Departments of 1Surgery and 2Pathology, University of Maryland School of Medicine; and 3Baltimore Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Baltimore, Maryland
Submitted 28 February 2005 ; accepted in final form 26 April 2005
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ABSTRACT |
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ornithine decarboxylase; -difluoromethylornithine; stability of mRNA and protein; gene transcription; growth arrest; intestinal epithelium
Nucleophosmin (NPM) is a phosphoprotein that was originally identified as a nucleolar protein involved in ribosome biogenesis (6, 43). Since then, a number of cellular activities associated with NPM indicate that NPM has multiple cellular functions, especially in the regulation of cell proliferation. NPM acts as a ribosomal assembly and transport protein (3, 59), binds to proteins containing nuclear localization signals for their import (47), and functions as a molecular chaperone (34, 57). The NPM gene is implicated in several tumor-associated chromosomal translocations, which lead to the formation of fusion proteins that retain the amino terminus of NPM (57). Recently, NPM was shown to bind to different cellular and viral proteins and plays a critical role in the regulation of subcellular localization and activities of these proteins. NPM physically interacts with p53 (7, 20), Arf tumor suppressor protein (2), Pololike kinase (61), NF-B (8), p120 (51), nucleolin (22), and several viral proteins such as Rex of human T-cell leukemia virus (1) and hepatitis
-virus antigen (16). In addition, NPM also prevents protein aggregation, protects enzymes from thermal denaturation, and facilitates renaturation of chemically denatured proteins (48).
Activation of p53 in response to polyamine depletion is an important event that results in growth inhibition (39, 40) and is associated with changes in the sensitivity to apoptosis in IECs (25, 60, 62). Because p53 triggers cell cycle arrest or apoptosis (45), its potent activity demands tight control of its functions. Although NPM is able to form a complex with p53 in various types of cells, the regulatory effect of the NPM-p53 interaction on p53 activity is controversial, depending on the cellular context and type of activating agents (7, 19, 20, 27, 31, 56). On the one hand, ectopic expression of the NPM gene enhances the formation of nuclear NPM/p53 complex, stabilizes p53, and increases its transcriptional activity in human W138 fibroblasts (7, 19). In support of this finding, a recent study further showed that NPM interacts with MDM2 and protects p53 from MDM2-mediated degradation (20). These results strongly suggest that NPM is an enhancer of p53. On the other hand, induced NPM after exposure to UV radiation binds to the p53 NH2-terminal end and sets a high threshold for p53 response to stress (31, 56). Hypoxia-induced NPM protects cell death through inhibition of p53 (27), suggesting that NPM acts as a negative regulator for p53. In the present study, we sought to determine whether polyamines modulate NPM expression in normal IECs and further define the exact role of induced NPM in regulation of p53 activity after polyamine depletion. The data presented herein demonstrate that polyamines downregulate NPM expression and its nuclear translocation and that increased NPM after polyamine depletion interacts with and stabilizes p53, leading to inhibition of IEC proliferation. Some of these data have been published previously in abstract form (62).
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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Reporter plasmids and transient transfection.
The NPM promoter reporter construct was a gift from Dr. Qishen Pang (University of Cincinnati School of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH) (27). A nucleotide fragment (587 to +4 nucleotide of human NPM sequence) encompassing the basal elements of human NPM promoter was cloned into the NcoI and SmaI sites of a PGL-3 vector (Promega, Madison, WI) containing the luciferase reporter. The construct of the p21 promoter luciferase reporter was a gift from Dr. Wafik S. El-Deiry (University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA), which contains the 2,326 to 16 sequence of the human p21 promoter with two p53-binding sites (46). The p53 promoter luciferase reporter construct was purchased from BD Biosciences Clontech. Transient transfection was performed using the LipofectAMINE kit and performed as recommended by the manufacturer (GIBCO-BRL, Gaithersburg, MD). The pRSV--galactosidase was cotransfected in every experiment to monitor transfection efficiency.
