Activation of the JAK-STAT pathway by reactive oxygen species
Amy R.
Simon1,
Usha
Rai2,
Barry L.
Fanburg1, and
Brent H.
Cochran2
1 Pulmonary and Critical Care
Division, Tupper Research Institute, New England Medical Center, Boston
02111; and 2 Department of
Physiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston,
Massachusetts 02111
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ABSTRACT |
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play an important role in the
pathogenesis of many human diseases, including the acute respiratory distress syndrome, Parkinson's disease, pulmonary fibrosis, and Alzheimer's disease. In mammalian cells, several genes
known to be induced during the immediate early response to growth
factors, including the protooncogenes
c-fos and
c-myc, have also been shown to be
induced by ROS. We show that members of the STAT family of
transcription factors, including STAT1 and STAT3, are activated in
fibroblasts and A-431 carcinoma cells in response to
H2O2. This activation occurs within 5 min, can be inhibited by antioxidants, and does not require protein synthesis. STAT activation in these cell
lines is oxidant specific and does not occur in response to superoxide-
or nitric oxide-generating stimuli. Buthionine sulfoximine, which
depletes intracellular glutathione, also activates the STAT pathway.
Moreover,
H2O2
stimulates the activity of the known STAT kinases JAK2 and TYK2.
Activation of STATs by platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) is
significantly inhibited by
N-acetyl-L-cysteine and diphenylene iodonium, indicating that ROS production contributes to
STAT activation in response to PDGF. These findings indicate that the
JAK-STAT pathway responds to intracellular ROS and that PDGF uses ROS
as a second messenger to regulate STAT activation.
hydrogen peroxide; platelet-derived growth factor; TYK2
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INTRODUCTION |
OXIDATIVE DAMAGE contributes to the pathogenesis of
several human diseases, including atherosclerosis, acute respiratory
distress syndrome (ARDS), Alzheimer's disease, and pulmonary fibrosis
(4, 28, 42). Virtually every known organism has evolved specific mechanisms to protect itself from oxidative damage. Mechanisms for
reaction to specific oxidative conditions have been identified in
bacteria, yeast, and mammalian cells. An important part of the cellular
defense to oxidative stress is the specific induction of new gene
expression in response to specific oxidative stressors. Some of the
genes induced in response to oxidative stress such as superoxide
dismutase and glutathione peroxidase are directly involved in the
neutralization of oxygen radicals and their precursors (42, 61).
Others, such as p21CIP1/WAF1,
c-fos, and the caspases, are involved
in the control of cell proliferation and apoptosis in response to
oxidative stress (81). The cell must be able to detect these oxidative
stressors and then specifically activate transcription factors to
upregulate the expression of these genes. Indeed, the molecular
detection and response of cells to reactive oxygen species (ROS) are
likely to be among the earliest evolved second-messenger systems.
Moreover, there is substantial evidence that ROS are not only
pathological but, in many instances, are utilized as second messengers
by the cell in response to growth factors and cytokines (72, 85, 87,
89).
Thus it is not surprising that some of the transcription factors known
to be involved in immediate early gene expression are also regulated by
ROS. One of the best characterized examples of this is nuclear
factor-
B (NF-
B). Before activation, NF-
B is held in the
cytoplasm through a complex with another factor called I-
B (3). In
response to peroxide or ultraviolet (UV) treatment of many cell types,
the I-
B factor is degraded, releasing NF-
B to translocate to the
nucleus, where it can specifically activate transcription (35, 56, 57,
72). Moreover, ROS or peroxides appear to be the second messenger used
by cells to activate NF-
B, inasmuch as antioxidants prevent the
activation of NF-
B in response to a variety of cytokines (72).
Recent data indicate that ROS are also important mediators of the
response to the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) (85).
The signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) factors
were originally described as growth factor- and interferon-inducible DNA binding complexes (32, 51). Subsequently, the STAT factors have
been shown to be induced by a wide variety of growth factors and
cytokines (39). These factors participate in the regulation of many
genes, including the c-fos
protooncogene, caspases, and the cell cycle regulator
p21CIP1/WAF1, which can also
respond to oxidative stress (11, 12, 30, 49, 75, 94, 100). The STAT
factors are unique, in that they are phosphorylated on tyrosine
residues in response to a variety of growth factors and cytokines (25,
55, 66, 68, 69, 77, 80). On phosphorylation, STATs dimerize via
SH2-phosphotyrosine interactions and become competent to bind DNA (76).
Before phosphorylation the STATs are found in the cytoplasm and
translocate to the nucleus on activation (69, 78). In response to
interferon treatment, the Janus kinase (JAK) family of kinases is
required for STAT phosphorylation (59, 91, 95). Here we report that
STAT1 and STAT3 factors are activated on treatment of Rat-1 fibroblasts with
H2O2
and that this activation is sensitive to antioxidants. Moreover,
H2O2
stimulates the activity of the STAT kinases JAK2 and TYK2. Finally, we
find that ROS play an important role in the activation of STATs by PDGF.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
Cell culture.
Rat-1 fibroblasts were maintained in DMEM with 10% fetal bovine calf
serum (FCS). NIH/3T3 and A-431 cells were maintained in DMEM-10%
bovine calf serum (CS). For experiments, cells were made quiescent by
growth to confluence and incubation in DMEM-0.5% FCS or CS for 48 h.
