Departments of Medicine, Biochemistry, and Nutrition, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106-4951; and Division of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska Hospital, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
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ABSTRACT |
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Tayek and Katz proposed calculating
gluconeogenesis's contributions to glucose production and Cori cycling
from mass isotopomer distributions in blood glucose and lactate during
[U-13C6]glucose
infusion [Tayek, J. A., and J. Katz. Am. J. Physiol. 272 (Endocrinol.
Metab. 35): E476-E484, 1997]. However,
isotopic exchange was not adequately differentiated from dilution, nor was condensation of labeled with unlabeled triose phosphates properly equated. We introduce and apply corrected equations to data from subjects fasted for 12 and 60 h. Impossibly low contributions of
gluconeogenesis to glucose production at 60 h are obtained (23-41%). Distributions in overnight-fasted normal subjects
calculate to only ~18%. Cori cycling estimates are ~10-15%
after overnight fasting and 20% after 60 h of fasting. There are
several possible reasons for the underestimates. The contribution of
gluconeogenesis is underestimated because glucose production from
glycerol and amino acids not metabolized via pyruvate is ascribed to
glycogenolysis. Labeled oxaloacetate and -ketoglutarate can exchange
during equilibrium with circulating unlabeled aspartate, glutamate, and
glutamine. Also, the assumption that isotopomer distributions in
arterial lactate and hepatic pyruvate are the same may not be
fulfilled.
lactate; alanine; CO2 fixation
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INTRODUCTION |
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TAYEK AND KATZ (19) introduced a novel method for estimating the contribution of gluconeogenesis to glucose production from mass isotopomer distribution (MID) values in blood glucose and lactate during [U-13C6]glucose administration. However, calculations from observed distributions yielded overestimates (20). Two factors were calculated, one for dilution by unlabeled carbon of [13C]lactate formed from the blood glucose and the other for dilution in the conversion of that lactate to glucose. The product of those factors times an estimated fraction of the blood glucose carbon recycled via lactate to glucose and times glucose production was equated to the rate of gluconeogenesis (19).
Most recently, the same authors presented a new procedure for calculation (20), giving lower estimates of gluconeogenesis. Rates are calculated from the product of glucose production, the factor for the dilution by unlabeled carbon of the labeled lactate formed from the blood glucose, and an estimate of the fraction of glucose molecules recycled, the latter estimate also considered the measure of Cori cycling. However, exchanges of 13C with 12C in the process of gluconeogenesis are not adequately differentiated from dilution of 13C by 12C from unlabeled gluconeogenic precursors. Also, the condensation of labeled with unlabeled triose phosphate is not properly equated.
We now present corrected equations for calculating the contributions of gluconeogenesis and Cori cycling from MID. Applying them, we have estimated the contribution of gluconeogenesis in humans after an overnight fast and after fasting for 60 h. If the approach is adequate, the contribution at 60 h should be nearly 100% (12, 18). After an overnight fast, it would be expected to be ~40-50% (6, 11, 17). A critical assumption in the approach is that the MID in arterial blood lactate accurately measures that in pyruvate in liver and in kidney, to the extent kidney contributes to gluconeogenesis. To test that assumption, distributions in arterial blood, lactate, and alanine were compared with distributions in hepatic vein and renal vein lactate and alanine.
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METHODS |
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Subjects. Seven healthy normal men, aged 26-31 yr with body mass indexes of 20.5-24.4 kg/m2, were studied. The study was approved by the Human Investigation Committees at the Karolinska Hospital and University Hospitals of Cleveland. Informed consents were obtained.
Materials. [U-13C6]glucose, 99% enriched, purchased from Isotec (Miamisburg, OH), was dissolved in isotonic saline and filtered through a sterile Millipore 0.22-µm porosity filter. The solution was shown to be sterile and pyrogen free by the Pharmacy Department of the Karolinska Hospital.
Procedure.
At 8 AM, three of the subjects, after 60 h of fasting, were given a
priming dose and then an infusion for 5 h of the solution of
[U-13C6]glucose,
9.8 ml/h, into an antecubital vein of one arm at a rate of ~0.4
µmol of
[U-13C6]glucose · kg
body
weight1 · min
1.
The priming dose equaled the amount infused in 1 h. Also at 8 AM, a
catheter was inserted into the brachial artery of the other arm. At 3 h
into the infusion, catheters were inserted under fluoroscopic control
into a hepatic vein and a renal vein via a femoral vein. The catheters
were kept patent by periodic saline rinses.
Analyses.
