Microvessel formation from mouse aorta is stimulated in vitro by secreted VEGF and extracts from metanephroi

Tetsu Akimoto and Marc R. Hammerman

George M. O'Brien Kidney and Urological Disease Center, Renal Division, Departments of Medicine, Cell Biology, and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110


    ABSTRACT
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

We have demonstrated that during culture under 5% O2, the addition of recombinant human VEGF or FGF2 to mouse embryonic aorta explants (thoracic level to lateral vessels supplying the mesonephros and metanephros) stimulates microvessel formation. Here we show that microvessel formation is also stimulated by addition to explants of supernatants obtained from metanephroi grown in serum-free organ culture or of metanephroi extracts. Supernatants and extracts from metanephroi grown under hypoxic conditions are more stimulatory than supernatants/extracts from metanephroi grown in room air. VEGF and FGF2 can be detected by using immunohistochemistry in developing nephrons in the cultured renal anlagen. Metanephroi supernatants contain more VEGF if renal anlagen are grown under hypoxic conditions than if they are grown in room air. Metanephros supernatant-stimulated microvessel formation is completely inhibited by soluble sFlt-1 fusion protein or anti-VEGF antibodies (alpha VEGF). Extract-stimulated microvessel formation is inhibited by alpha VEGF or anti-FGF2 antibodies, or both. We conclude that metanephroi produce growth factors including VEGF and FGF that enhance microvessel formation from embryonic thoracic aorta in vitro.

embryogenesis; endothelial cell; organ culture; organogenesis


    INTRODUCTION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

WE HAVE SHOWN PREVIOUSLY that during culture in a three-dimensional type I collagen gel matrix under hypoxic conditions (5% O2), but not room air (20% O2), the addition of recombinant human (rh)VEGF (2) or rhFGF2 (1) to mouse embryonic aorta explants (thoracic level to lateral vessels supplying the mesonephros and metanephros) stimulates the formation of microvessels that stain positive for the endothelial markers Griffonia simplicifolia isolectin IB4 (Gs-IB4), CD31, and Flk-1 (1, 2). Electron microscopy shows that the microvessels are capillary-like structures consisting of endothelial cells surrounding a patent lumen (2).

Growth under 5% O2 stimulates expression of the VEGF receptor (5) Flk-1 (2) and of the FGF receptor (12) FGFR1 (1) in explants. Our aortic cultures provide a model for growth factor-enhanced angiogenesis from the embryonic thoracic aorta stimulated by local hypoxia (10) within developing embryos. In vivo, one source of growth factors for the thoracic aorta might be the developing kidneys (metanephroi) (1, 2).

To determine whether chemotactic agents that are active in our model system are present in metanephroi or are secreted by metanephroi and, if so, whether they include VEGF or FGF, we 1) showed that addition of supernatants obtained from mouse metanephroi grown in serum-free organ culture or extracts of the metanephroi to mouse aortic explants stimulates microvessel formation, 2) determined that immunoreactive VEGF is present in supernatants and that immunoreactive FGF is present supernatants and extracts, and 3) showed that agents that block VEGF or FGF activity inhibit supernatant or extract-enhanced microvessel formation in vitro. We conclude that metanephroi produce growth factors, including VEGF and FGF, that enhance microvessel formation from embryonic thoracic aorta in vitro.


    MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Embryonic tissue culture. Mouse aortas (1, 2) or mouse metanephroi (14, 16) were surgically dissected from embryos of pregnant C57BL/6J mice (Jackson Laboratories, Bar Harbor, ME) on day 14 of the pregnancy as previously described. In our hands, E14 was the earliest time at which a clearly delineated thoracic section (thoracic level to lateral vessels supplying the mesonephros and metanephros) could be dissected (1, 2).

Aortas were cultured in a three-dimensional collagen gel matrix under 5% O2 or 20% O2. Addition of 5% fetal bovine serum (FBS) to cultures is a growth requirement (1, 2).

The dissected mouse metanephroi were transferred onto 0.8-µm pore size and 13-mm diameter polycarbonate sterile filter membranes (Millipore, Burlington, MA), floating on 300 µl of serum-free culture medium (MCDB-131) in 24-well culture plates, and incubated at 37°C in a humidified incubator under 5% CO2-20% O2 (designated room air; RA) or 5% O2 (designated hypoxic conditions; HC). The medium was supplemented with 1.18 g/l sodium bicarbonate, 5 µg/ml insulin, 5 µg/ml transferrin, 5 ng/ml sodium selenate, 50 ng/ml prostaglandin E1, 50 pg/ml triiodothyronine, 100 U/ml penicillin, and 100 U/ml streptomycin.