Iron-free medium was used for all stimulations to minimize ROS
generated by the Haber-Weiss reaction (52). For stimulations, epidermal
growth factor (EGF) and PDGF-BB were obtained from Collaborative
Biomedical (Waltham, MA). Catalase (bovine liver), glucose
oxidase,
H2O2,
buthionine sulfoximine (BSO), diphenyl iodinium (DPI) chloride,
N-acetyl-L-cysteine
(NAC), pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC),
N-nitro-L-arginine,
vanadate, vanadyl sulfate, nitrosoglutathione, isosorbide
dinitrite, sodium nitroprusside, and reduced glutathione were obtained
from Sigma Chemical (St. Louis, MO).
Antibodies.
The anti-STAT1C rabbit antiserum was made against a peptide with the
unique COOH-terminal 37 amino acids of murine STAT1 protein. The
anti-NH2-terminal STAT1 antibody
was obtained from Transduction Laboratories. STAT3 antibody was a
polyclonal rabbit antiserum made against another unique sequence in the
COOH-terminal region of human STAT3 (amino acids 688-700,
QEHPEADPGSAAP). The antiphosphotyrosine STAT3 antibody was obtained
from New England Biolabs (Beverly, MA). The JAK1, JAK2, TYK2, and
phosphotyrosine (4G10) antibodies were obtained from Upstate
Biotechnology (Lake Placid, NY). The anti-
-PGDF receptor antibody
was from Santa Cruz Biotechnology (Santa Cruz, CA).
Preparation of nuclear extracts.
After the indicated treatments, cells were rinsed three times with
ice-cold PBS. PBS containing 1 mM
Na3VO4
and 5 mM NaF was added to each dish, and the cells were scraped from
the dish and pelleted at 1,500 rpm for 10 min at 4°C. Cells were
resuspended in the same buffer and pelleted as described above. Then
the pellet was resuspended in 0.8 ml of ice-cold hypotonic buffer,
transferred to microfuge tubes, and allowed to swell on ice for
15-30 min. The lysate was vortexed vigorously for 1 min, and the
nuclei were pelleted (14,000 g for 30 s). The nuclear pellets were resuspended in 100-150 µl of
high-salt buffer and rotated at 4°C for 30 min. The extracted
proteins were separated from residual nuclei (14,000 g for 10 min), and the supernatant was
quick frozen in a dry ice-methanol bath. The buffer compositions were
as follows: 1) 10 mM HEPES (pH 7.9),
10 mM KCl, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 1 mM
EDTA, 1 mM EGTA, 1 mM Na3VO4,
1 mM
Na4P2O7,
20 mM NaF, 1 mM dithiothreitol (DTT), 0.5 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl
fluoride (PMSF), and 1 µg/ml each of leupeptin, antipain, pepstatin,
and chymostatin (hypotonic buffer) and
2) 20 mM HEPES (pH 7.9), 420 mM
NaCl, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 25% glycerol, 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM EGTA, 1 mM
Na3VO4,
1 mM
Na4P2O7,
20 mM NaF, 1 mM DTT, 0.5 mM PMSF, and 1 µg/ml each of leupeptin,
antipain, pepstatin, and chymostatin (high-salt buffer).
Electrophoretic mobility-shift assays.
Nuclear extracts (12 µg) were added to
32P-end-labeled oligonucleotide
m67-SIE probe (94) (~30,000 cpm, ~5 fmol), and the mixture was
incubated in binding buffer for 30 min at 30°C. Final binding
reactions (20 µl) contained 14 mM HEPES, pH 7.9, 85 mM NaCl, 10 mM
KCl, 0.3 mM MgCl2, 1.25 mM DTT,
0.25 mM EDTA, 0.2 mM EGTA, 15% glycerol, 50 µg/ml
poly(dI-dC) · poly(dI-dC), and 250 µg/ml acetylated
BSA. Binding reactions were electrophoresed through 5% polyacrylamide
gels (39:1 acrylamide-bis) containing 2.5% glycerol in 0.5×
Tris-borate-EDTA buffer at room temperature. The gel was
then dried and exposed to X-ray film.
Transient transfections.
Murine NIH/3T3 fibroblasts were grown in DMEM with 10% CS. For
transient transfection assays, the calcium phosphate method was used
(calcium phosphate transfection kit, 5 Prime 3 Prime). The reporter
construct had six copies of the high-affinity SIE site upstream of a
minimal TK-luciferase gene and was a gift of Richard Jove (88). For
reporter assays, NIH/3T3 cells were maintained for 30-40 h in
medium containing 0.5% CS after transfection and stimulated with
H2O2
for 6 h before harvest. One microgram of reporter construct and 100 ng
of pRL-TK normalization plasmid were used per 35-mm dish. Dual
luciferase assay was carried out following the manufacturer's
recommendation (Promega). All transfection experiments were performed
in duplicate, and results were normalized to the expression of the
Renilla luciferase transfection control.
Immunoprecipitation and Western blotting.
Quiescent Rat-1 cells were treated for 10 min with 1 mM
H2O2,
100 ng/ml interferon-
, or 100 ng/ml EGF, lysed in lysis buffer (50 mM Tris, pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, 2 mM EGTA, 2 mM
Na3VO4,
1 mM PMSF, and 5 µg/ml of the protease inhibitors leupeptin,
pepstatin, and antipain), and incubated on ice for 30 min. The lysate
was then centrifuged for 10 min at 1,000 g at 4°C. The supernatant was
removed, and the protein concentration was determined via a Bradford
assay. Lysate (500 µg of protein) was incubated with JAK2, 4G10, or
anti-PDGF-
-receptor antibodies as specified (UBI) at 4°C
overnight. The immune complexes were then captured with 100 µl of a
slurry of protein A-agarose beads for 2 h. The beads were collected by
centrifugation, resuspended in 2× Laemmli sample buffer, and
boiled before they were run on an 8% SDS polyacrylamide gel and
transferred to nitrocellulose. The membrane was then blotted with
anti-JAK or 4G10 antibodies, depending on the experiment, and processed
via chemiluminescence (Amersham).