Blood glucose concentrations were determined using glucose oxidase
(YSI, Yellow Springs, OH). -Hydroxybutyrate concentrations were also
determined enzymatically (22). Plasma for MID analyses, collected
rapidly after blood drawing, was frozen immediately and shipped to
Cleveland. MID values of glucose were determined from the aldonitrile
pentaacetate derivative, as described by Tayek and Katz (19), and of
lactate from the pentafluorobenzyl derivative as described by Hazey et
al. (7). Measured isotopomer distributions were corrected for natural
13C enrichment at all masses (5).
To measure 13C enrichment of
breath CO2, the
CO2 was collected in NaOH, and BaCl2 was added. The rinsed and
dried precipitate of BaCO3 was introduced in a vial that was flushed with
CO2-free
N2 before injection of
H2SO4.
The evolved CO2 was injected with
a gas syringe into a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer. Linear
calibration curves of
13CO2
enrichments (0.1-1.5%) were obtained using
NaH13CO3
standards. Measured enrichments of expired
CO2 ranged from 0.7 to 1.0%.
Calculations. Rate of appearance of glucose (Ra glucose) in the circulation was calculated using the equation
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(1) |
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(2) |
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(3) |
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RESULTS |
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Arterial glucose concentration of the first three subjects at 65 h into
the fast was 3.5 mM in subject 1, 3.4 mM in subject 2, and 2.4 mM in
subject 3 and was about the same at 64 h into the fast. Concentrations of -hydroxybutyrate were,
respectively, 2.7, 3.8, and 2.9 mM at 65 h and slightly lower at 64 h
into the fast. These concentrations are in accord with the subjects
having fasted for 65 h.
The percentage of isotopomer M6 in the MID in glucose did not change between 64 h and 65 h (Table 1). There is a suggestion of a gradual increase in M1, M2, and M3 between 64 h and 65 h. This is particularly apparent for M3, being 9-15% more at 65 h than at 64 h. There is the suggestion during the hour of a small increase in distributions in lactate from subjects 1 and 3. M6 was ~4%, and m3 was about one-half that percentage. Other isotopomers were present at 0.78% or less. M2 was about the same as M3, and m2 was about one-half of M2. M1 was similar to M2 and M3, and m1 appeared to be somewhat more than m2.
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The Ra of glucose from
Eq. 1, by reference to the data in
Table 1, calculates to 9.1-10.4
µmol · min1 · kg
1
(Table 2), with endogenous GP only 0.4 µmol less. Unlabeled lactate diluted lactate from blood
glucose undergoing Cori cycling, D, ~1.5-fold. About 20% of
the Ra of glucose was cycled. The
percentage of GP contributed by GNG ranged from 23.4 to 40.4%.
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%Excess 13C breath CO2 at 64 h and 65 h, multiplied by 0.65, is recorded in Table 3. Comparison is made with the M1 measured in the glucose. As is evident, while quantitation is uncertain, most of M1 arose by fixation of 13CO2 formed from the [U-13C6]glucose. In the calculations that follow and those in Table 2, no corrections have been made for the contributions of 13CO2 to M1 and m1. If, for example, M1 and m1 were set to zero, Cori cycling estimates, F in Table 2, would reduce to 0.152, 0.125, and 0.134, and %GNG in Table 2 would reduce to 30.7, 20.4, and 30.0%.
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MID values in arterial blood lactate (from Table 1) and arterial alanine and in hepatic and renal vein blood lactate and alanine are recorded in Table 4. Means ± SE are for the five determinations made of each subject from 64 h to 65 h. Distributions in lactate were remarkably similar in arterial, hepatic vein, and renal vein bloods. That was also so for alanine, although M3 in hepatic vein blood was in all three subjects ~10% less than in arterial blood. M3 in alanine was one-half to two-thirds that in lactate.
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In Table 5, means ± SE are recorded for the five determinations of MID in glucose and lactate from blood collected at 16-17 h from the four subjects fasted for 12 h and then infused with [U-13]glucose while the fast continued. The values every 15 min are not shown, but M3 increased by 12 ± 4% and m3 increased by 16 ± 6% between 16 h and 17 h. Also not shown are the enrichments in breath CO2 and M1 at 16 h and 17 h. Multiplying the enrichments in breath CO2 by 0.65 and assuming a contribution of GNG to GP of ~50% (11), again, most of the M1 appears to have arisen by 13CO2 fixation. The fraction of glucose molecules in the blood that recycled (Eq. 3) was 15.1 ± 1.7%. Enrichments in lactate from arterial, hepatic vein, and renal vein blood were similar (Table 6).