Metanephroi were cultured for 4 days. The culture medium was changed on day 2. Media from the first 2 and the last 2 days of culture were stored at -30°C until used to supplement aortic explant cultures (see below), at which time they were supplemented with 5% heat-inactivated FBS (GIBCO BRL, Gaithersburg, MD) just before application to aortic explants. The control medium for aortic explant cultures consisted of the serum-free defined medium described above (for metanephroi) to which 5% FBS was added.

Supernatants from the first 2 and the last 2 days of metanephros culture in room air were designated supernatants I RA and II RA, respectively. Supernatants from the first 2 and the last 2 days of metanephros culture under hypoxic conditions were designated supernatants I HC and II HC, respectively.

After 4 days of culture, extracts were prepared from metanephroi cultured under RA or HC. To prepare extracts, metanephoi were snap-frozen using dry ice, thawed, and minced in the control medium described above for supernatants (100 µl of medium per metanephros). After incubation for 2 h at 37°C (18), extracts were centrifuged at 3,000 g for 10 min to remove insoluble materials and then applied to the aortic explants.

The following additions were made to cultures when indicated in the text: supernatants from cultured metanephroi (see above); extracts from metanephroi (see above); 1.0 µg/ml anti-mouse VEGF-neutralizing antibody (alpha mVEGF-Ab); 300 ng/ml soluble Flt-1 fusion protein (sFlt-1); or 50 µg/ml anti-human FGF2 neutralizing antibody (alpha hFGF2); (R & D Systems, Minneapolis, MN). The concentrations of the latter three agents were chosen because, based on our previous studies using anti-human VEGF-neutralizing antibody, sFlt-1, or alpha hFGF2, we would have expected complete inhibition of microvessel formation stimulated by as much as 50 ng/ml rhVEGF (2) or rhFGF2 (1). When noted, 4 µg/ml anti-human albumin (alpha hAlb) (Sigma, St. Louis, MO # A1151) was added.

Each culturing condition included at least four cultures of metanephroi or four cultures of aortic explants. Experiments were repeated on four occasions.

Antibodies and histological staining reagents. Alexa Fluor 488-conjugated Gs-IB4 for marking endothelial cells (1, 2) was purchased from Molecular Probes (Eugene, OR). Immunohistochemistry of metanephroi was performed as before (16). Anti-VEGF (SC7269) and anti-FGF2 (SC79) that recognize rat VEGF and FGF2 were purchased from Santa Cruz Biotechnology (Santa Cruz, CA) for use in immunohistochemical studies, as were control antibodies (SC2025) and (SC2027), respectively.

Morphological and quantitative analysis. Morphological and quantitative analyses of microvessel formation from aortic explants were performed as before (1, 2). Aortic explants along with the collagen gels were fixed with Bouin's solution (Sigma Chemicals) and treated with 1% Triton X-100 in PBS, followed by incubation with 3% bovine serum albumin (BSA) in PBS overnight at 4°C. Then, samples were incubated with 20 µg/ml Gs-IB4.

Outgrowth of capillary structures was quantified by calculating the number of Gs-IB4-positive capillary sprouts originating from the aortic explants in fluorescent microscope images. The criteria used for analysis were as follows: 1) capillary sprouts were distinguished from fibroblastic mesenchymal cells by their unique morphology (greater thickness and uniformly cohesive growth pattern), 2) the dichotomous branching of one sprout generated two new sprouts; and 3) because anastomoses between two converging vessels usually forms loop structures, each loop was counted as two sprouts. We have confirmed that these structures are positive for both Gs-IB4 staining and platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM-1) and that there is no statistical difference between the number of microvessels determined using bright field and fluorescence imaging (1, 2).

Enzyme-linked immunoadsorbent assay. Levels of mouse VEGF in supernatants of identical volumes were measured using a Quantikine mouse kit (R & D Systems). Data are expressed as picograms per milliliter.

Statistics. Experiments were performed using four sets of kidney cultures, supernatants, and extracts applied to four sets of explants on four occasions. The results are expressed as means ± SE. Data were analyzed by an analysis of variance combined with Fisher's protected least significant difference (Fisher's PLSD) test. Differences with P < 0.05 were considered to be significant.