Kinase assays.
Whole cell extracts of quiescent Rat-1 cells that were treated with
H2O2
for 5 min were immunoprecipitated as outlined above on 100 µl of a
slurry of protein A-agarose beads with anti-JAK2 antibody. The beads
were then washed with kinase buffer (50 mM NaCl, 5 mM
MgCl2, 5 mM
MnCl2, 0.1 mM
Na3VO4,
and 10 mM HEPES) before they were incubated with 0.25 mCi/ml of
[
-32P]ATP for 30 min at room temperature. The beads were washed with PBS and processed
as described above before they were run on an SDS polyacrylamide gel.
The gel was dried, exposed to X-ray film, and quantitated on a phosphorimager.
Cell permeabilization.
Quiescent Rat-1 fibroblasts were permeabilized by a modification of the
method of Bernier et al. (5). Cells were incubated for 20 min in a
digitonin permeabilization buffer (15 µg/ml digitonin, 20 mM Tris, pH
7.5, 125 mM KCl, 5 mM NaCl, 10 mM
MgCl2, 11 mM glucose, and 0.1%
albumin) and the specified reagents, such as vanadate. Permeabilization
was assayed by trypan blue staining. Cells were then processed as
outlined above for nuclear extracts, and band shift assays were
performed. The permeabilization buffer was modified from the method of
Bernier et al. by decreasing the digitonin and using a 1:4 dilution for
the final concentration.
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RESULTS |
Activation of STATs by ROS.
To investigate whether members of the STAT family of transcription
factors are activated by ROS, Rat-1 fibroblasts were treated with 1 mM
H2O2
for various lengths of time. Rat-1 fibroblasts were initially examined
because they have a relatively low background of constitutive STAT
binding activity and have a robust activation of STAT factors in
response to PDGF. Nuclear extracts were prepared from the
H2O2-treated
cells, and the extracts were analyzed by electrophoretic mobility shift
assay, with the high-affinity c-fos SIE site as a probe. This sequence binds with high affinity to most
STATs (73, 94). Within 5 min of exposure to
H2O2,
there is a rapid activation of DNA binding activity (Fig.
1A). The
induction is biphasic, with a decrease in activity observed at 15 min
and a return to peak levels by 30 min. By 2 h the levels of
H2O2-induced DNA binding activity returned to near-basal levels. The biphasic response was observed in repeated time course experiments, although the
timing of the first decrease in binding varies from 15 to 30 min. A
dose-response experiment indicates that STAT activation by
H2O2
is first detected at 100 µM (see complex
B) and increases with doses up to 1 mM (Fig.
1B). Three distinct complexes
(A, B, and
C) are induced, with the lowermost
band (complex C) being the faintest.
The magnitude of induction is as much as 14-fold, as measured by
phosphorimage analysis. For comparison, the induction of STATs by PDGF
is shown in Fig. 1. At optimum doses of PDGF and
H2O2,
PDGF gives a two- to threefold greater induction of STAT DNA binding
than does
H2O2.
As would be expected, generation of
H2O2
by glucose and glucose oxidase in the culture medium also induces the
STAT DNA binding (Fig.
2A). The
rapid induction of STAT binding by
H2O2
is inhibited by catalase treatment and does not require new protein
synthesis, as it is not blocked by cycloheximide (Fig.
2B). These results indicate that
H2O2
is the active agent for STAT induction and that the induction is not
secondary to an earlier transcriptional response to
H2O2.

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Fig. 1.
H2O2
activates signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) in
Rat-1 cells. A: time course of STAT
activation by
H2O2
in Rat-1 cells. Confluent, quiescent Rat-1 cells were treated with 1 mM
H2O2
for indicated periods of time or with 25 ng/ml platelet-derived growth
factor (PDGF) for 15 min and then lysed, and nuclear proteins were
extracted and assayed for band shift with an SIE probe.
B: dose response of STATs to
H2O2
treatment for Rat-1 fibroblasts. Indicated concentrations of
H2O2
were added to confluent, quiescent fibroblasts for 10 min, and extracts
were prepared for band shift gels. Probe was high-affinity SIE
(94).
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Fig. 2.
Activation of STATs is specific for
H2O2.
A: glucose oxidase (GO) activates
STATs. Confluent, quiescent (Q) Rat-1 fibroblasts were treated for 10 min with indicated concentrations of glucose oxidase, then extracts
were prepared for band shift analysis by using a high-affinity SIE
probe. FP, free probe. B: catalase
inhibits
H2O2
activation of STATs. Confluent, quiescent Rat-1 fibroblasts were
preincubated with 10 µg/ml cycloheximide (CH) or 3,000 U/ml catalase
before addition of 1 mM
H2O2
for 10 min. Extracts were then prepared for band shift analysis by
using a high-affinity SIE probe.