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DISCUSSION |
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Percent GNG, as proposed for calculation most recently by Tayek and Katz (20), derives from two equations, Eqs. 4 and 5
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(4) |
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(5) |
Before examination of the reasons why Eqs. 4 and 5 give higher estimates than Eqs. 2 and 3, the difference between isotopic exchange and dilution requires further emphasis (10). Assume that two molecules of lactate, each with three atoms of 13C, are converted to glucose. Assume that in the conversion each undergoes exchange of 13C for 12C in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, so that each triose phosphate converted to glucose has only one 13C atom. One molecule of glucose was formed with one-third of its atoms being 13C. The same amount of glucose would have been formed if there had been no exchange. Assume instead that the two molecules of [13C]lactate are diluted by four unlabeled lactate molecules, and then the six lactates are converted to glucose without exchange. Of the 18 carbons of glucose formed, one-third will again have 13C, but the net synthesis will be three molecules of glucose. Thus dilution, not exchange, results in a net increase in GNG.
Because Eq. 4 includes isotopomer percentages weighted for 13C atoms, "dilution" includes both exchange and dilution. Equation 2 removes the contribution of exchange by treating each labeled triose unit in lactate and glucose, no matter how many of its carbons are labeled with 13C, as having all three carbons labeled. In the calculation of GNG originally proposed by Tayek and Katz (19), the other dilution factor, now Eq. 6 in Ref. 20, was for dilution of pyruvate in the TCA cycle in its conversion to glucose and was set equal to 3 (M1 + M2 + M3)/(M1 + M2 + M3). Because that factor is only more than 1.0 to the extent of exchange (20), its use (19) contributed to the overestimations of GNG.
In Eqs. 2 and 3, the factor 0.5 is required because one-half of the triose units forming the glucose molecules of masses M1, M2, and M3 are unlabeled and are not derived from [U-13C6]glucose. The equations must represent the dilution and fraction only of the [U-13C6]glucose cycled if the [U-13C6]glucose is to be used to trace the fate of unlabeled glucose endogenously produced.
Multiplying Eq. 2 by Eq. 3, i.e., D × F, yields the contribution of GNG to the Ra glucose
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(6) |
For further understanding, these considerations are best illustrated by a numerical example. In Fig. 1, in the fasted state, 100 molecules/unit time of 100% enriched [U-13C6]glucose, M6, are infused into the blood, 500 molecules of glucose are released into the blood by GNG, and 1,000 molecules of unlabeled lactate enter the blood and are converted to glucose, i.e., via GNG. Twenty percent of glucose entering the blood is converted to lactate that is recycled to glucose, i.e., Cori cycling. There is assumed to be no exchange, so the movement of 13C is in units of three and six 13C atoms.
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At steady state, 1,375 molecules of glucose/unit time enter the blood,
1,225 with no label, M0, 50 labeled M1 and 100 labeled M6. Twenty percent are
recycled, i.e., 245, 10, and 20, respectively. The remaining 1,100 molecules are metabolized to CO2
and all else by brain and other tissues. The 275 glucose molecules
cycled form 500 lactate molecules with no label,
m0, and 50 with
m3. Then the 1,550 molecules
of lactate entering the blood by GNG are converted to 725 M0 and 50 M3. The percentage of the
isotopomers of glucose and lactate in blood are recorded beside the
numbers of molecules. If we apply Eqs.
1-3, Ra
glucose = 100(100/7.27) = 1,375 molecules/unit time, D = (1.82 + 7.27)/3.23 = 2.82, and F = 1.82/(1.82 + 7.27) = 0.2. Then GNG = 1,375 × 2.82 × 0.2 = 775 molecules/unit time, GP equals 1,375 100 = 1,275 molecules/unit time, and the contribution of GNG = 100(775/1,275)= 60.8%. Thus, when the procedure for calculation proposed here is applied to MID in glucose and lactate that must exist
under the set conditions, correct results are obtained.
Applying Eq. 4 gives the same dilution factor, 2.82, as Eq. 2, because in the example there is no exchange of 13C with 12C. However, using Eq. 5, the fraction recycled is 3.64/(3.64+7.27) = 0.33. Hence, the contributions of GNG are overestimated at 100(2.82)(0.33) = 92.7%, rather than 60.8%. Furthermore, Cori cycling is overestimated at 33%, rather than 20%. As is apparent from Fig. 1, Eq. 5 calculates the fraction of labeled glucose molecules in blood glucose no longer M6, i.e., 50/(50+100) = 0.33. However, the fraction of labeled molecules in the blood glucose that cycled is (10 + 20)/150 = 0.2. Because the fate of 13C is the same as that of 12C, if a true tracer-tracee relationship is to exist, 0.2 of the unlabeled carbon in blood glucose is cycled. The fraction of glucose carbon recycled must be the same as the fraction of molecules recycled, contrary to the conclusion in Ref. 20, although of course six times as many carbon atoms as molecules of glucose are recycled.