    RESULTS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Treatment of aortic explants with supernatants from mouse metanephros cultures. We have shown previously that the addition of 1-50 ng/ml rhVEGF (2) or rhFGF2 (1) to E14 mouse aortic explants grown under 5% O2 stimulates the formation of microvessels with a capillary-like ultrastructure over 8 days of culture. Microvessels are initially absent from explants. Microvessel formation is never observed in the presence or absence of added VEGF or FGF if explants are grown under 20% O2 (1, 2) and is minimal if explants are grown under 5% O2 without exogenous rhVEGF (2) or rhFGF2 (1).

Shown in Fig. 1A is an explant cultured under 5% O2 for 5 days in a type I collagen gel containing, as before (1, 2), control media stained with Gs-IB4. Shown in Fig. 1, B and C, respectively, are explants cultured under 5% O2 with metanephros supernatants I RA or I HC added. Shown in Fig. 1, D and E, respectively, are explants cultured under 5% O2 with supernatants II RA or II HC added. Similar to what we observed in the absence of VEGF (2) or FGF2 (1), microvessel formation is minimal in control media (Fig. 1A). However, microvessels are readily discernable in cultures to which metanephros supernatants are added (compare Fig. 1A with Fig. 1, B-E).


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Fig. 1.   Photomicrographs of aortic explant after 5 days of growth in culture under 5% O2. Cells are stained with Griffonia simplicifolia isolectin IB4 (Gs-IB4). Explants were grown in control medium (A) or in supernatants from metanephroi. B: I RA; C: I HC; D: II RA; or E: II HC. Arrowheads delineate microvessels. Data are representative of 4 experiments. Magnification bar is shown in A. RA, room air; HC, hypoxic conditions. I, those supernatants from the first 2 days of culture; II, those from the last 2 days of culture.

Shown in Fig. 2 is a quantification of microvessel growth from explants cultured for 5 days under 5% O2. The number of microvessels is higher in aortic explants cultured with supernatants I RA, II RA, I HC, or II HC than in explants cultured in control media. Microvessel numbers are higher in explants grown in supernatant I HC than in supernatant I RA (P < 0.01) and higher in explants grown in supernatant II HC than in II RA (P < 0.01).


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Fig. 2.   Number of microvessels in explant cultures grown for 5 days under 5% O2 in control media or supernatants I RA, I HC, II RA, or II HC. Data are means ± SE of 4 independent experiments. **P < 0.01 II HC > I HC and II RA > I RA.

Microvessel numbers are higher in explants grown in supernatant II HC than in supernatant I HC and higher in explants grown in supernatant II RA than in I RA.

Neither supernatants from metanephroi nor extracts (see below) induced microvessel formation in aortic explants cultured under 20% O2 (not shown).

VEGF production and secretion from cultured metanephroi. To gain insight into the identity of the microvessel-stimulating agent in supernatants from developing metanephroi, we first performed immunohistochemistry for VEGF in the metanephroi cultured for 4 days under RA or HC. In metanephroi cultured under RA, no staining was detected if control antibodies were substituted for the anti-VEGF (Fig. 3A). In experiments that employed anti-VEGF, positive staining was detected (Fig. 3B). An enlargement of Fig. 3B shows that immunoreactive VEGF was present predominantly in developing nephrons (arrowheads) beneath the capsule within the nephrogenic zone (15) (Fig. 3C).


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Fig. 3.   Photomicrographs of mouse metanephroi cultured for 4 days under room air (A-C) or hypoxic conditions (D-F). A and D were stained using control antibody. B, C, E, and F were stained using anti-VEGF antibody. Arrows delineate VEGF staining beneath the renal capsule (E, F). Developing nephrons are labeled (arrowheads). C and F are enlargements of B and E, respectively. Data are representative of 4 experiments. Magnifications are shown for A, B, D, and E (A) and C and F (C).

In metanephroi cultured under HC, no staining for VEGF was seen if control antibodies were used for immunostaining (Fig. 3D). In experiments that employed anti-VEGF, positive staining was observed not only in developing nephrons (arrowheads) but also in a rim of undifferentiated mesenchyme beneath the renal capsule (arrow) (Fig. 3, E and F).

Second, using an ELISA for mouse VEGF, we determined whether VEGF is present in supernatants from cultured metanephroi. As shown in Fig. 4, VEGF is present in all supernatants. Levels are higher in supernatant I HC than in I RA and are higher in supernatant II HC than in supernatant II RA. Levels of VEGF are enhanced in supernatants II HC relative to I HC and in II RA relative to I RA.