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The activation of the SIE binding activity by
H2O2
is rapid and specific and has the binding and specificity properties
characteristic of the STAT proteins. Inclusion of 100-fold molar excess
of oligonucleotides of the interferon-stimulated response element, the
cAMP response element, or high-affinity
c-fos SIE STAT binding site indicates that only the high-affinity SIE site is able to compete for all three
bands (Fig. 3). At least three distinct
STAT binding complexes are observed, sometimes referred to as
bands A, B, and
C (C
being the fastest-migrating and, in this case, the faintest complex) (68). In the case of PDGF, there is evidence that the uppermost band
(A) is primarily composed of an
STAT3 homodimer, the lowermost band
(C) of an STAT1 homodimer, and the
middle band (B) of a heterodimer of
the two (78). Thus, by the position of migration through the gel,
H2O2
induces in fibroblasts complexes likely to be STAT1 and STAT3, with the
two STAT3-containing complexes predominating. To confirm the identity
of these SIE binding complexes, antibody supershift analysis was
performed (Fig. 3). The addition of anti-STAT3 antiserum to the binding
reaction supershifts and diminishes the upper complex and slightly
diminishes band B but leaves the lower complex unaltered. The addition of anti-STAT1 antibody, made against a
unique COOH-terminal peptide of STAT1, supershifts the lowermost and
weakest SIE binding complex (band C)
and diminishes the middle band (band
B). Thus
H2O2
induces at least STAT3 and weakly STAT1 in Rat-1 fibroblasts. Because
anti-STAT3 antibody only weakly diminishes band
B but strongly reacts with band
A, it is likely that there are other STATs induced by
H2O2
or that alternate forms of STAT3 are present in
complex B. STAT3-
, which has a
truncated COOH terminus, would not be recognized by this antibody (9). Alternatively, STAT3 may be poorly recognized by the antibody when it
is in the heterodimeric complex. STAT5 and STAT6 can be induced by PDGF
in fibroblasts and run near the same position in the gel (62, 90).
However, antibodies to STAT5b and STAT6 failed to shift or disrupt the
complexes (data not shown).

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Fig. 3.
Induction of STAT1 and STAT3 by
H2O2
in Rat-1 fibroblasts. Extracts of quiescent Rat-1 cells or cells
treated for 10 min with 1 mM
H2O2
were assayed using a high-affinity SIE probe on band shift gels.
Binding reactions were performed in presence or absence of indicated
antibodies or competitor DNAs. Indicated antisera or normal rabbit
serum (NRS) was incubated with 10 µl (12 µg protein) of nuclear
extracts for 30 min on ice at a dilution of 1:10 before binding
reaction. Then probe was added, resulting in a final volume of 20 µl.
Competitor DNA sequences for the SIE, interferon-stimulated response
element (ISRE) (51) and cAMP response element (CRE) (22) were used at a
concentration 100 times greater than that of
32P-labeled probe.
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To further confirm the activation of STAT3 by
H2O2,
we examined the tyrosine phosphorylation state of tyrosine-705 of STAT3 with an anti-STAT3 phosphotyrosine-specific antibody by Western blotting after
H2O2
treatment. Phosphorylation of tyrosine-705 is known to be responsible
for STAT3 dimerization and activation of DNA binding (97, 103). This
antibody recognizes phospho-Y705-STAT3 as opposed to STAT3 or
phosphotyrosine alone. There is an increase in STAT3 tyrosine
phosphorylation after
H2O2
(Fig. 4), consistent with the induction of
STAT3 DNA binding activity. The same blot was stripped and reblotted
with an anti-STAT3 antibody. This experiment confirmed that the
increases in tyrosine phosphorylation observed are not due to increases
in the levels of STAT3 protein. The two STAT3 bands observed are likely
due to differential phosphorylation of STAT3 on serine-727 residue,
which regulates STAT3 transactivation activity (13, 96, 97).

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Fig. 4.
STAT3 is phosphorylated on tyrosine in response to
H2O2.
Quiescent Rat-1 cells were treated with 1 mM
H2O2
for indicated times. Total cellular extract was obtained and run on an
8% SDS polyacrylamide gel. STAT3 proteins [phosphorylated
(P-STAT3) and nonphosphorylated (STAT3)] were detected using a
PhosphoPlus STAT3 (Tyr-705) antibody (New England Biolabs) or an STAT3
antibody and chemiluminescence detection.
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To further characterize the activation of STATs by ROS, we attempted to
induce STAT activity in Rat-1 cells by using other types of ROS (data
not shown). When cells were treated for as long as 1 h with
superoxide-generating stimuli, such as xanthine and xanthine oxidase
(0.6 U/ml), menadione (100 µM), or paraquat (200 µM), no or very
little induction of STAT complexes was observed. Thus STAT activation
in Rat-1 cells appears analogous to the activation of NF-
B, in that
it is activated by peroxides and not superoxides (71). Although
superoxide is broken down into
H2O2,
the concentrations of
H2O2
generated are apparently not sufficient for STAT induction. Consistent
with this hypothesis, it has been found previously and we have
confirmed that xanthine oxidase and menadione are less efficient
generators of
H2O2
than glucose oxidase (10, 24). Very high levels of menadione and
xanthine/xanthine oxidase will induce small but detectable levels of
STAT DNA binding (data not shown).
Other types of ROS also failed to activate STATs. Stimulation of Rat-1
cells with nitric oxide donors, such as isosorbide dinitrite (5 mM),
sodium nitroprusside (0.5 mM), or nitrosoglutathione (0.2 mM), failed
to activate STAT DNA binding (data not shown). Heavy metals such as
52Fe can produce hydroxyl radicals
via the Haber-Weiss reaction but failed to induce the JAK-STAT pathway.
In addition, UV irradiation (60 J/m2), previously shown to cause
oxidative stress and activate Jun kinase and the EGF receptor (21, 36,
67), fails to stimulate activation of STAT DNA binding in Rat-1
fibroblasts. Heat shock, a more general cell stressor, also failed to
induce the STAT pathway (data not shown). Thus the STAT pathway is
activated by specific types of ROS and is not a general response to
cellular stress. The failure of these cellular stresses to induce STATs
is not due to acute toxicity of these agents. Although some of these treatments will lead to toxicity or apoptosis after several hours of
treatment, the cells remained intact during the short time of exposure
needed to induce the STAT pathway.
