SPECIAL COMMUNICATION
Metabolite levels in human skeletal muscle and adipose tissue
studied with microdialysis at low perfusion flow
H.
Rosdahl1,2,
K.
Hamrin1,
U.
Ungerstedt1, and
J.
Henriksson1
1 Department of Physiology and
Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, and
2 Department of Human Biology,
Stockholm University College of Physical Education and Sports,
S-11486 Stockholm, Sweden
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ABSTRACT |
To identify a
perfusion flow at which the interstitial fluid completely equilibrates
with the microdialysis perfusion fluid, a protocol with successively
lower perfusion flows was used. A colloid was included in the perfusion
fluid to make sampling possible at the lowest perfusion flows. At 0.16 µl/min, the measured metabolites had reached a complete equilibration
in both tissues, and the measured concentrations of glucose, glycerol,
and urea were in good agreement with expected tissue-specific levels.
The glucose concentration in adipose tissue (4.98 ± 0.14 mM) was
equal to that of plasma (5.07 ± 0.07 mM), whereas the concentration
in muscle (4.41 ± 0.11 mM) was lower than in plasma and adipose
tissue (P < 0.001). The
concentration of lactate was higher (P < 0.001) in muscle (2.39 ± 0.22 mM) than in adipose tissue (1.30 ± 0.12 mM), whereas the glycerol concentration in adipose tissue
(233 ± 19.7 µM) was higher (P < 0.001) than in muscle (40.8 ± 3.0 µM) and in plasma (68.7 ± 3.97 µM). The concentration of urea was equal in the two
tissues. Overall, the study indicates that microdialysis at a low
perfusion flow may be a tool to continuously monitor tissue
interstitial concentrations.
dextran; glucose; lactate; glycerol; urea
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INTRODUCTION |
MICRODIALYSIS is an in vivo sampling technique
used for studies of tissue-specific events in many species, including
humans. Substances in the interstitial space diffuse across a
semipermeable membrane to a perfusion fluid, which is pumped through
the microdialysis catheter. The degree of equilibration between the
interstitial and perfusion fluids (recovery) is mainly dependent on the
perfusion flow, the size of the dialysis membrane, and the diffusivity
of substances in the tissue. Most of the microdialysis experiments reported in the literature have been performed with an incomplete recovery. With this approach, the changes measured represent relative changes of an unknown fraction of the interstitial concentration. The
microdialysis catheters may be calibrated by determining the recovery.
This can be performed by perfusing with different concentrations of the
substance of interest (no net flux method; see Ref. 13) or by
extrapolation to zero flow (8). These techniques, however, both take
several hours to perform, and, in addition, neither technique can be
used to detect changes in recovery over time. In other studies, an
internal standard has been used to calculate the recovery (7, 14, 16,
17, 23). An alternative approach that does not involve any
recalculation of the data is to ensure a complete equilibration (100%
recovery) by the combination of a large dialysis membrane and a low
perfusion flow. With the use of this combination, a high recovery, but
not a complete equilibration, has previously been reported in human
adipose tissue and skeletal muscle (3, 7, 16).
The aim of the present study was to use a successively lower perfusion
flow to identify a perfusion flow at which the interstitial fluid in
human skeletal muscle and adipose tissue completely equilibrates with
the microdialysis perfusion fluid with respect to glucose, lactate,
glycerol, and urea.
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METHODS |
Subjects. Results are presented for 18 healthy male subjects. Mean age, height, weight, and body mass index
were 24.9 ± 0.9 yr (range 19-32), 1.80 ± 0.02 m (range
1.70-1.98), 79.7 ± 2.6 kg (range 65-98), and 24.0 ± 0.56 (range 20.1-29.9). Abdominal skin and subcutaneous tissue
thickness, as measured by a skinfold caliper, was 21.6 ± 2.22 mm
(caliper values). Before the start of investigation, a detailed
description of the study was given to the subjects, who gave their
informed consent. The study was approved by the ethical committee of
the Karolinska Institute.
Experimental design. Initially, 14 subjects participated in experiments with different perfusion flow
rates (1.33, 0.66, 0.33, and 0.16 µl/min) with dextran added to the
perfusion fluid (results are presented in Figs.
1A-4A).
Subjects
1-8 had two
additional catheters inserted (one in adipose tissue and one in
skeletal muscle), perfused at a constant flow rate (0.33 µl/min)
during the whole experiment (results are presented in Figs.
1B-4B). Subjects 9-14 underwent an additional experiment on a
separate day with different perfusion flow rates (1.33, 0.66, 0.33, and
0.16 µl/min) without dextran added to the perfusion fluid (results
are presented in METHODS, Comparison of experiments
with or without dextran in the perfusion solution).
The perfusion fluid used in these subjects was furthermore supplemented
with 50 mM ethanol to compare the basal blood flow in skeletal muscle
and adipose tissue. Five subjects (15-19) participated
in experiments with different perfusion flow rates (0.33, 0.16, and
0.075 µl/min) with dextran added to the perfusion fluid (results are
presented in Figs.