Figure 2 depicts a prolonged fasting state when all glucose production is by GNG. Cori cycling is 10%, and 2,000 molecules of unlabeled lactate are converted to glucose. One-half the sum, 21.05, of the m3 molecules cycled, i.e., 1.05 m3 molecules plus 20 m3 molecules formed from the 10 M6 molecules, undergoes exchange to form 11.70 m1. If we apply the procedure for calculation proposed here, the results are correct, i.e., GP equals 1,122 molecules/unit time, Cori cycling is 10%, and the contribution of GNG to GP is 100%.
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If conditions are altered, so that the exchange occurred in the conversion of lactate to glucose, i.e., in the TCA cycle rather than in the conversion of glucose to lactate, the percentage of mass isotopomers m1 and m3 would be different, i.e., m1 = 1.17/2,244 = 0.052% and m3 = 21.05/2,244 = 0.938%. But because M1 and M3, as well as m1, and m3, are treated the same in the equations, correct results are still obtained, i.e., M1 + M3 = 1.82% and m1 + m3 = 0.99% in either case. When Eqs. 4 and 5 are applied to the conditions of Fig. 2, GNG is overestimated at 161% and Cori cycling at 18.2%.1
Figure 3 also depicts a prolonged fast when all GP is by GNG, and Cori cycling is 10%. As in Fig. 1, movement is only in three and six 13C units. However, per unit of time, of the 133.34 molecules of lactate from blood glucose mixing with 2,000 molecules of unlabeled lactate, 1,000, rather than being converted to glucose, return to the tissues, producing unlabeled lactate. This is also an exchange (10) that must be considered, because the equilibration between blood lactate and tissue pyruvate is extensive. The result in the example is the net production of 566.67 molecules of glucose from 1,334.34 molecules of lactate per unit time.
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From Eqs. 2 and 3, D = 15.84/0.99 = 16.0, and F = 0.84/15.8 4 = 0.053. The rate of GNG is then 666.67 × 16 × 0.53 = 566.67, and therefore the %contribution of GNG to GP still
calculates to 100%. However, the introduction of the pyruvate lactate exchange results in an underestimation of Cori cycling, 5.3%
rather than 10%. Therefore, the Cori cycling estimates in Table 2
should be considered underestimates, to the extent labeled lactate
formed in the cycling exchanges with unlabeled lactate before
conversion to glucose.
Exchanges in the conversion of glucose to lactate and lactate to
glucose, resulting in the formation of
m0 from
m3, are assumed negligible.
This is justified because
M3 M2 >>
M1, with
correction for the contribution of
13CO2
fixation (Table 3), and
m3 >>
m1. The formation
of m0 from m3 should be less than the
formation of m1 from
m3. That
M1 is much less
than M2 and
M3 is to be
expected, because other than by
13CO2
fixation, M1 can only be
formed via the pentose cycle and by label from
[U-13C3]lactate
after experiencing a turn of the TCA cycle.
M2 and M3 can be formed via lactate
conversion to oxaloacetate, equilibration between fumarate and
oxaloacetate, and then conversion of oxaloacetate to glucose. If the
formation of m0 occurred by
exchange during the conversion of labeled glucose to lactate, the
estimated contribution of GNG would be unaffected, but Cori cycling
would be underestimated.
In normal subjects fasted overnight and infused with [U-13C]glucose for 3 h (19) and 4 h (20), from the reported data applying Eq. 6, percent contribution of GNG to GP is 18.5 ± 1.3% (n = 14). From the data in Table 5, applying Eq. 4, the percent contribution calculates to 17.3 ± 2.5% (n = 4). That is one-half or less than in other quantitations (6, 11, 17, 21). After 60 h of fasting, GNG calculates to a contribution of 41% or less (Table 2). At 60 h, ~85% would have been expected, allowing for a 10% contribution by glycerol (11, 12) and a 5% contribution by glycogenolysis (20).
