM
1) at either 12 or 36 h of fasting. Over the 36-h
period of fasting, RMR (absolute and relative) values did not change in
either group.
Relationship between RMR and plasma leptin during fasting.
Positive correlations were found between leptin levels and RMR
(absolute and relative) in the AB group. On the other hand, no
correlations were found between leptin levels and RMR (absolute and
relative) in the SCI group at either 12 or 36 h of fasting (Fig.
2).
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Body composition.
Although subjects were matched for age, weight, height, BMI, and waist
circumference, the SCI group showed a significantly higher percentage
of body fat (33.8 ± 3.0 vs. 24.4 ± 2.5%), resulting from
higher fat mass (27.1 ± 3.7 vs. 21.6 ± 3.3) and lower FFM (49.4 ± 2.3 vs. 63.41 ± 2.96), compared with the AB group
(Table 2).
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DISCUSSION |
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To our knowledge, the present study was the first to examine the leptin response to a 36-h fast in SCI and AB individuals. We demonstrated that leptin levels declined in both groups but was delayed in the SCI volunteers.
Leptin response to short-term fasting. A fasting-induced decrease in plasma leptin plays an important role in initiating changes in substrate metabolism and energy expenditure (44, 50). In humans, a significant reduction of energy intake or fasting suppresses leptin levels to a much greater extent than would be expected on the basis of changes in the adipose tissue mass (5, 17, 24). This is consistent with evidence that leptin has a role as a signal of energy deficiency and an integrator of neuroendocrine function (1). The present study demonstrated that plasma leptin decreased with 36 h of fasting by 48.8 ± 4.5 and 38.6 ± 7.9% in both the SCI and the AB groups, respectively. The literature in this area suggests that short-term fasting (12 h) reduces plasma leptin levels in the AB population (5, 29). Our data are consistent with these findings. Plasma leptin was reduced significantly after 12 h of fasting in the AB group but was not altered until 24 h in the SCI group. The mechanism for the delayed leptin response in the SCI group may be related to SNS dysfunction and adiposity level.
Leptin mediates many of its physiological effects by activating neurons in the hypothalamus that innervate and stimulate sympathetic preganglionic neurons in the spinal cord. In individuals with high-lesion SCI, these neurons are atrophied (28), and stimulation below the lesion may be impaired. Consequently, impairment of the SNS may alter leptin secretion and action (11, 12, 18, 33, 34). Stimulation of the SNS by infusing catecholamine or isoprenaline decreases leptin production and leptin expression in peripheral tissues (7, 8, 39). In addition, sympathetic blockade or chemical sympathectomy increases circulating leptin (41). These results suggest that a tonic inhibitory adrenergic modulation influences leptin action and secretion (24, 27, 28). Hence, removal of this inhibition, as a result of SCI, may lead to an abnormal leptin response to fasting in SCI. Therefore, the delayed leptin response during fasting in the SCI group may be because of an impairment of the SNS system. In addition to SNS dysfunction, the significantly higher percentage of body fat in our SCI group may be another factor contributing to the delayed leptin response to fasting. Excessive adiposity is known to reduce whole body lipolytic sensitivity, and obese individuals have a blunted leptin response to food restriction (19, 20, 25, 24). Fasting-induced secretion of epinephrine stimulates adipose tissueMechanisms for fasting-induced leptin decline. Both the SCI and AB groups experienced a significant decrease in plasma leptin levels, although the SCI group showed a delayed leptin response to fasting, which may suggest that adrenergic mechanisms are not the sole mechanism of leptin production and/or regulation during fasting. For example, evidence suggests that glucose metabolism is partly responsible for leptin production in humans (5, 17). The importance of glucose metabolism in regulating the level of leptin was demonstrated by Boden et al. (5), who found that glucose infusion during fasting prevented the fast-induced leptin decline. Also, Sonnenberg et al. (48) reported that plasma leptin levels declined steadily and significantly during 26 h of fasting. When the plasma glucose levels remained constant between 104 and 117 mg/dl via glucose infusion, the leptin level did not change during fasting. The plasma leptin even increased during 26 h of fasting when glucose levels were increased >157 mg/dl via glucose infusion. These studies have provided convincing evidence that the plasma glucose level is one of the major contributors for leptin production. Wang et al. (53) suggested that glucoregulation of leptin production may be mediated by the entry of glucose in the glucosamine pathway via L-glutamine, the D-fructose-6-phosphate amidotransferase step.
Another leptin-regulatory factor during fasting may be circulating insulin. Barr et al. (3) showed that treatment of rat adipocytes with insulin increased tissue leptin content and secretion during a 2-h incubation period. Also, insulin administration increased leptin release within 10 min, suggesting that insulin may act as a leptin secretagogue (27). Other studies have demonstrated that leptin administration inhibited insulin secretion (35). Our findings would support the hypothesis of an SNS-mediated leptin-insulin interaction. There was a positive correlation between the 36-h fasting leptin levels and the 36-h fasting insulin levels in the AB group (r = 0.83, P = 0.04), but no similar correlation was identified in the SCI group (r = 0.61, P = 0.20).Relationship between plasma leptin and RMR. The present study showed that plasma leptin positively correlated with RMR (absolute and relative) in the AB group. When a multiple stepwise forward regression analysis was performed with the RMR as the dependent variable and with the plasma leptin, FFM, and GH as the independent variables, plasma leptin was the strongest predictor of RMR, accounting for 74.5% of the RMR variation. Together with the previous demonstration that the leptin level is a positive determinant of RMR in men, Pima children, women with anorexia nervosa, and patients with heart failure (22, 31, 40, 42, 51), the present study supports the hypothesis that leptin is a significant factor in the regulation of energy expenditure in humans. In contrast, leptin was not correlated with RMR (absolute and relative) in the SCI group. This result supports the hypothesis that normal SNS function is required for leptin to influence energy expenditure. Administration of exogenous leptin or activation of the gene that encodes for leptin in normal mice (2), rats (35, 56), and rhesus monkeys (50) has resulted in increased energy expenditure, increased glucose uptake, and decreased insulin secretion. The enhanced rate of glucose uptake and decreased insulin secretion resulting from administration of leptin was suppressed effectively with surgical sympathetic denervation of the tissue (18, 33-35). Also, increased glucose uptake in skeletal and heart muscles was prevented completely by pretreatment with guanethidine but not by adrenal demedullation (18). Because guanethidine does not inhibit secretion of epinephrine from the adrenal medulla and does not affect brain norepinephrine, these results suggest that the SNS mediates the effects of leptin.
Monroe et al. (36) examined the effects of intravenous propranolol infusion, a ![]() |
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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This study was funded by the Alberta Paraplegic Foundation, Edmonton, AB, Canada, and Rick Hansen Institution, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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FOOTNOTES |
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Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: J. Y. Jeon, The Steadward Center for Personal and Physical Achievement, W1-67 Van Vliet Comp, Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton AB, T6G 2H9, Canada (E-mail: justin.jeon{at}ualberta.ca).
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
First published November 12, 2002;10.1152/ajpendo.00302.2002
Received 11 July 2002; accepted in final form 6 October 2002.
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