1C-4C).
In the protocols with different perfusion flows, each flow rate was monitored for 2 h, except at 0.075 µl/min, which was monitored for 4 h.
Procedure. The participants were asked
to eat a regular breakfast at 6:00-6:30 AM and to arrive at 8:00
AM at the laboratory. The investigation was performed with the subject
in the supine position in a room kept at 24-25°C. An
indwelling polyethylene catheter was placed in an antecubital vein and
kept patent by a slow infusion of saline. After local anesthesia with
0.3 ml of 1% Carbocain (Astra, Södertälje, Sweden) to the
skin and muscle fascia, the microdialysis catheters were inserted as
previously described (21). Briefly, microdialysis catheters were
inserted bilaterally into the quadriceps femoris muscles (vastus
lateralis) at 25-30% of the distance from the superior margin of
the patella to the anterior superior iliac spine. In the periumbilical
subcutaneous adipose tissue, the microdialysis catheters were inserted
70-80 mm lateral to the umbilicus and were then introduced
45-50 mm in a medial direction (in parallel to the skin). A
distance of 30 mm was kept between two microdialysis catheters if they
were placed in the same tissue. Microdialysis samples were collected in
20-, 30-, or 60-min fractions as shown in Figs. 1-4. In all
protocols, venous blood samples were obtained at
5 and 45 min
and 1.45, 2.45, 3.45, 4.45, 5.45, 6.45, and 7.45 h.
Insertion of microdialysis catheters and reasons for
exclusion. In all subjects, two microdialysis catheters
were placed in the right periumbilical subcutaneous adipose tissue, and
two were inserted bilaterally into the right quadriceps femoris muscle (vastus lateralis). In subjects
1-8, one additional catheter was inserted in the
left periumbilical subcutaneous adipose tissue, and one catheter was
inserted in the left quadriceps femoris muscle. From the total of 116 microdialysis catheters inserted, the results from a total of 20 microdialysis catheters were disregarded (12 adipose tissue and 8 muscle).
Reasons for exclusion of results from adipose tissue
catheters. The results of four catheters were excluded
due to a rupture of the dialysis membrane during the insertion
procedure. The results of five catheters (two of these being in the
same subject) were excluded due to uncertainties regarding their
position in the tissue. The abnormally low glucose and high lactate
concentrations in the microdialysis samples indicated that these
catheters were placed too close to the skin (10). One catheter was
excluded due to the lack of results from a corresponding muscle
catheter, and two catheters were excluded due to the lack of results
from corresponding adipose tissue catheters perfused with dextran.
Reasons for exclusion of results from skeletal muscle
catheters. One catheter was excluded due to a rupture of the
dialysis membrane during the insertion procedure. Two catheters were
excluded since they displayed a continuous decrease in the glucose
concentration in the microdialysis samples combined with a continuous
increase in the lactate concentration. One catheter was excluded due to abnormally high glucose combined with a low lactate concentration in
the microdialysis samples. Two catheters were excluded due to the lack
of results from the corresponding adipose tissue catheters, and two
catheters were excluded due to the lack of results from a corresponding
muscle catheter perfused with dextran.
Microdialysis equipment and perfusion
fluid. The microdialysis technique and the
microdialysis catheters have previously been described in detail (21).
Briefly, in the present study, the catheters consisted of a 30-mm-long
dialysis membrane (polyamide, 20,000 mol wt cutoff) with an outer
diameter of 0.62 mm (CMA 60; CMA Microdialysis, Stockholm, Sweden). The
microdialysis catheters were connected to syringes (1 ml Plastipak)
placed in a microinfusion pump (CMA 100; CMA Microdialysis). The
perfusion fluid was a modified Krebs-Henseleit bicarbonate buffer (KHB)
described previously (21) or KHB supplemented with 40 g/l Dextran 70. In five subjects in the protocol with perfusion flows of 1.33-0.16
µl/min with dextran and in the protocol with perfusion flows of
1.33-0.16 µl/min without dextran, the perfusion fluid was
supplemented with 50 mM ethanol.