RNA interference. The silencing RNA duplexes that were designed specifically to cleave NPM mRNA were synthesized and transfected into cells as described previously (7, 27). The small interfering RNA (siRNA) sequence-targeting NPM gene (siNPM) corresponded to nt 103125 of the coding region relative to the first nucleotide of the start codon (sense, 5'-UGAUGAAAAUGAGCACCAGTT-3'; antisense, 5'-CUGGUGCUCAUUUUCAUCATT-3'). As a control siRNA (C-siRNA), we used the inverted sequence (sense, 5'-GACCACGAGUAAAAGUAGUTT-3'; antisense, 5'-ACUACUUUUACUCGUGGUCTT-3'). For each 60-mm cell culture dish, 15 µl of the 20 µM stock duplex siNPM or C-siRNA was mixed with 300 µl of Opti-MEM medium (Invitrogen). This mixture was gently added to a solution containing 15 µl of LipofectAMINE 2000 in 300 µl of Opti-MEM. The solution was incubated for 20 min at room temperature and gently overlaid onto monolayers of cells in 3 ml of medium, and cells were harvested for various assays after 48-h incubation.
Cell culture. The IEC-6 cell line was purchased from the American Type Culture Collection (Manassas, VA) at passage 13. The cell line was derived from normal rat intestinal crypt cells and was developed and characterized by Quaroni et al. (41). Stock cells were maintained in T-150 flasks in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) supplemented with 5% heated-inactivated FBS, 10 µg/ml insulin, and 50 µg/ml gentamicin. Flasks were incubated at 37°C in a humidified atmosphere of 90% air-10% CO2, and passages 1520 were used in experiments. There were no significant changes of biological function and characterization of IEC-6 cells at passages 1520 (24, 29).
Experimental design. In the first series of studies, we examined the effect of polyamine depletion on expression and cellular distribution of NPM in IEC-6 cells. Cells were grown in control cultures or in cultures containing 5 mM DFMO or DFMO plus 10 µM putrescine for 4 and 6 days. The monolayers of cells were washed three times with ice-cold Dulbecco's phosphate-buffered saline (D-PBS), and different solutions were added according to the assays to be conducted. Cytoplasmic and nuclear proteins were isolated, and levels of NPM were determined using Western blot analysis. In a separate study, the association of NPM with p53 and their interaction were also examined after polyamine depletion.
In the second series of studies, we examined the mechanisms by which polyamines modulate the expression of the NPM gene in IEC-6 cells. Transcriptional regulation of the NPM gene by polyamines was determined by measuring NPM promoter activity, while posttranscriptional regulation of the NPM gene was examined by determining the stability of NPM mRNA. Actinomycin D (5 µg/ml) was added to cultures to completely inhibit RNA synthesis, and the levels of NPM mRNA were assayed at different times after administration of actinomycin D. The half-life of NPM mRNA was measured in the presence or absence of cellular polyamines.
In the third series of studies, we investigated whether the observed increase in nuclear NPM regulates p53 activity after polyamine depletion. Functions of increased NPM in polyamine-deficient cells were elucidated by treatment with siNPM, and p53 stability and its transcriptional activity were measured. After cells were exposed to DFMO alone or DFMO plus putrescine for 4 days, they were transfected with either siNPM or C-siRNA. The activity of luciferase reporter of p53-dependent promoter (p21 promoter) and the stability of p53 protein were examined 48 h after transfection.
Reverse transcription and PCR.
Total RNA was isolated using the RNeasy Mini kit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA). Equal amounts of total RNA (2 µg) were transcribed to synthesize single-stranded cDNA with a RT-PCR kit (Invitrogen Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA). The specific sense and antisense primers for NPM included 5'-CGATGGACATGGACATGAGC-3' and 5'-TTCCTCTACAGCTACTAGGT-3', and the expected size of NPM fragments was 238 bp. These particular sequences were chosen on the basis of the specificity established in previous publications by other investigators (3, 27). Reverse transcription and PCR were performed as described in our earlier publications (12, 42). To quantify the PCR products (the amounts of mRNA) of NPM, an invariant mRNA of -actin was used as an internal control. The optical density (OD) values for each band on the gel were measured using a gel documentation system (UVP, Upland, CA), and their signals were normalized to the OD values in the
-actin signals.
Immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting analysis. Cell samples dissolved in ice-cold radioimmunoassay precipitation assay buffer (50 mM Tris·HCl, pH 7.4, 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM DTT, 0.5 mM EDTA, 1.0% Nonidet P-40, 0.5% sodium deoxycholate, 0.1% SDS, 2 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 20 µg/ml aprotinin, 2 µg/ml leupeptin, and 2 mM sodium orthovanadate) were sonicated and centrifuged at 4°C, and the supernatants were collected for immunoprecipitation. Equal amounts of proteins (300 µg) for each sample were incubated with the specific antibody against p53 (2 µg) at 4°C for 3 h, and protein G-PLUS-Agarose was added and incubated overnight at 4°C. The precipitates were washed five times with ice-cold D-PBS, and the beads were resuspended in SDS sample buffer for subsequent Western blot analysis. For immunoblotting, samples were subjected to electrophoresis on 10% acrylamide gels according to the method of Laemmli (21). Briefly, after the transfer of protein onto nitrocellulose membranes, the membranes were incubated for 1 h in 5% nonfat dry milk in 1x TBST buffer (Tris-buffered saline, pH 7.4, with 0.1% Tween 20). Immunological evaluation was then performed overnight at 4°C in 5% nonfat dry milk-TBST buffer containing specific antibodies against NPM, p53, p-MEK, and T-MEK proteins. The membranes were subsequently washed with 1x TBST and incubated with the secondary antibodies conjugated with horseradish peroxidase for 1 h at room temperature. The immunocomplexes on the membranes were reacted for 1 min with enhanced chemiluminescence reagent (NEL-100; DuPont NEN).
Immunofluorescence staining. The immunofluorescence staining procedure was performed according to the method of Vielkind and Swierenga (52) with minor changes (12, 29). After the monolayers of control and polyamine-deficient cells were fixed and rehydrated, they were incubated with the primary antibody against NPM or p53 at 4°C overnight and then incubated with secondary antibody conjugated with FITC for 2 h at room temperature. After the slides were rinsed three times, they were mounted and viewed through a Zeiss confocal microscope (model LSM410). Images were processed using PhotoShop software (Adobe, San Jose, CA).
Luciferase assays.
The cells were collected at 48 h after transfection, and luciferase activity was assayed with a commercial kit (Promega). The luciferase activity from individual transfections was normalized according to -galactosidase activity from cotransfected plasmid pRSV2
-galactosidase. The experiments were performed in triplicate and are reported in mean relative light units/
-galactosidase.
Statistics. Values are means ± SE of three to nine samples. Autoradiographic results were repeated three times. The significance of the differences between means was determined using ANOVA. The level of significance was determined using Duncan's multiple-range test (14).
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RESULTS |
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To extend the findings of association of induced NPM with p53 after polyamine depletion, we examined the cellular distribution and physical interaction of NPM and p53 in the cells grown in the presence or absence of DFMO for 6 days. In control cells, the slight immunostaining levels of NPM and p53 were visible and present in the cytoplasm and nuclei (Fig. 2 Aa). These results were consistent with our Western blot analysis data that revealed a basal expression level of NPM and p53. In the DFMO-treated cells, however, these nuclear immunostaining levels of NPM and p53 significantly increased, as expected (Fig. 2Ab). Increased immunostaining for NPM and p53 proteins in polyamine-deficient cells were present just inside a defined nuclear area, and identification was facilitated for every experiment by heavily staining nuclei. In the presence of DFMO, putrescine prevented the increased immunostaining levels for nuclear NPM and p53, and the cellular distribution of NPM and p53 in cells exposed to DFMO plus putrescine were indistinguishable from that observed in control cells (data not shown).
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Effect of polyamine depletion on NPM gene transcription and NPM mRNA stability.