Antioxidants inhibit STAT induction by ROS and PDGF. To assess
whether the activation of the STAT pathway by
H2O2
was secondary to oxidative stress, we performed experiments with Rat-1
cells using
H2O2
and various antioxidants (Fig.
5A). By
themselves, the antioxidants NAC, PDTC, and glutathione fail to induce
STAT activity in quiescent cells. However, the activation of the STATs by
H2O2
was inhibited by each of these antioxidants. In contrast, BSO, a
glutathione-depleting agent, led to the induction of STAT DNA binding
(Fig. 5B). Figure
5C shows that the DNA binding activity induced by BSO is specifically competed away by unlabeled high-affinity STAT binding oligonucleotide. These results indicate that specific types of oxidative stress lead to the activation of STAT proteins.

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Fig. 5.
Effects of antioxidants and buthionine sulfoximine (BSO) on induction
of STAT pathway by
H2O2.
A: confluent, quiescent Rat-1
fibroblasts were treated with 20 mM
N-acetyl-L-cysteine
(NAC), 100 µM pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC), or 1 mM glutathione
(GSH) alone or in combination with 1 mM
H2O2
before nuclear extracts were prepared and analyzed as described in Fig.
1 legend. When cells were treated with
H2O2,
antioxidants were added for 90 min before incubation with
H2O2
for 15 min. B: quiescent Rat-1 cells
were treated for 5 h with 2 mM BSO or solvent (DMSO), then extracts
were prepared for band shift analysis by using a high-affinity SIE
probe. C: extracts from BSO-treated
lanes from B were run on band shift
gels with and without a 100× excess of unlabeled SIE
oligonucleotides as a competitor DNA (comp).
D: activation of STATs in A-431 cells
by oxidative stress. Confluent, quiescent A-431 cells were treated with
100 ng/ml epidermal growth factor (EGF) for 15 min or indicated
concentrations of
H2O2
for 30 min before extracts were prepared for band shift analysis by
using a high-affinity SIE probe. In indicated lane, cells were treated
with 2 mM BSO for 12 h before harvest.
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The induction of STATs by oxidative stress is not limited to Rat-1
cells. Other fibroblasts such as NIH/3T3 and Balb/c 3T3 cells activate
STATs in response to
H2O2
(data not shown). In addition,
H2O2
and BSO activate STATs in the epidermally derived A-431 cell line (Fig.
5D). However, in these cells the
activation requires higher concentrations of
H2O2,
and the response is less robust. This may indicate that A-431 cells
have higher levels of antioxidant enzymes than fibroblasts. This would
not be surprising, since many tumor cells have greater resistance to
oxidative stress (63).
Interestingly, antioxidants reduce the level of STAT activation by
PDGF. NAC reduced the activation of STATs by PDGF by 40%, as measured
by phosphorimager analysis (Fig.
6A).
This suggests that intracellular oxidation in response to PDGF
contributes to the overall levels of STAT induction. Intracellular
generation of ROS in response to ligands such as PDGF and tumor growth
factor-
is believed to be mediated by the activity of a
membrane-bound NADH oxidase (41, 48, 54, 87). This enzyme complex is known to be inhibited by DPI. Therefore, we tested whether STAT activation by PDGF could be inhibited by DPI (Fig.
6B). DPI inhibited STAT activation
in a dose-responsive manner by PDGF to >80% at 100 µM, as
determined by densitometry. DPI was consistently a better inhibitor
than NAC, suggesting that the targets of the reactive oxygen products
produced in response to PDGF may be colocalized with the NADH oxidase.
Because DPI is a flavoprotein inhibitor and not completely specific for
the NADH oxidase, we investigated whether inhibitors of other
ROS-generating reactions might inhibit STAT activation by PDGF.
Inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase
(NG-nitro-L-arginine
methyl ester), xanthine oxidase (allopurinol), mitochondrial electron
transport (KCN), and microsomal P-450
(methoxypsoralen) were much less effective than DPI in inhibiting STAT
induction by PDGF (Fig. 6C). KCN did
inhibit 25% of the STAT induction, probably by virtue of reducing the
overall ROS load on the cell by inhibiting respiration. These findings
suggest that the NADH oxidase is an important intermediary enzyme for
the generation of ROS and subsequent activation of STATs by PDGF.

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Fig. 6.
Antioxidants inhibit PDGF activation of STATs.
A: confluent, quiescent Rat-1
fibroblasts were pretreated for 6.5 h with 20 mM NAC before addition of
indicated concentrations of PDGF. Extracts were then prepared for band
shift analysis by using a high-affinity SIE probe.
B: quiescent Rat-1 cells were treated
for 15 min with 25 ng/ml of PDGF with or without 30 min of pretreatment
with indicated concentrations of diphenylene iodonium (DPI). Extracts
were then prepared for band shift analysis by use of high-affinity SIE
probe. C: specific inhibition of STAT
activation by 20 µM DPI. Confluent, quiescent Rat-1 fibroblasts were
pretreated with indicated flavoprotein inhibitors [250 µM
methoxypsoralen (MePs), 200 µM allopurinol (AP), 1 mM
N-monomethyl-L-arginine
(LMNA), and 1 mM KCN] for 30 min and treated with 25 ng/ml PDGF
for 15 min, then extracts were prepared for band shift analysis by use
of a high-affinity SIE probe.