Microdialysis sample volumes. To
prevent evaporation, the microdialysis samples were collected in capped
microvials (CMA Microdialysis). The amount of fluid that had evaporated
from microvials (n = 10) containing 5 µl of the perfusion fluid was determined after 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, and 20 h storage at 22-23°C. No significant evaporation
was detected between 0 and 2 h. After 5, 10, and 20 h, the evaporation
was detectable, being 0.03 ± 0.006, 0.23 ± 0.013, and 0.44 ± 0.018 µl, respectively. During the experiments, the amount of
fluid collected in each sample was determined by weighing the sample
vial before and immediately after collection. The collected sample
volumes (per 30-min fractions) at perfusion flows of 1.33, 0.66, 0.33, and 0.16 µl/min with dextran were from catheters placed in adipose
tissue (n = 22): 41.7 ± 0.11, 20.9 ± 0.09, 10.3 ± 0.06, and 5.2 ± 0.07 µl, respectively. The
corresponding values from catheters placed in skeletal muscle
(n = 23) were 41.9 ± 0.19, 20.9 ± 0.12, 10.5 ± 0.11, and 5.3 ± 0.09. From the catheters
perfused at 0.33 µl/min during the entire experiment, the collected
sample volumes (per 20 min) were 7.0 ± 0.07 (adipose tissue,
n = 7) and 7.1 ± 0.16 (skeletal
muscle, n = 7) µl, respectively. The
average coefficients of variation in sample volume as calculated from
24 samples/catheter were 5.03 ± 0.5% (adipose tissue) and 4.95 ± 0.4% (skeletal muscle). The collected sample
volumes at 0.33 and 0.16 µl/min (per 30 min) and at 0.075 µl/min
(per 60 min; protocol with perfusion flow of 0.33-0.075 µl/min
with dextran) were from catheters placed in adipose tissue
(n = 9): 11.0 ± 0.16, 5.3 ± 0.10, and 5.2 ± 0.17 µl, respectively. The corresponding values
from catheters placed in skeletal muscle
(n = 10) were 11.3 ± 0.32, 5.5 ± 0.18, and 5.3 ± 0.34 µl.
Analyses. The concentrations of
glucose, lactate, glycerol, and urea in the microdialysis samples were
analyzed immediately after collection using ordinary enzymatic methods
on a CMA 600 Microdialysis Analyzer. A
high-precision pipetting device handles the sample
(0.2-0.5 µl) and reagent
volumes (14.5-14.8 µl). For glucose, lactate, and glycerol, the
rate of formation of the colored substance quinoneimine is measured in
a filter photometer at 546 nm. For urea, the rate of utilization of
NADH is measured at 365 nm. The instrument performs a kinetic
measurement by extracting the maximal absorbance change per second from
the generated absorbance versus time curve. The complete measurement
cycle takes between 60 and 120 s, depending on the substance being
measured. Reagents used were obtained from CMA Microdialysis. At all
analysis occasions, we included standards every 2nd h to check
stability during the analysis (8 h) and the day-to-day variation. The
ethanol concentration in the microdialysis samples was determined with
the previously described (21) modification of the procedure described
by Bernt and Gutmann (1). Samples were read fluorometrically against a
standard curve before and after the addition of enzyme (alcohol dehydrogenase). Blood samples (5 ml) for analyses of glucose, lactate,
and glycerol were transferred to heparinized tubes, and blood samples
(2 ml) for analyses of lactate were transferred to tubes with 2 ml
perchloric acid. Samples in heparinized tubes were kept on ice, and
samples with perchloric acid were kept at room temperature for 15 min
before they were centrifuged at 3,000 revolutions/min for 8 min. The
supernatant was removed and stored at
80°C. All plasma
samples were analyzed using colorimetric methods on a Cobas Mira-s
clinical analyzer (Roche Diagnostics, Basel, Switzerland). Plasma
glucose and urea were analyzed using the Unimate 7 and Unimate 5 reagent kits, respectively (Roche Diagnostics). Plasma glycerol and
lactate were analyzed using Randox reagent kits GY 105 and LC 2389, respectively (Randox Laboratories, Crumlin, UK). In all analyses,
standards were included to secure the stability over time of the Cobas
Mira-s analyzer. To verify that the concentrations in plasma could be
directly compared with those of the dialysates, 24 microdialysis
samples from adipose tissue and skeletal muscle (8 at 1.33 µl/min and
4 at 0.66 µl/min from each tissue) were analyzed both on the CMA 600 Microdialysis Analyzer and on the Cobas Mira-s clinical analyzer. In
relation to the results obtained with the CMA 600 analyzer (100%), the results (mean ± SD) of the Cobas Mira-s analyzer were 98.5 ± 3.9% [not significant (NS)] for glucose, 100.0 ± 4.4%
(NS) for lactate, 101.7 ± 3.6% (P < 0.05) for glycerol, and 97.0 ± 3.4%
(P < 0.001) for urea.
Calculations and statistics. Results
are presented as means ± SE. When results were achieved for two
catheters in a given tissue, the mean of these was calculated and
constituted the value for that subject. Values given in the text are
mean values of the last three samples from each perfusion flow period.
These values were also used in the statistical calculations. To
evaluate the significance of differences between skeletal muscle,
adipose tissue, or plasma, a one-way ANOVA with repeated measures
design followed by a Newman-Keuls multiple comparison test was used. Student's t-test for paired
comparisons was used to evaluate if a change in the perfusion flow from
0.33 to 0.16 µl/min resulted in a significant change in the
concentration of a substance in dialysate, to evaluate the difference
between the plasma and muscle glycerol concentration, and to compare
results from the protocol with perfusion flows of 1.33-0.16
µl/min with dextran with the protocol with perfusion flows of
1.33-0.16 µl/min without dextran.