To determine the mechanisms by which polyamine depletion increases levels of NPM protein, we examined changes in transcription and posttranscription of the NPM gene in the presence or absence of cellular polyamines. Although there were no changes in the levels of NPM mRNA in cells exposed to DFMO for 4 days, the levels of NPM mRNA increased significantly in cells exposed to DFMO for 6 days and were 3.9 times the control value, which was completely prevented by putrescine administered together with DFMO (Fig. 3, A and B). To assess the possibility that the increase in NPM mRNA levels in polyamine-deficient cells results from an increase in the NPM gene transcription, changes in the NPM promoter activity were examined by luciferase reporter gene assays. Inhibition of polyamine synthesis by DFMO significantly increased the activity of NPM promoter activity in IEC-6 cells (Fig. 3C). The level of NPM promoter luciferase reporter activity was
2.8 times the control values in cells treated with DFMO for 6 days. In the presence of DFMO, the addition of putrescine prevented the increase in NPM promoter activity. In addition, we also examined the effect of treatment with DFMO on transfection efficiency by using either the pRSV-
-galactosidase construct or the empty vector in IEC-6 cells and demonstrated that there were no significant differences in transfection rates between controls and cells treated with DFMO for 6 days (data not shown), showing that the induction of NPM promoter activity in polyamine-deficient cells does not result from nonspecific effects of DFMO. Consistent with the observations regarding NPM mRNA levels, treatment with DFMO for 4 days failed to induce NPM promoter activity (data not shown). These results indicate that induced levels of NPM mRNA after polyamine depletion are due at least partially to activation of NPM gene transcription.
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DISCUSSION |
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The findings reported herein clearly show that polyamine depletion increases levels of NPM protein partially by stimulating transcription of the NPM gene in normal IECs. To provide insight into the molecular basis for NPM induction after polyamine depletion, the results presented in Fig. 3 indicate that there was a significant elevation of NPM promoter activity in cells treated with DFMO for 6 days, which was paralleled by an increase in NPM mRNA. These increases in NPM transcripts in DFMO-treated cells were completely prevented by the addition of exogenous putrescine, indicating that the observed changes in the transcriptional regulation of the NPM gene must be related to polyamine depletion rather than to the nonspecific effect of DFMO. These results are consistent with studies by others who have demonstrated that NPM is an immediate early response gene in mammalian cells (56) and that its induction is commonly mediated at the transcriptional level in response to environmental stress. It was recently reported that exposure to hypoxia (27) or UV radiation (56) induces expression of the NPM gene primarily through activation of NPM gene transcription. However, the current studies provide new evidence suggesting a role for transcriptional control in the induction of NPM by depletion of cellular polyamines.
The data from the current studies also show that polyamines negatively regulate posttranscription of the NPM gene. As noted in Fig. 4, administration of DFMO for 6 days dramatically increased the half-life of NPM mRNA in IEC-6 cells. This prolonged half-life also contributes to the induction of NPM mRNA after polyamine depletion, which is paralleled by an increase in NPM protein. It is not surprising that polyamines are implicated in the regulation of NPM gene expression at both the transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels, because polyamines have been shown to play distinct regulatory roles in gene expression and their effects are mediated by multiple signaling pathways (11, 29, 35, 36, 37, 53). Polyamines not only modulate transcription of c-myc and c-jun genes (4, 28, 36, 55) but also downregulate posttranscription, especially mRNA stability, of transforming growth factor- (TGF-
), p53, and junD genes in normal IECs (24, 26, 35). Although the exact mechanisms involved in mRNA turnover rate are unclear, increased stability of NPM mRNA after polyamine depletion may be related to the specific cis-elements that are located within NPM 3'-untranslated regions. It has been shown that many labile mRNAs contain UA-rich elements (AREs) in their 3'-untranslated regions and that deletion of the ARE region enhances mRNA stability (10, 38, 44, 58). Although the 3'-UTR of NPM mRNA contains several ARE sequences (6), it is not clear at present whether these AREs are involved in the stabilization of NPM mRNA after polyamine depletion.