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To examine whether STAT activation by
H2O2
results in transcriptional activation by STATs as well, we determined
whether
H2O2 could activate transcription of a reporter gene with only STAT binding
sites upstream of the promoter. Thus a TK-luciferase reporter gene with
or without six high-affinity SIE/STAT binding sites upstream was
transfected into NIH/3T3 cells and stimulated for 6 h with 250 µM
H2O2.
H2O2
produced a ninefold induction of transcription of the reporter that was
dependent on the presence of the STAT binding sites (Fig.
7). Thus
H2O2
activates STAT DNA binding activity and transcriptional activation.

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Fig. 7.
Activation of a STAT-dependent promoter by
H2O2.
NIH/3T3 cells were transfected with TK-luciferase (TK-Luc) or
6XSIE/TK-luciferase (SIE-Luc) reporter constructs. Cells were serum
starved for 36 h in 0.5% calf serum, then stimulated for 6 h with 250 µM
H2O2
in DMEM. Cell extracts were then processed for luciferase activity.
Relative luciferase activities are from an average of 2 experiments.
All transfections were performed in duplicate for each experiment.
|
|
Activation of JAK2 and TYK2 by
H2O2.
Phosphorylation of the STATs on a specific tyrosine residue is required
for the dimerization of the STATs via an SH2 domain-phosphotyrosine interaction and appears to be sufficient to activate STAT DNA binding
(76, 77). Thus
H2O2
activates a cellular tyrosine kinase that phosphorylates the STAT
proteins or inactivates a STAT phosphatase.
H2O2
has previously been shown to stimulate tyrosine phosphorylation in some
cells as well as to inhibit tyrosine phosphatases (26, 33, 60).
Although the JAK family of kinases have been shown to be necessary for
STAT activation by interferons, recent data from our laboratory and
others indicate that other tyrosine kinases may also activate STATs
(50, 102).
We initially investigated whether any of the JAK family of kinases is
activated by
H2O2
treatment. Quiescent Rat-1 fibroblasts were treated for various times
with
H2O2,
and cellular extracts were immunoprecipitated with antiphosphotyrosine
monoclonal antibody (4G10) and then processed for Western blotting with
an anti-JAK2 antibody. Figure
8A shows an increase in
tyrosine phosphorylation of JAK2 detectable at 1 min of stimulation,
with a peak of autophosphorylation at 5'. To determine whether
the tyrosine phosphorylation of JAK2 was indicative of increased kinase
activity of the enzyme, the activity of the enzyme was measured by
immune complex kinase assay. JAK2 was immunoprecipitated from extracts
of
H2O2-treated
quiescent cells and incubated in the presence of
[
-32P]ATP for 5 min. The resulting extracts were then analyzed on SDS polyacrylamide
gels for autophosphorylation of JAK2 and total 32P incorporation into protein.
Figure 8B shows that
H2O2
caused an increase in in vitro autophosphorylation activity of the
JAK2. Quantitation of total 32P
incorporation by phosphorimage analysis indicates a fourfold increase
in JAK2 kinase activity (Fig. 8C).
Thus, not only is JAK2 phosphorylated on tyrosine in response to
H2O2
treatment, but JAK2 kinase activity is increased as well. Given the
strong evidence that JAK kinases are in vivo STAT kinases, this result would suggest that STAT activation by
H2O2
is mediated at least in part by JAK2. We also examined the activation
of JAK1 and TYK2 by
H2O2.
We found no evidence of JAK1 activation, but TYK2 does become
phosphorylated on tyrosine in response to
H2O2
(Fig. 8D), and its kinase activity
is activated sixfold (data not show). The expression of the other JAK
family member, JAK3, is limited to hematopoietic cells and was not
investigated (98). Thus JAK2 and TYK2 respond to
H2O2.

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Fig. 8.
Activation of JAK2 and TYK2 by
H2O2.
A: quiescent Rat-1 cells were treated
with 1 mM
H2O2
for times indicated, and whole cell extracts were prepared.
Immunoprecipitation with antiphosphotyrosine antibody (4G10) was
performed, and extracts were resolved on an SDS polyacrylamide gel. A
Western blot analysis was performed using anti-JAK2 antibody as
indicated and processed via chemiluminescence.
B: quiescent Rat-1 cells were treated
for indicated times with 1 mM
H2O2,
and extracts were immunoprecipitated on protein A-agarose beads with
anti-JAK2 antibody. Immunoprecipitates were then incubated with
[ -32P]ATP,
electrophoresed through an SDS polyacrylamide gel, and exposed to X-ray
film. C: quantitation of kinase assay
in B by phosphorimager analysis.
D: whole cell extracts from quiescent
Rat-1 cells were treated with 1 mM
H2O2
for 5 min, extracts were precipitated with anti-TYK2 or JAKI antibody,
and immunoprecipitates were processed for Western blots with
antiphosphotyrosine antibody (4G10) and chemiluminescence detection.
|
|
There is one report that treatment of mesangial cells with 5 mM
H2O2
activates the PDGF receptor, and it is known that PDGF activates JAK
kinases as well as STATs (27). Therefore, we investigated whether
H2O2
might activate the JAK-STAT pathway through activation of the PDGF
receptor in Rat-1 cells. We have found that Rat-1 cells treated with 1 mM
H2O2
fail to induce phosphorylation of the PDGF-
receptor on tyrosine
(data not shown). We have also found that EGF only very weakly induces
STATs in Rat-1 cells (probably because of low receptor number), so that
activation of the EGF receptor does not account for the induction of
STATs or JAKs by H2O2.
STATs are activated by phosphatase inhibitors. There is
evidence that JAK kinases are regulated by phosphatases (15, 17, 19,
43, 46, 65, 101). Previously, it was shown that the pervanadate
derivative of vanadate, which is a potent phosphatase inhibitor, can
induce the STAT pathway in permeabilized cells (31, 38).