Comparison of experiments with or without dextran in
the perfusion solution. To study if the metabolite
concentrations in the microdialysis samples were changed when dextran
was used to counteract the loss of perfusion fluid, five subjects
underwent an additional experiment without dextran added to the
perfusion fluid (protocol with perfusion flows of 1.33-0.16
µl/min without dextran). The results of the experiments without
dextran are given only for perfusion flow 0.33 µl/min. This perfusion
flow resulted in a large fluid loss (per 30 min: 2.5 µl in adipose
tissue and 5 µl in skeletal muscle) but still yielded enough volume
for the analyses of metabolites. No statistical difference was found
between experiments with and without dextran. The number of subjects
studied was, however, too low in relation to the differences in mean
values. The differences, which, with the present number of subjects,
would be found statistically significant with 80% power, are given in the parentheses below. Concentrations in samples from skeletal muscle
in the experiments, with and without dextran, respectively, were 3.91 ± 0.24 and 4.11 ± 0.25 mM (0.74) for glucose, 2.82 ± 0.35 and 2.78 ± 0.31 mM (0.98) for lactate, 38.1 ± 1.90 and 32.4 ± 9.6 µM (20.5) for glycerol, and 5.21 ± 0.47 and 4.99 ± 0.37 mM (1.25) for urea. The corresponding results for adipose tissue were 3.86 ± 0.28 and 4.46 ± 0.36 mM (0.95) for glucose, 1.49 ± 0.22 and 1.57 ± 0.24 mM (0.69) for lactate, 257.2 ± 16.9 and 255.9 ± 13.2 µM (45.1) for glycerol, and 4.93 ± 0.41 and
4.81 ± 0.32 mM (1.1) for urea.
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RESULTS |
Glucose concentration in venous plasma and in
microdialysis samples from adipose tissue and skeletal
muscle. With each decrease in the perfusion flow, the
concentration of glucose was significantly increased in samples from
both tissues (Fig.
1A).
At the two highest perfusion flows (1.33 and 0.66 µl/min), the
glucose concentration in samples from adipose tissue was significantly
lower than in samples from skeletal muscle. This difference was
abolished at 0.33 µl/min, and, at 0.16 µl/min, the glucose
concentration in samples from adipose tissue (4.98 ± 0.14 mM) was
higher (P < 0.001) than in samples
from skeletal muscle (4.41 ± 0.11 mM) and equal to the
concentration in venous plasma (5.07 ± 0.07 mM). The
increased glucose concentration in muscle and adipose tissue samples,
recorded during decreased perfusion flow, has only to a small extent
been influenced by a gradual change over time (Fig.
1B). The concentration in the
samples from skeletal muscle followed the same trend as the plasma
levels, i.e., a small gradual decrease. This pattern was not apparent
in adipose tissue, mainly due to a low initial and gradually improving
recovery in three subjects. To test if a complete equilibration had
been obtained at 0.16 µl/min, five additional experiments were
included in which the perfusion flow was decreased further from 0.16 to
0.075 µl/min. These results generally support that a complete
equilibration for glucose had been obtained at 0.16 µl/min. Thus no
further increase was seen when the perfusion flow was decreased to
0.075 µl/min, although, in samples from adipose tissue, there was a
tendency (P < 0.1) toward a higher
glucose concentration at 0.075 compared with 0.16 µl/min. In
addition, the differences in the glucose concentrations in samples from
skeletal muscle (4.12 ± 0.31 mM), adipose tissue (5.29 ± 0.17 mM), and plasma (4.98 ± 0.10 mM) noted at 0.16 µl/min persisted
at 0.075 µl/min. Although the data at different perfusion flows
indicate that a complete equilibration for glucose in adipose tissue is
achieved at 0.16 µl/min, a lower flow may be necessary for
individuals with a large skinfold thickness. As illustrated in Fig. 5,
skinfold thickness is negatively correlated with recovery for glucose
at 1.33, 0.66, and 0.33 µl/min.

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Fig. 1.
Glucose concentration (mean ± SE) in venous plasma and in
microdialysis samples from skeletal muscle and subcutaneous adipose
tissue. A: results from experiments
with microdialysis catheters (22 in adipose tissue and 23 in skeletal
muscle) perfused at successively lower perfusion flow (1.33-0.16
µl/min) in 13 subjects. B: results
from experiments with 7 microdialysis catheters perfused at 0.33 µl/min for 8 h in 7 subjects. C:
results from experiments with microdialysis catheters (9 in adipose
tissue and 10 in skeletal muscle) perfused at successively lower
perfusion flow (0.33-0.075 µl/min) in 5 subjects. When results
were achieved for two catheters in a given tissue, the mean of these
was calculated and constituted the value for that subject.
