Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, California 92697
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ABSTRACT |
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Cardiac -myosin heavy chain (
-MHC) gene
expression is mainly regulated through transcriptional processes.
Although these results are based primarily on in vitro cell culture
models, relatively little information is available concerning the
interaction of key regulatory factors thought to modulate MHC
expression in the intact rodent heart. Using a direct gene transfer
approach, we studied the in vivo transcriptional activity of
different-length
-MHC promoter fragments in normal control and in
altered thyroid states. The test
-MHC promoter was fused to a
firefly luciferase reporter gene, whereas the control
-MHC promoter
was fused to the Renilla luciferase
reporter gene and was used to account for variations in transfection
efficiency. Absolute reporter gene activities showed that
- and
-MHC genes were individually and reciprocally regulated by thyroid
hormone. The
-to-
ratios of reporter gene expression demonstrated
an almost threefold larger
-MHC gene expression in the longest than
in the shorter promoter fragments in normal control animals, implying
the existence of an upstream enhancer. A mutation in the putative
thyroid response element of the
408-bp
-MHC promoter
construct caused transcriptional activity to drop to null. When studied
in the
3,500-bp
-MHC promoter, construct activity was reduced
(~100-fold) while thyroid hormone responsiveness was retained. These
findings suggest that, even though the bulk of the thyroid hormone
responsiveness of the gene is contained within the first 215 bp of the
-MHC promoter sequence, the exact mechanism of triiodothyronine
(T3) action remains to be elucidated.
transcription; dual luciferase; in vivo gene transfer; thyroid
response element; -myosin heavy chain
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INTRODUCTION |
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ADULT MAMMALIAN CARDIAC muscle expresses two genes
encoding myosin heavy chains (MHCs), which have been designated -
and
-MHC (20, 27, 28). The
-MHC gene encodes the
-MHC protein product, homodimers of which form a native myosin designated the high-ATPase, V1 isoform. In contrast, the
-MHC gene encodes the
-MHC protein product, homodimers of which form the low-ATPase, V3
isoform. Posttranslational assembly of the
and
products also
gives rise to a protein heterodimer, designated the moderate-ATPase, V2
isoform. Each of these native myosin isoforms contains the same
complement of myosin light chains. The
- and
-MHC genes are
members of a multigene family in which each of the genes is expressed
in a muscle type- and developmental stage-specific fashion (25, 27).
Whereas
-MHC is expressed only in the heart,
-MHC is expressed in
the heart and is also the major myosin isoform in slow-twitch skeletal
muscle (27). The
- and
-MHC genes are arranged in tandem in the
genome, separated by only ~4 kb of intergenic sequence (26).
Expression of the two genes is closely linked and tightly regulated in
a reciprocal fashion (25, 27, 28).
The relative expression of these MHCs is highly plastic in cardiac
cells of different mammalian species, spanning a wide variety of
pathophysiological states (1, 17, 25, 27, 28, 32, 39). Moreover, the
differential expression of the MHCs impacts significantly the intrinsic
functional properties of the heart. During embryonic and fetal
development, -MHC is the predominant isoform expressed in the heart.
In rats, shortly after birth, most of the
-MHC is quickly replaced
by
-MHC. In the adult rodent the
-MHC is the predominant isoform
expressed in the euthyroid animal, accounting for ~85-90% of
the total MHC protein pool, whereas the
-MHC accounts for the
remaining 10-15%, a pattern that is consistent with the
steady-state level of the MHC mRNA that is expressed (17). However,
this profile can be altered by a variety of experimental interventions,
such that the
-MHC relative expression is significantly upregulated
to various levels depending on the particular intervention.
Expression of the MHC genes in the rodent heart is extremely sensitive
to the thyroid status of the animal. Induction of hypothyroidism causes
a switch in isoform expression, so that the -MHC becomes the major
isoform expressed in the myocardium of these animals (20, 25). On the
other hand, administration of additional thyroid hormone has the
opposite effect and reduces
-MHC expression to a minimal level while
increasing
-MHC expression. This increase/decrease in the
-MHC
expression is detected at the protein and mRNA levels, and the
intensity of this upregulation/downregulation depends on the potency of
the stimulus. Because mRNA signals and protein levels appear to be
tightly coupled in a given steady state (16, 17), we interpret these
responses to suggest that there are likely
transcriptional/pretranslational processes dominating the regulation of
the
-MHC gene. This notion has been confirmed by us and others using
nuclear run-on assays (3, 40).
The molecular signals involved in -MHC transcriptional control are
not well defined. However, recent studies have begun to shed some light
on the nuclear factors involved in the in vivo transcriptional
regulation of the
-MHC gene. Previous work that focused on
functional analyses of the
-MHC gene promoter and used transgenic
mice (23, 24, 37), myocytes in culture (10, 11, 21, 22, 38, 42), or
direct gene transfer (5, 6, 33-35) suggests the interplay of
cis and
trans factors in the regulation of
-MHC gene expression. Most of these studies have focused on the
proximal 400 bp of the promoter sequence. On this 5'-flanking
regulatory region, three
cis-regulatory elements have been
implicated in the positive and an additional two in the negative
regulation of
-MHC gene transcription and its tissue-specific expression. These cis elements, when
bound by specific nuclear proteins, control the rate of transcription
(10, 13, 29, 42). Transcriptional control of the
-MHC gene involves
complex interaction between cis-acting
DNA sequences, their cognate
trans-acting protein factors, and the
basic transcription machinery. One of the negative regulatory elements,
a thyroid response element (TRE), has been proposed to be located
within the basal promoter, where binding of the transcription machinery
is necessary to initiate transcription (10).