H2O2
has also been shown to inactivate phosphatases in vitro and in vivo
(33, 84). Thus we sought to compare
H2O2 induction of STATs with pervanadate induction of STATs. This was done
in permeabilized cells to facilitate entry of vanadates into the cells,
inasmuch as some reports indicate that vanadate does not readily cross
the cell membrane (31, 34). Digitonin-permeabilized cells were treated
with
H2O2,
vanadyl sulfate, orthovanadate, or pervanadate for 30 min and analyzed
for STAT activation (Fig. 9). Vanadate
induction of STATs was relatively weak under these conditions, even
though it is also a phosphatase inhibitor. Pervanadate is a more potent
phosphatase inhibitor than other vanadates, since it inhibits
phosphatases by a covalent and irreversible mechanism (37). STAT
activation by pervanadate is quantitatively and qualitatively different
from
H2O2
induction of STAT. Figure 9 shows that pervanadate is a very powerful
inducer of STAT activation in permeabilized cells (the most potent
inducer of STATs we have observed). The same experiments were carried
out in unpermeabilized cells with identical results (data not shown),
and subsequent reports indicate that vanadate easily enters some cell
types (37). However, much more prominent in the pervanadate-treated
cell extracts than in the
H2O2-treated
extracts is the lower STAT1 band. Thus, if
H2O2 is working to activate the STAT pathway by inhibition of phosphatases, then it may be acting only on a subset of the phosphatases that are
inhibited by pervanadate.

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|
Fig. 9.
Induction of STATs by pervanadate in permeabilized cells. Rat-1 cells
were permeabilized using digitonin and treated with 500 µM
orthovanadate (oV) or 500 µM vanadyl sulfate (VS) alone or in
combination with indicated concentrations of
H2O2.
Band shift assays were performed using a high-affinity SIE probe.
Lanes 10 and
11 are lighter exposures of
lanes 8 and
9.
|
|
 |
DISCUSSION |
Recent work in many laboratories has shown the activation of critical
signal transduction pathways by ROS, such as the NF-
B, the JNK-AP-1,
and the ras/rac mitogen-activated
protein kinase pathway (23, 36, 41, 72, 100). Although the STAT family of transcription factors is known to be activated by most cytokines and
growth factors, we have shown that, in addition to these agonists, STAT
family members can also be activated by oxidative stress. In
particular, we have shown in Rat-1 fibroblasts that the activation of
STAT3 and STAT1 in response to
H2O2
occurs within minutes and is independent of new protein synthesis. The
activation of STATs by
H2O2
also results in STAT-dependent activation of transcription of a
luciferase reporter gene. This phenomenon does not appear to be a
generalized cell damage response, inasmuch as other stimuli, such as
superoxide, UV irradiation, heavy metals, and heat shock, do not
activate STATs. In addition, induction of STATs by
H2O2 occurs in A-431 epithelial cells as well as in other fibroblasts.
Induction of STATs by
H2O2
was observed with extracellular concentrations ranging from 100 µM-1 mM
H2O2.
These concentrations are similar to the amounts of
H2O2
needed to mimic the levels of intracellular
H2O2
generated by PDGF treatment (85). Although intracellular
H2O2
levels vary significantly between tissues and cellular conditions, some
tissues such as the lens of the eye appear to have basal levels of
H2O2
as high as 25 µM (29). Thus the response of STATs to
H2O2
could well be a physiological response. Moreover, in several
pathological states, such as asthma and ARDS, significant increases in
the amounts of
H2O2
can be measured, and these concentrations can be >1 mM in some cases
(20, 53, 70).
The activation of STATs by
H2O2
could be inhibited by antioxidants, indicating that activation is
dependent on ROS. The importance of cellular redox state is indicated
by the observation that depletion of reduced glutathione with BSO also
leads to STAT activation. In fact, the types of oxidative stress that
lead to STAT activation are very similar to those that lead to
activation of NF-
B (72, 82).
Not only can exogenous
H2O2
activate STATs, but our findings also implicate ROS in growth factor
activation of STATs. Recently, it has been shown that PDGF increases
intracellular
H2O2
concentrations in vascular smooth muscle cells and that treatments with
antioxidants such as NAC or catalase transfection can block some
downstream PDGF signaling pathways, such as the mitogen-activated
protein kinase pathway (85). Here we find that PDGF activation of the STAT pathway can be significantly inhibited by NAC and DPI, indicating that ROS are required for maximal STAT signaling by PDGF. The incomplete inhibition by antioxidants of the induction of STATs by PDGF
may be a reflection of the fact that STATs may be phosphorylated by
multiple tyrosine kinases that are activated by PDGF, including SRC
kinases, JAK kinases, and the PDGF receptor kinase (18, 50, 92). An
interesting possibility is that PDGF activation of the STAT pathway
requires simultaneous activation of tyrosine kinases and the inhibition
of phosphatases.
The mechanism of
H2O2
activation of STAT proteins likely involves activation of the JAK2 and
TYK2 kinases. The JAK kinases are required for the activation of STATs
by interferons (59, 91, 95). We have found that the STATs are
phosphorylated in response to
H2O2
and that the JAK2 and TYK2 kinases undergo phosphorylation and
activation. However, it has previously been shown that
H2O2 can also activate other kinases, such as some of the members of the SRC
kinase family (60). Thus the activation of STATs by H2O2
is likely to be mediated by multiple kinases as appears to be the case
for the response to PDGF (92).