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Lactate concentration in venous plasma and in
microdialysis samples from adipose tissue and skeletal
muscle. The concentrations of lactate in samples from
skeletal muscle and adipose tissue (Fig. 2,
A-C)
were not significantly changed when the perfusion flow was decreased
from 0.33 to 0.16 µl/min (skeletal muscle: 2.28 ± 0.20 to 2.39 ± 0.22 mM, NS; adipose tissue: 1.22 ± 0.13 to 1.30 ± 0.12 mM, NS). The lactate concentration in samples from skeletal
muscle was significantly higher than in samples from adipose tissue and
plasma (P < 0.001). In addition,
the lactate concentration in samples from adipose tissue was
significantly higher (P < 0.001)
than in venous plasma (0.52 ± 0.06 mM). These differences were also
found in the experiments with perfusion flows of 0.33, 0.16, and 0.075 µl/min (Fig. 2C). The lactate
concentrations in control catheters perfused at 0.33 µl/min for 8 h
(Fig. 2B) showed no major systematic
change over time in either tissue.

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Fig. 2.
Lactate concentration (mean ± SE) in venous plasma and in
microdialysis samples from skeletal muscle and subcutaneous adipose
tissue. A: results from experiments
with microdialysis catheters (22 in adipose tissue and 23 in skeletal
muscle) perfused at successively lower perfusion flow (1.33-0.16
µl/min) in 13 subjects. B: results
from experiments with 7 microdialysis catheters perfused at 0.33 µl/min for 8 h in 7 subjects. C:
results from experiments with microdialysis catheters (9 in adipose
tissue and 10 in skeletal muscle) perfused at successively lower
perfusion flow (0.33-0.075 µl/min) in 5 subjects. When results
were achieved for two catheters in a given tissue, the mean of these
was calculated and constituted the value for that subject.
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Glycerol concentration in venous plasma and in
microdialysis samples from adipose tissue and skeletal
muscle. The concentration of glycerol in microdialysis
samples from skeletal muscle was initially unexpectedly high and then
decreased gradually for 90 min (Fig. 3,
A-C).
Thereafter, the glycerol levels were unchanged at perfusion flows of
0.66 µl/min and below (0.66 µl/min: 39.0 ± 4.3 µM; 0.33 µl/min: 40.8 ± 3.3 µM; 0.16 µl/min: 40.8 ± 3.0 µM, NS).
In samples from adipose tissue, a relatively constant level was
achieved when decreasing the perfusion flow from 0.33 to 0.16 µl/min
(219.9 ± 13.7 to 232.8 ± 19.7 µM, NS; Fig.
3A). In the control catheters in
adipose tissue perfused at 0.33 µl/min for 8 h (Fig.
3B), there was a gradual decrease
during the last 5 h of the experiment. This decrease may have masked a
possible increase when the perfusion flow was lowered from 0.33 to 0.16 µl/min. In addition, there was a marked gradual increase during the
first 3 h (Fig. 3, B and
C), which may have influenced
results at the two highest perfusion flows (Fig.
3A). Although not completely identical, a similar pattern of an initial increase with a subsequent decrease was also noted for the glycerol concentration in venous plasma. At a corresponding time, the concentration of glycerol in
venous plasma (68.7 ± 3.97 µM) was significantly higher
(P < 0.001, t-test) than in samples from skeletal
muscle achieved at 0.16 µl/min (40.8 ± 3.04 µM). In samples
from adipose tissue achieved at 0.16 µl/min, the concentration of
glycerol was 3.4-fold higher than the glycerol level in plasma at the
corresponding time.

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Fig. 3.
Glycerol concentration (mean ± SE) in venous plasma and in
microdialysis samples from skeletal muscle and subcutaneous adipose
tissue. A: results from experiments
with microdialysis catheters (22 in adipose tissue and 23 in skeletal
muscle) perfused at successively lower perfusion flow (1.33-0.16
µl/min) in 13 subjects. B: results
from experiments with 7 microdialysis catheters perfused at 0.33 µl/min for 8 h in 7 subjects. C:
results from experiments with microdialysis catheters (9 in adipose
tissue and 10 in skeletal muscle) perfused at successively lower
perfusion flow (0.33-0.075 µl/min) in 5 subjects. When results
were achieved for two catheters in a given tissue, the mean of these
was calculated and constituted the value for that subject.
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Urea concentration in venous plasma and in
microdialysis samples from adipose tissue and skeletal
muscle. The concentration of urea (Fig.
4A) in
samples from skeletal muscle was almost completely equilibrated at 0.66 µl/min (4.4 ± 0.29 mM). A complete equilibration was reached at
0.33 µl/min (4.6 ± 0.28 mM) and 0.16 µl/min (4.6 ± 0.26 mM). In contrast, the concentration of urea in samples from adipose
tissue increased markedly when the perfusion flow was changed from 0.66 to 0.33 µl/min (0.66 µl/min: 3.5 ± 0.29 mM, 0.33 µl/min: 4.4 ± 0.28 mM) and was slightly increased to 4.7 ± 0.27 mM when
perfusion flow was decreased from 0.33 to 0.16 µl/min. The results of
the experiments, including a change in perfusion flow from 0.33 to 0.16 and 0.075 µl/min, support that a complete equilibration may be
achieved in both tissues at 0.33 µl/min. However, the results from
the experiments performed with a perfusion flow of 0.33 µl/min for 8 h indicate that the equilibration at this perfusion flow may be
slightly incomplete in adipose tissue (Fig.