There are several reasons why the correct equations give
underestimates. Glycerol's conversion to glucose is included in
glycogenolysis rather than GNG. The conversion of amino acids to
glucose without pyruvate as an intermediate also results in an
underestimation of GNG and an equivalent overestimation of
glycogenolysis. Thus the conversion to glucose of aspartate [via
oxaloacetate phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)] and
of glutamine and glutamate (via
-ketoglutarate
oxaloacetate
PEP) would calculate as glycogenolysis, except to the extent of PEP cycling, i.e., PEP
pyruvate
oxaloacetate
PEP (16). For PEP cycled into pyruvate to be included in the
estimate of the contribution of GNG, the pyruvate would have to
equilibrate with blood lactate. Labeled oxaloacetate and
-ketoglutarate exchanges during equilibrium with circulating
unlabeled aspartate, glutamate, and glutamine also result in
underestimations (3, 16). Other non-MID analysis methods for estimating
GNG by labeled pyruvate using 13C-
or 14C-labeled tracers have the
same limitations.
Also, the MID values in blood lactate may not reflect adequately those in intrahepatic and intrarenal pyruvate (to the extent that kidney contributes to GNG). Although there is evidence for an adequate reflection, at least under certain conditions (8, 23), there is also evidence to the contrary (2, 3, 13). Similar enrichments in arterial, hepatic vein, and renal vein lactate (Tables 4 and 6) support the enrichment in arterial plasma lactate reflecting that in liver and kidney. However, the enrichments in hepatic vein lactate after an overnight fast appear somewhat less than in arterial lactate, and the enrichment is lower in alanine than in lactate after 60 h of fasting.
If the correct equation is used, estimates might be more reasonable were it not for systematic bias in mass spectral analysis. Thus, when methods for analyzing spectral data are used, there can be errors in estimates of mass isotopomers when enrichments are low (1, 14), as encountered here in M1, M2, m1, and m2. The optimal approach to eliminating systematic bias is yet to be achieved (1). Despite giving prime and infusing [U-13C]glucose doses for 5 h, labeling from lactate, as reflected in isotopomer M3, still had not reached steady state. That is so even when we consider that the contribution of GNG increases with the duration of fasting (11). The failure to achieve steady state presumably reflects the time needed for [13C]lactate to equilibrate with unlabeled lactate/pyruvate and recycle into glucose (15).
In conclusion, when correctly calculated, estimates of the contributions of GNG to GP and Cori cycling from isotopomer distributions in blood glucose and lactate on [U-13C6]glucose administration are underestimates. The reasons for that are several.
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NOTE ADDED IN PROOF |
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Data were recently reported from experiments in which [U-13C]glucose was infused into fasted piglets {Wykes, L. J., F. Jahoor, and P. J. Reeds. Gluconeogenesis measured with [U-13C]glucose and mass isotopomer analysis of apoB-100 amino acids in pigs. Am. J. Physiol. 274 (Endocrinol. Metab. 37): E365-E376, 1998}. The authors calculated by several methods the contribution of gluconeogenesis to glucose production 20-22 h into the fast. Values calculated by using the equation of Tayek and Katz (20) were consistently >100%. With the use of the data of Wykes et al. (Table 1 in Wykes et al.) and our Eq. 6, the contribution calculates to 59%.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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This study was supported by National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases Grants DK-14507 and DK-35543, the Karolinska Institute, and the Nobel Foundation.
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FOOTNOTES |
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1 Tayek and Katz, who concluded in calculating gluconeogenesis (19) to provide an adequate approximation when recycling is low (20), doubled the product of the fraction of glucose carbon recycled and the dilution by unlabeled carbon. However, the fraction of glucose recycled times the extent of its dilution equals the fraction of glucose production by gluconeogenesis, not one-half that fraction. When this is combined with the use of the "dilution via TCA cycle" factor, a large overestimation of gluconeogenesis results. The overestimation is reduced by 1) use of an equation for calculating the recycling of glucose carbon, Eq. 3 of Ref. 19 and Eq. 2 of Ref. 20, with weighted isotopomers (so, for example, using that equation, the scheme of Fig. 2 would give a fraction of 0.067 and not 0.100), 2) the extent blood lactate is not the measure of intrahepatic pyruvate, and 3) the extent gluconeogenic substrates are converted to glucose without pyruvate as intermediate (see DISCUSSION). Estimates of glucose recycling from differences in Ra glucose measured with irreversible tracers, e.g., [3-3H]glucose and [6-3H]glucose, and reversible tracers, e.g., [14C]glucose and [13C]glucose, also expressed in Eq. 3 of Ref. 19 and Eq. 3 of Ref. 20, suffer again from the failure to exclude exchange and to include unlabeled triose phosphate with labeled triose phosphate as having been cycled.
Address for reprint requests: B. R. Landau, Dept. of Medicine, Case Western Reserve Univ. School of Medicine, 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH 44106-4951.
Received 3 July 1997; accepted in final form 20 January 1998.
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