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Fig. 4.   Levels of VEGF in metanephros supernatants I RA, I HC, II RA, and II HC. Data are means ± SE of 4 independent experiments. **P < 0.01 HC > RA; ++P < 0.01 II HC > I HC, and II RA > I RA.

Third, we performed experiments to determine whether the microvessel formation stimulated by supernatants could be blocked by anti-mouse VEGF-neutralizing antibody (alpha mVEGF) or sFlt-1. To this end, we cultured aortic explants for 5 days under 5% O2 with supernatants I RA, II RA, I HC, or II HC in the absence or presence of 1.0 µg /ml alpha mVEGF or 300 ng/ml sFlt-1. As shown in Fig. 5, the stimulatory activity of all supernatants was completely abolished by either alpha mVEGF or sFlt-1. In contrast, addition of 50 µg/ml alpha hFGF2 did not inhibit microvessel formation stimulated by any of the supernatants (Table 1).


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Fig. 5.   Number of microvessels in explant cultures grown for 5 days under 5% O2 in control media or supernatants I RA, I HC, II RA, or II HC with or without anti-mouse VEGF-neutralizing antibody (alpha mVEGF) or sFLT-1. Data are means ± SE of 4 independent experiments. **P < 0.02 vs. control.


                              
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Table 1.   Number of microvessels in explant cultures grown for 5 days under 5% O2

Treatment of aortic explants with extracts from mouse metanephros cultures. Shown in Fig. 6, A and B, respectively, are explants cultured under 5% O2 for 5 days with metanephros extracts RA or HC, stained with Gs-IB4. Microvessels (arrowheads) are readily discernable in cultures to which metanephros extracts were added.


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Fig. 6.   Photomicrographs of aortic explant after 5 days of growth in culture under 5% O2. Cells are stained with Gs-IB4. Explants were grown in extracts from metanephroi. A: RA; B: HC. Arrowheads delineate microvessels. Data are representative of 4 experiments. Magnification bar is shown in A.

Shown in Fig. 7 is a quantification of microvessel growth from explants cultured for 5 days under 5% O2 with RA or HC metanephros extracts or without extracts (control). When indicated (+), alpha mVEGF or alpha hFGF2 was added to extracts. In the absence of alpha mVEGF or alpha hFGF2 (-) (-), 1) the number of microvessels is higher in aortic explants cultured with extracts than in explants cultured in control media, and 2) the number of microvessels in explants cultured with HC extracts is significantly higher than the number of microvessels cultured with RA extracts (P < 0.05).


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Fig. 7.   Number of microvessels in explant cultures grown for 5 days under 5% O2 in control media or extracts RA or HC, with (+) or without (-) 1 µg/ml alpha mVEGF or 50 µg/ml alpha hFGF. Data are means ± SE of 4 independent experiments. ** P < 0.01 vs. control.

The addition (+) of alpha mVEGF to extracts RA or HC inhibits microvessel formation relative to addition of no antibodies (-) (-). This observation suggests that VEGF is present in extracts. To ascertain whether this is the case, we measured VEGF in extracts using the enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay (ELISA). Levels were 398 ± 13 pg/ml in RA extracts and 791 ± 24 pg/ml (mean ± SE) in HC extracts (HC > RA, P < 0.01; n = 4 experiments).

The addition of alpha hFGF2 to extracts RA or HC also inhibits microvessel formation. When both alpha mVEGF and alpha hFGF2 are added, microvessel formation stimulated by extracts RA or HC is further reduced relative to addition of either antibody by itself. However, microvessel formation remains significantly elevated relative to control in the presence of both alpha mVEGF and alpha hFGF2 (Fig. 7). The addition of a control antibody, alpha hAlb, to extracts had no effect on microvessel formation in the presence of RA or HC extracts (Table 2).