4B). As was discussed above for
glucose, these experiments included subjects with a large skinfold
thickness, in whom the equilibration was decreased. As illustrated in
Fig. 6, skinfold thickness is also
negatively correlated with the recovery for urea at 1.33 and 0.66 µl/min but, unlike glucose (Fig.
5), not at 0.33 µl/min. The concentration
of urea in plasma at 7-8 h (4.2 ± 0.24 mM) was significantly
lower than the plateau levels both in skeletal muscle (4.6 ± 0.26)
and in adipose tissue (4.6 ± 0.27) perfused at 0.16 µl/min
(P < 0.001).

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Fig. 4.
Urea concentration (mean ± SE) in venous plasma and in
microdialysis samples from skeletal muscle and subcutaneous adipose
tissue. A: results from experiments
with microdialysis catheters (22 in adipose tissue and 23 in skeletal
muscle) perfused at successively lower perfusion flow (1.33-0.16
µl/min) in 13 subjects. B: results
from experiments with 7 microdialysis catheters perfused at 0.33 µl/min for 8 h in 7 subjects. C:
results from experiments with microdialysis catheters (9 in adipose
tissue and 10 in skeletal muscle) perfused at successively lower
perfusion flow (0.33-0.075 µl/min) in 5 subjects. When results
were achieved for two catheters in a given tissue, the mean of these
was calculated and constituted the value for that subject.
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Fig. 5.
Relationship between glucose concentration in microdialysis
samples and skinfold thickness. Results are from 21 microdialysis
catheters perfused at different perfusion flow in 12 subjects.
Correlation coefficient, significance, and slope were at 1.33 µl/min:
0.830, P < 0.001, 2.22 ± 0.34; 0.66 µl/min: 0.694, P < 0.001, 2.26 ± 0.54; 0.33 µl/min: 0.608, P < 0.01, 1.68 ± 0.50;
0.16 µl/min: 0.247, NS, 0.35 ± 0.32.
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Fig. 6.
Relationship between the urea concentration in microdialysis samples
and skinfold thickness. Results are from 21 microdialysis catheters
perfused at different perfusion flow in 12 subjects. Correlation
coefficient, significance, and slope were at 1.33 µl/min: 0.704, P < 0.001, 2.15 ± 0.50;
0.66 µl/min: 0.544, P < 0.05, 1.42 ± 0.50; 0.33 µl/min: 0.209, not significant (NS),
0.30 ± 0.33; 0.16 µl/min: 0.315, NS, 0.33 ± 0.23.
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Ethanol outflow-to-inflow ratio in adipose tissue and
skeletal muscle. In the four subjects in whom the
microdialysis perfusion solution was supplemented with 50 mM ethanol,
the ethanol outflow-to-inflow ratios in skeletal muscle (7 catheters)
were 0.071 ± 0.011 at 1.33 µl/min and 0.010 ± 0.003 at 0.66 µl/min. Values in adipose tissue (7 catheters) were 0.390 ± 0.063 at 1.33 µl/min, 0.187 ± 0.055 at 0.66 µl/min, and 0.036 ± 0.017 at 0.33 µl/min.
Variation between two microdialysis catheters inserted
in the same tissue. In the eight subjects in whom a
complete set of results was obtained from two catheters in each tissue,
it was found that the methodological variability generally was greater in adipose tissue than in skeletal muscle. It was also found that the
variability for glucose and urea was reduced when the perfusion flow
was lowered (Table 1).
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Table 1.
Relative difference between the substance concentrations obtained in
two microdialysis catheters inserted in the same tissue
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DISCUSSION |
In the present study, very low perfusion flows were used to achieve a
complete equilibration between the interstitial fluid and the
microdialysis perfusion fluid. To make sampling at these low perfusion
flows possible, without a substantial loss of fluid to the tissue, we
have previously found that a colloid needs to be included in the
perfusion fluid (20). If no colloid is added to the perfusion fluid at
a perfusion flow of 0.16 µl/min, one-half of the sample volume is
lost in adipose tissue and almost all of the sample in skeletal muscle.
It may be expected that the addition of a colloid to the perfusion
fluid would significantly decrease metabolite concentrations in the
microdialysis samples by increasing the effective perfusion flow
through the microdialysis catheter. On the other hand, the colloid may
also increase the dialysate concentration by preventing a dilution of
the surrounding interstitial space. In the present study, these
opposing effects might have been in balance, since the metabolite
concentrations were not significantly different when perfusing with or
without dextran, although the sample volumes in the latter situation
were markedly smaller. However, since the present results could only exclude that no major differences exist, more detailed studies are
needed on this issue.