We have found that the induction of STATs by
H2O2
follows a biphasic time course. A similar biphasic STAT response has
been noted for the response of STATs to interleukin-6, ANG II, and prolactin (47, 83, 99). In none of these cases is the basis or the
function of the biphasic response understood. One possibility is that
the second induction involves an exchange of repressor forms of STATs
for activating ones. This appears to be an important mode of STAT
regulation in the slime mold
Dictyostelium (44). Likewise, in
mammals STAT isoforms that are naturally occurring dominant negatives
are expressed (14). The biphasic time course of STAT activation implies
the induction of a biphasic kinase cascade. Such a kinase cascade has
previously been noted for the S6 ribosomal kinases (86). The activation
of JAK2 and TYK2 that we have observed only accounts for the first
phase of induction. We have yet to identify the kinases responsible for
the second phase of STAT induction.
There are several possibilities for how
H2O2
might activate intracellular kinases. One possibility is that
H2O2
activates receptors on the outside of the cell, as has been found for
UV light activation of the JNK pathway (64). Although this is a possibility since many cytokine and growth factors activate JAKs, UV
treatment of Rat-1 cells at least fails to elicit the STAT response. In
addition, it appears unlikely that
H2O2
directly activates receptors from the outside of the cell or by direct membrane perturbation, inasmuch as we have found that non-cell-permeant peroxides such as cumene hydroperoxide fail to induce STAT activation (93; data not shown). Moreover, we have found that the concentrations of
H2O2
used in our experiments are insufficient to activate the PDGF-
receptor kinase.
Another possible mechanism for activation of JAK2 by
H2O2
is inactivation of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs). Tyrosine phosphorylation of proteins is dependent on the balance between kinases
and PTPs within a cell. Our data with the PTP inhibitors vanadate and
pervanadate suggest that inhibition of PTPs results in STAT activation.
The much greater activation of STATs by pervanadate than by vanadate or
H2O2
alone is consistent with recent data in the literature (17, 31).
Pervanadate is a significantly better inhibitor of PTP, because it
irreversibly oxidizes a critical cysteine in the catalytic domain,
whereas vanadate inhibits only competitively (37). In addition, in
vitro and in vivo data indicate that pervanadate is a more effective
inhibitor of phosphatases than ROS alone (33, 34, 37). It is possible
that in vivo oxidation of this critical cysteine may, in fact, be an in
vivo mechanism of downregulating PTPs. Interestingly, the STAT pathway has been shown to be positively and negatively regulated by
phosphatases (16, 19, 46). Identification of the phosphatases involved in STAT regulation in Rat-1 fibroblasts is likely to be crucial to
understanding the mechanism of
H2O2
induction of STAT signaling.
In contrast, Haque et al. (31) found that cell lines that were mutant
for JAK1, JAK2, and TYK2 are still able to activate STATs after
pervanadate treatment. This result does not rule out a JAK2- or
TYK2-dependent mechanism for
H2O2
induction of the STAT pathway, since only a single JAK family kinase is
defective in each of these mutant cell lines. Given the intensity of
the pervanadate response, it is likely that pervanadate activates multiple JAK kinases or other STAT kinases and that mutations in
individual kinases would therefore fail to inhibit STAT activation. This is also the case for STAT activation by growth factors (18, 50,
92).
The biologic roles of the STAT factors are beginning to be understood.
It is clear that STATs participate in lactation and mammary gland
development, resistance to viral infections, cell cycle regulation,
apoptosis, and cellular transformation. STAT3, for instance, has been
shown to be important for transformation by
v-src (8, 88). The importance of STATs
is also evident from knockout mice. Knockouts of STAT2 and STAT3 result
in embryonic lethality. STAT1 knockout mice are defective in response
to interferons, and STAT5 knockout mice have deficiencies in
reproduction (for review see Ref. 14).
The fact that almost all cytokines activate the JAK-STAT pathway
suggests that STATs play important roles in the inflammatory process
(40). Interestingly, these are the same situations where high levels of
ROS are generated. Moreover, the production of H2O2
appears to be an important second messenger in many vital cellular
processes, including growth factor signaling, cell proliferation, apoptosis, and cellular transformation (2, 85, 87) in addition to
contributing to the development of diseases such as ARDS and Alzheimer's (4, 20, 53). Our data suggest that the STATs are
intermediates in ROS-mediated gene expression. Although induction of
STATs by
H2O2
may not be the only mechanism of STAT induction by PDGF, any ligand
that increases intracellular
H2O2
could result in the activation of the STAT pathway. Potential target
genes for ROS-induced STATs are genes that have known STAT binding
sites in their promoters and include genes involved in cell growth
regulation, such as c-fos and
c-myc (45, 58, 75, 81, 94), genes involved in antioxidant defense (79), such as rat SOD1 (7), and genes
involved in apoptosis, such as the caspases (6, 11, 30, 49). We are
currently investigating the possibility that the STATs are required for
the regulation of these genes by ROS.
 |
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
We thank Jay Lee, E. J. Kulbokas, Deepa Bhavsar, and Susan Spear
for help with these experiments.
 |
FOOTNOTES |
This work was supported by National Institutes of Health Grants
R01-GM-51551 and R01-GM-54304 (B. H. Cochran) and K08-HL-03547 (A. R. Simon).
The costs of publication of this
article were defrayed in part by the
payment of page charges. The article
must therefore be hereby marked
"advertisement"
in accordance with 18 U.S.C. §1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Address for reprint requests: B. H. Cochran, Dept. of Physiology, Tufts
University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Ave., Boston, MA 02111.
Received 28 April 1998; accepted in final form 29 August 1998.
 |
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