                              
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Table 2.   Number of microvessels in explant cultures grown for 5 days under 5% O2

The finding that addition of alpha hFGF2 to metanephroi extracts inhibits microvessel formation suggests that one agent in extracts that stimulates microvessel formation is a member of the FGF family. To determine whether FGF2 is present in metanephroi, we performed immunohistochemistry for FGF2 in metanephroi cultured for 4 days under RA or HC. In metanephroi cultured under RA, no staining was detected if control antibodies were substituted for the anti-FGF2 (Fig. 8A). In experiments that employed anti-FGF2 antibodies, positive staining of both nephronic and ureteric bud-derived structures was seen (Fig. 8B), consistent with the localization described for FGF2 in rat metanephroi previously reported by others (3). Similarly, in metanephroi cultured under HC, no staining was detected if control antibodies were substituted for the anti-FGF2 antibodies (Fig. 8C), and in experiments that employed anti-FGF2, positive staining of both nephronic and ureteric bud-derived elements was observed (Fig. 8D).


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Fig. 8.   Photomicrographs of mouse metanephroi cultured for 4 days under room air (A, B) or hypoxic conditions (C, D). A and C were stained using control antibody. B and D were stained using anti-FGF2. Magnification is shown in A.


    DISCUSSION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Previously, we have shown by using embryonic aortic explants cultured in a three-dimensional type I collagen gel matrix that formation of capillary-like structures is dependent on both 5% O2 and on the addition of exogenous rhVEGF or rhFGF2. The addition of 5% fetal bovine serum to cultures is an additional requirement for growth (1, 2). Therefore, growth factor effects are additive to those of serum, and the growth factors may be necessary but not sufficient to induce microvessel formation.

Flk-1 and FGFR1 receptors in explants grown under 5% O2 are upregulated relative to Flk-1 and FGFR1 receptors in explants grown under 20% O2. This observation is consistent with the basis for enhanced sensitivity to rhVEGF or rhFGF2 in explants grown under 5% O2 being an increase in VEGF binding to Flk-1 (2) or FGFR1 (1), respectively.

We postulated (1, 2) that in vivo, the angiogenic stimulus for the embryonic aorta, at least the thoracic section we used for experiments, is provided by VEGF and/or an FGF family member produced by nonvascular tissues outside of the aorta itself, one possible source being the developing kidney.

Evidence exists that both VEGF and FGFs regulate the process of embryonic kidney vascularization. In the kidney, VEGF mRNA can be detected in epithelial cells of glomeruli and in proximal and distal tubules, whereas mRNA for VEGF receptors is present in endothelial cells of glomerular and peritubular capillaries (7, 8).

A role for VEGF produced in the developing kidney as an enhancer of endothelial cell development is indicated by a number of observations. Kitamano et al. (8) showed that if endogenous VEGF activity is blocked by administration of anti-VEGF antibodies to newborn mice, blood vessel formation in the part of the kidney still undergoing development, the superficial cortex, is disturbed. Kidneys originating from antibody-treated mice had fewer nephrons than those from control animals.

Tufro (17) cocultured avascular metanephroi from E14 rat embryos with cloned and passaged mouse glomerular endothelial cells. She found that the glomerular endothelial cells invaded the metanephroi, forming capillary-like structures within and surrounding the forming nephrons. The process was accelerated and amplified by low oxygen (3% O2) and prevented by anti-VEGF neutralizing antibodies. Tufro concluded that VEGF produced by the differentiating nephrons acts as a chemoattractant providing spatial direction to developing capillaries toward forming nephrons during metanephros development (17).

Risau and Ekblom (13) reported that induced E11 and E-14-17 mouse metanephroi stimulate the growth of new blood vessels posttransplantation into the rabbit cornea. They extracted and isolated a heparin-binding growth factor from E14-17 mouse metanephroi that was mitogenic for bovine endothelial cells and stimulated angiogenesis in rabbit corneas (13). Because uninduced E11 mesenchyme had no such activity, it was suggested that differentiation imparts angiogenesis-stimulating activity to developing kidneys. Because of it size (MW~18, 000) and heparin-binding characteristics, Risau and Ekblom speculated that the endothelial mitogen was basic FGF (bFGF) (13).

Cancilla and coworkers (4) detected the expression of mRNAs for FGFs1-5, and 7-10 and FGFRs 1-4 in rat metanephroi from E14-E21 (4). Using immunohistochemistry, FGFs1 and 2 were colocalized in the ureteric epithelium, the epithelium of developing nephron elements, and the developing glomerular mesangium of metanephroi (3). FGFR1 was present in podocytes, mesangial cells, and glomerular endothelium (4). FGFR2 was detected in the lower limbs of S-shaped bodies (glomerular anlagen), and this localization was maintained in capillary loop and maturing glomeruli. In the mature-stage glomeruli, FGFR2 localization appeared to be in podocytes and mesangial cells, but not in endothelium (4).