Another unresolved issue is the cause for the differences in
methodological variability calculated from the substance concentrations in adjacent microdialysis catheters inserted in the same tissue. In the
present study, we observed that the variability for glucose and urea
was markedly lower than for lactate and glycerol in both tissues. This
may indicate that the methodological variability is higher for
substances that, to some extent, are produced in the tissue than for
those being delivered to the tissue by the circulation. Furthermore, we
found that the variability for glucose and urea was reduced when the
perfusion flow was lowered. We propose that this may be due a lowered
removal of these substances from the tissue by the microdialysis
catheter. A lowered removal will make the measurements less sensitive
to unavoidable differences in the microdialysis recovery (which is
mainly determined by the supply of substances from the tissue to the
microdialysis catheter). Our data on glucose, lactate, and urea
indicate that these differences in recovery between catheters are
higher in adipose tissue than in skeletal muscle, since the
methodological variation was higher for these substances in adipose
tissue.
To identify a perfusion flow at which the interstitial fluid completely
equilibrates with the microdialysis perfusion fluid, we used a protocol
with successively lower perfusion flows. A complete equilibration was
defined as having occurred when the dialysate concentration was
constant in spite of a further lowering of the perfusion flow. In
addition, experiments with catheters perfused at 0.33 µl/min during
the entire study period were performed to study if possible changes
over time could have influenced the protocol with successively lower
perfusion flow. With the exception of a lack of steady state in
skeletal muscle during the 60- to 90-min period immediately after
catheter insertion, the results did not show any signs of systematic
changes that could have influenced the results at the lowest
perfusion flows.
Our results indicate that a complete equilibration for glucose is
generally achieved at a perfusion flow of 0.16 µl/min both in adipose
tissue and in skeletal muscle. A lower perfusion flow in adipose tissue
may, however, be necessary for individuals with a large skinfold
thickness. At complete equilibration, the concentration of glucose in
samples from adipose tissue was found to be the same as in venous
plasma. On the other hand, the glucose concentration in samples from
skeletal muscle was 0.6 mM lower than the concentration in venous
plasma and than in samples from adipose tissue. The observed difference
between adipose tissue and skeletal muscle is interesting in the light
of investigations (5), which indicate a higher resting glucose uptake
in skeletal muscle compared with adipose tissue. Our definition of when
the true interstitial concentration of a substance is recorded (defined
as the dialysate concentration, which remains constant in spite of a
lowering of the perfusion flow) has not been used in practice
previously. The most frequently used method to determine the true
interstitial concentration of glucose has been based on perfusion with
different glucose concentrations (the no net flux method). Results
obtained with this method in human adipose tissue, with one exception
(15), support the concept that the interstitial concentration of
glucose in adipose tissue is the same as in venous plasma (2, 9, 13).
Compared with the present study, results obtained with the no net flux
method in skeletal muscle have shown a similar (17, 18) or a larger (15) difference between the estimated interstitial concentration and
the concentration in venous plasma. With the same type of microdialysis catheters and perfusion pump as in the present study, a
recent investigation at a perfusion flow of 0.3 µl/min (16) found
glucose concentrations in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue equal to
those in the present study obtained at 0.16 µl/min. Based on the
diffusion of an internal standard, these authors found the recovery of
glucose to be incomplete (90% in adipose tissue and 95% in muscle) at
the perfusion flow that was used. An incomplete recovery at 0.3 µl/min is in agreement with the present results (0.33 µl/min: 79%
in adipose tissue and 90% in muscle). In contrast to the referred
results, the present data were obtained at complete equilibration. It
is therefore puzzling that the values obtained were nearly
identical.
The concentration of lactate from the microdialysis samples in the
present study was not significantly changed when the perfusion flow was
decreased from 0.33 to 0.16 µl/min. With our definition of when a
complete equilibration is achieved, this indicates that the true
interstitial concentration of lactate may be recorded at a perfusion
flow of 0.33 µl/min. The fact that the perfusion flow, at which a
complete equilibration occurs, is higher than that for glucose is
consistent with the higher diffusivity of the lactate molecule. We
found the interstitial concentration of lactate in adipose tissue to be
significantly higher than the plasma level and significantly lower than
the level in skeletal muscle. The concentration of 1.3 mM found in
adipose tissue agrees well (10, 11, 25) or is slightly lower than (24)
previously reported values determined with the microdialysis no net
flux method. The values recorded with microdialysis are, however,
higher than values (0.6 mM) measured in a vein draining subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue (5). In skeletal muscle, we found the
interstitial concentration of lactate to be 2.4 mM. In a previous microdialysis investigation performed at 0.3 µl/min, a value of 1.9 mM was found (7). On the other hand, a value of 0.8 mM was found with
the no net flux method in another human study (17). The latter study
agrees well with literature data on the concentration of lactate in
human muscle biopsies, which, under resting conditions, are of the
order of 0.5-0.7 mmol/kg wet wt (19, 22). Further studies are
required to resolve the uncertainty regarding the interstitial
concentration of lactate in human skeletal muscle and adipose tissue.