Treatment with DFMO for 4 days did not increase levels of cytoplasmic NPM protein (Fig. 1Aa) and its mRNA (Fig. 3A), but it significantly induced the nuclear accumulation of NPM protein (Fig. 1Ab), indicating that this early increase in nuclear NPM after polyamine depletion results primarily from the stimulation of NPM nuclear translocation but not from the activation of NPM gene expression. The results presented in Fig. 5 further show that activation of MEK activity is necessary for the stimulation of NPM nuclear translocation, because there was a remarkable increase in MEK phosphorylation in cells exposed to DFMO for 4 days and inhibition of MEK activity by treatment with U0126 prevented the induced levels of nuclear NPM. Nuclear translocation of NPM is highly regulated by numerous factors, and cellular NPM is redistributed in response to cytotoxic drugs and genotoxic stress (32, 50). It has been shown that NPM phosphorylation regulates its subcellular localization and biological activities (32, 33, 50). For example, NPM binds to centrosomes, and this interaction is dissociated by its phosphorylation on Thr199, which initiates centrosomal duplication (32, 50). Phosphorylation of NPM by cyclin-dependent kinase 2/cyclin E also decreases its RNA-binding activity (32). MEK is a multiple functional kinase that colocalizes with NPM to similar intracellular regions after exposure to different stresses and plays a role in regulation of NPM phosphorylation (5). The current studies suggest that increased MEK phosphorylation is implicated in the induction of NPM nuclear translocation after polyamine depletion.
The most significant of the new findings reported in this study is that induced NPM interacts with and stabilizes p53 after polyamine depletion in normal IECs. As shown in Fig. 2, there were physical association and colocalization of induced NPM and p53 after polyamine depletion, suggesting that NPM might regulate p53 activity directly. The results presented in Figs. 6 and 7 further indicate that specific inhibition of NPM expression by transfection with siNPM induced a marked decrease in nuclear p53 by preventing p53 stabilization in polyamine-deficient cells, which was associated with significant decrease in p53-dependent transcription as indicated by an inhibition of p21 promoter activity. Consistent with our current findings, Colombo et al. (7) reported that inhibition of NPM expression by siNPM results in a reduction of p53 stabilization induced by exposure to ionizing radiation and doxorubicin. Although the exact mechanisms by which induced NPM stabilizes p53 remains unclear, a recent study has shown that NPM protects p53 through its interaction with MDM2 protein (19, 20). It has been shown that MDM2 is a major regulator of p53 and controls the levels of p53 by acting as an E3 ubiquitin ligase initiating p53 degradation (9). NPM functions as a negative regulator for p53/MDM2 interaction in cells exposed to ionizing radiation and doxorubicin, leading to the stabilization of p53. Clearly, further studies are needed to define the role of MDM2 in NPM-induced stabilization of p53 after polyamine depletion in normal IECs.
Induced levels of nuclear NPM after polyamine depletion play an important role in growth inhibition of IECs and are of biological significance. Although intestinal epithelial integrity depends on a dynamic balance between cell proliferation, growth arrest, and apoptosis, studies of negative growth control have not attracted considerable interest until recently. Inhibition of polyamine synthesis by DFMO increased NPM, which was associated with p53 stabilization in IEC-6 cells. As reported in our previous studies (23, 25, 60), polyamine depletion also induces G1 phase growth arrest and alters susceptibility to apoptotic stimuli in IECs. The results presented in Fig. 8 show that inhibition of NPM expression by transfection with siNPM partially but significantly promoted cell proliferation in polyamine-deficient cells. Because reduction of NPM decreases p53 in DFMO-treated cells, these findings provide direct evidence to support the possibility that polyamine depletion-induced NPM stabilizes p53, resulting in the inhibition of normal intestinal mucosal growth.
In summary, our results indicate that polyamine depletion-induced NPM is implicated in the regulation of p53 stabilization and activation in IEC-6 cells. Polyamines downregulate NPM expression at both transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels, although the exact mechanisms involved in this process remain unclear. Polyamine depletion also promotes nuclear translocation of NPM, probably through activation of MEK activity. Increased NPM physically interacts with and stabilizes p53 protein and regulates p53-dependent transcriptional activity after polyamine depletion. Resultant induction of p53 by interacting with NPM in polyamine-deficient cells activates transcription of p53-targeted genes such as p21, thus blocking the G1-to-S phase transition during the cell cycle and inhibiting the proliferation of IECs. These findings suggest that NPM is a biological inhibitor for normal intestinal mucosal growth and is implicated in the negative control of epithelial cell renewal under physiological and pathological conditions.
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GRANTS |
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FOOTNOTES |
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The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
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