Kloth et al. (9) examined the role of bFGF (FGF2) in renal vascular development using tissue explants prepared from kidneys of 1- to 3-day-old rabbits within the superficial cortices in which nephrogenesis is ongoing. When bFGF alone was applied to explants, vessels could no longer be detected. However, the inhibitory influence of bFGF could be overcome by the addition of VEGF or hormones such as retinoic acid and aldosterone/1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3. Retinoic acid by itself initiated a broadening of vessel-like structures in explants. The combination of retinoic acid plus bFGF resulted in formation of considerably thinner vessels and the formation of an additional generation of endothelial structures. It was concluded that bFGF has a morphogenic rather than a mitogenic function on vascular development during kidney formation (9).

Here we show that 1) microvessel stimulatory activity in supernatants correlates with levels of VEGF (II HC > II RA and I HC > 1 RA), and 2) supernatant-stimulated, capillary-like structure formation can be completely prevented by addition of sFlt-1 or alpha mVEGF to cultures. These observations provide strong evidence that VEGF produced in metanephroi and released into the media is the agent responsible for the stimulation.

The renal artery arises during embryogenesis from lateral branches of the abdominal aorta that terminates in a plexus of arteries in close proximity to the renal pelvis, the renal artery rete. Persistence of one branch of this plexus results in a solitary renal artery that enters and subsequently divides within the kidney. On occasion, more than one branch may persist and there are two or more renal arteries (11).

Supernatants from metanephroi stimulate microvessel formation from every part along the circumference of aortic anlagen. In this regard, the enhancement is nondirectional. One possible extrapolation of our organ culture findings to renal vascularization is that VEGF secreted by the developing kidney is a chemoattractant for blood vessels originating from the embryonic aorta and that directionality in vivo is provided by the relative positions of the developing aorta and developing kidney in the hypoxic milieu that characterizes embryonic development (10). If such is the case, then FGF from metanephroi does not act in the same way as VEGF, because alpha hFGF2 does not block the microvessel formation stimulated by metanephros supernatants in vitro.

Extract-enhanced microvessel formation is inhibited by alpha mVEGF and alpha hFGF2. We propose that the activity in extracts inhibited by alpha mVEGF reflects intracellular VEGF.

FGF2 is also present in metanephroi (Fig. 8), and the ability of metanephros extracts to stimulate microvessel formation can be inhibited by alpha hFGF2. These findings are consistent with a role for an FGF family member as a stimulator of microvessel formation.

Because it lacks a consensus signal peptide sequence (12), it is possible that, in contrast to VEGF, FGF2 or related FGFs have an impact on the process of renal vascularization once physical contact has been made between branches of the renal artery rete and the extracellular matrix of the developing metanephros (11). Alternatively or in addition, the effect of rhFGF on aortic explants in vitro (1) may reflect an action on endothelial cells that originates within the metanephros itself in vivo (6).


    ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T. Akimoto was supported by the National Kidney Foundation of Eastern Missouri and Metro East. M. R. Hammerman was supported by National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases Grants DK-45181 and DK-53481.


    FOOTNOTES

Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: M. R. Hammerman, Renal Division, Box 8126, Dept. of Medicine, Washington Univ. School of Medicine, 660 S. Euclid Ave., St. Louis, MO 63110 (E-mail: mhammerm{at}im.wustl.edu).

The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

First published February 26, 2003;10.1152/ajpcell.00436.2002

Received 20 September 2002; accepted in final form 14 February 2003.


    REFERENCES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

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2.   Akimoto, T, Liapis H, and Hammerman MR. Microvessel formation from mouse embryonic aortic explants is oxygen and VEGF dependent. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 283: R487-R495, 2002[Abstract/Free Full Text].

3.   Cancilla, B, Cauchi J, Key B, Nurcombe V, Alcorn D, and Bertram JF. Immunolocalization of fibroblast growth factors-1 and -2 in the embryonic rat kidney. Nephrologie 2: 167-175, 1996.

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16.   Sorenson, CM, Rogers SA, Korsmeyer SJ, and Hammerman Fulminant MR. Metanephric apoptosis and abnormal kidney development in bcl-2-deficient mice. Am J Physiol Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol 268: F73-F81, 1995[Abstract/Free Full Text].

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Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 284(6):C1625-C1632
0363-6143/03 $5.00 Copyright © 2003 the American Physiological Society




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