In the present study, a complete equilibration for glycerol was
achieved at a perfusion flow of 0.66 µl/min in skeletal muscle and at
a flow of 0.33 µl/min or possibly 0.16 µl/min in adipose tissue. We
found the interstitial concentration of glycerol in adipose tissue to
be 233 µM, which was significantly higher than the levels in plasma
and skeletal muscle. Previously reported values, as determined by the
microdialysis no net flux method, range from 185 to 350 µM (7, 12,
24, 25), and values obtained from a vein draining subcutaneous adipose
tissue range from 140 to 312 µM (4-6, 24). Thus the present
results are within the range of the previously reported values, but we
acknowledge the fact that the different studies can not be directly
compared, since the degree of lipolytic activation is difficult to
control. The interstitial concentration of glycerol in skeletal muscle was found to be around 40 µM and was significantly lower than the
concentration in venous plasma. This is at odds with previous microdialysis investigations that have shown values that are higher (7)
or remarkably higher (15) than the concentration in venous plasma. An
observation made in the present study, which could provide an
explanation for the discrepancy, is that the glycerol concentration in
the microdialysis samples was very high initially and required
90-120 min to become stable.
The interstitial concentration of urea in human adipose tissue and
skeletal muscle has not been determined with microdialysis previously.
Consistent with its smaller molecular size, urea was found to
equilibrate more rapidly than glucose. This was especially evident in
skeletal muscle in which a near complete equilibration was found at a
perfusion flow of 0.66 µl/min. In adipose tissue, the equilibration
of urea was clearly slower than in muscle, but, at the lowest perfusion
flow, the concentrations were equal in the two tissues. This finding is
consistent with the fact that urea is not metabolized in either tissue.
At complete equilibration, the concentrations in the two tissues were
found to be slightly higher than the concentration in venous plasma but
were equal to the concentration in plasma water. The most correct
comparison between microdialysis and plasma samples is made when the
plasma sample is obtained from a vein draining the tissue studied and is recalculated into plasma water. Because the plasma concentrations of
glucose, lactate, and glycerol in the present study were not obtained
in a vein close to the tissue, these values have not been recalculated
into concentrations in plasma water. For urea, however, we have
included the concentration in plasma water, since the concentration in
the antecubital vein is expected to be equal to the concentration in a
vein draining adipose tissue or skeletal muscle. The slower
equilibration in adipose tissue than in skeletal muscle was also
evident for glucose, which, like urea, is transported to the tissue
from the circulation. The lower ethanol clearance found in adipose
tissue than in skeletal muscle is consistent with the hypothesis that a
lower blood flow is one factor explaining the slower degree of
equilibration of these substances in adipose tissue than in skeletal
muscle. Interestingly, skinfold thickness was found to negatively
correlate with the recovery of glucose and urea in adipose tissue,
indicating that the reduced blood flow with increasing adipose
tissue mass (10) might impair the microdialysis recovery.
We believe that the main advantage of using a perfusion flow that
results in a complete equilibration is that this approach directly
yields the interstitial concentration and that no recalculation from a
prior calibration or internal standard is required. An additional
advantage is that a low perfusion flow minimizes the amount of
substances removed from the tissue. A limitation with this approach is,
however, that the small volume of collected sample may result in a low
time resolution. It is therefore crucial that the analytical methods
used are sensitive and that no perfusion fluid is lost to the tissue.
In the present study, the analysis of four metabolites required a
collected sample volume of 3 µl. At a perfusion flow of 0.16 µl/min, this corresponds to a time resolution of ~20 min, which
often is enough in metabolic studies in humans. A better time
resolution could, if necessary, be achieved by pooling samples from two
or more microdialysis catheters.
In conclusion, we have shown that it is possible to find a perfusion
flow at which the interstitial fluid in human skeletal muscle and
adipose tissue completely equilibrates with the microdialysis perfusion
fluid. At complete equilibration, the measured concentrations of
glucose, glycerol, and urea were in good agreement with expected tissue-specific levels. Overall, the study indicates that microdialysis at a low perfusion flow may be a tool for the continuous monitoring of
tissue interstitial concentrations.
 |
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
We thank CMA Microdialysis, Stockholm, Sweden, for good
collaboration and generous support.
 |
FOOTNOTES |
This work was supported in part by grants from the Swedish Medical
Research Council (Project 07917) and the Swedish National Center for
Research in Sports. Financial support was also given by the Swedish
Society for Medical Research and the Research Foundations of the
Karolinska Institute, Novo Nordisk, Magn Bergvall, Clas Groschinskys
Minnesfond, Lars Hiertas Minne, and Fredrik and Ingrid Thuring.
Address for reprint requests: H. Rosdahl, Dept. of Physiology and
Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, PO Box 5626, S-11486, Stockholm,
Sweden.
Received 2 July 1997; accepted in final form 28 January 1998.
 |
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