The purpose of the present study was to examine the mechanism of
transcriptional regulation of the rodent -MHC gene under normal
control and thyroid-manipulated (hypo- or hyperthyroid) conditions with
use of an in vivo approach. Here we report that a long 3,500-bp
promoter fragment is necessary for optimal transcriptional activity of
the
-MHC gene. A putative enhancer element appears to be contained
within
2,900 to
3,500 bp of the
-MHC promoter sequence. Our data also suggest that there may be an interaction between this upstream enhancer in combination with its
trans-acting protein factor(s) and a
downstream element(s) that is located within the first 408 bp of the
promoter sequence.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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Animal model and DNA injection procedure. All animal-related procedures described in this study were approved by our institutional animal care and use committee. Young adult female Sprague-Dawley rats (~150 g body wt; Taconic Farms, Germantown, NY) were used for all experiments.
For DNA injection into the myocardium the rats were deeply anesthetized with ketamine (40 mg/kg) and acepromazine (1 mg/kg), the abdomen was opened using sterile techniques, and the heart was felt by palpation through the diaphragm. Forty microliters of sterile PBS containing an equimolar (equivalent to 10 µg ofPlasmid constructs.
pGL3 basic, a promoterless plasmid containing the firefly luciferase
reporter gene, and pRL null plasmid, containing the
Renilla luciferase reporter gene, were
purchased from Promega. The plasmids [(3,300
+34) and
(
215
+34)] encoding
-MHC chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) were a kind gift from Dr. P. C. Simpson (University of California, San Francisco) and contained a rat
-MHC
genomic fragment fused to the CAT reporter sequence in pUC9 (42). An
additional construct, containing a
3,500- to +462-bp [from
the transcription start site (TSS)]
-MHC genomic sequence fused to a CAT reporter plasmid, was kindly provided by Dr. Kaie Ojamaa
(34).
Site-directed mutagenesis.
The MORPH mutagenesis kit and protocol from 5prime 3prime,
Inc. (Boulder, CO) were used for all mutagenesis reactions. A triple
base pair mutation was introduced into the basal promoter sequence of
the
408- and the
3,500-bp
-MHC promoter sequence. The
mutation consisted of changing three G bases at position
54 to
56 to three T bases. The mutagenic oligonucleotide had the following sequence:
5'-CTGGGTGCAGG
GATGGGGCACCC-3'.
Reporter gene assays. Frozen cardiac tissue (~200 mg) from the apex was homogenized in 2 ml of an ice-cold lysis buffer (Promega) supplemented with 5 µg/ml aprotinin, 2.5 µg/ml leupeptin, and 0.2 mM 4-(2-aminoethyl)benzenesulfonyl fluoride (protease inhibitors, Sigma Chemical) with use of a glass homogenizer. The homogenate was centrifuged at 4°C at 10,000 g for 10 min; the supernatant was separated and kept on ice until assayed for luciferase activities. A Promega dual-luciferase detection kit, which measures and distinguishes activities from the two luciferase proteins, was used for luciferase assays. Firefly and Renilla luciferase activities were measured from the same extract in a single tube. Promega's protocol was used to assay 20 µl of each extract at room temperature. Light output from each specific luciferase activity was measured for 10 s with an analytic luminometer (Monolight 2010-C, Analytical Luminescence Laboratory, Ann Arbor, MI). Background activity levels, based on measurements in noninjected tissue for both luciferases, were established and deducted from the activities measured in the experiments. Activities were expressed as relative light units.
MHC mRNA analysis.
Total RNA was extracted from frozen tissue (base portion of the
injected hearts), as described previously (17). Distribution of -
and
-MHC mRNA was measured by Northern blot analysis of the
extracted total RNA (n = 40 for
untreated and n = 20 each for
hypothyroid and hyperthyroid animals). Oligonucleotides complementary to the 3'-untranslated sequences of the
- and
-mRNA
isoforms were used for hybridization, as described previously (17).
Band intensities on the autoradiogram were quantitated using a laser scanning densitometer (Molecular Dynamics, Sunnyvale, CA), and each
specific absorbance was normalized to its corresponding 18S rRNA signal
(17).
Thyroid hormone analysis. Plasma levels of T3 and T4 were measured using a commercially available RIA kit (ICN Pharmaceuticals). Measurements were performed on groups of at least 30 animals for a given thyroid state.
Statistical analysis. Values are means ± SE. Statistical significance was determined by ANOVA followed by the Student-Newman-Keuls test for multiple comparisons. All statistical tests were performed using the Graphpad Prism 2.0 statistical software package. P < 0.05 was taken as the level of statistical significance.
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RESULTS |
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Endogenous - and
-MHC mRNA
expression and evidence of altered thyroid states.
In rat heart,
- and
-MHC mRNA expression is regulated by
T3 in a reciprocal fashion (25,
27). Northern analysis of normal control, hypothyroid (PTU), and
hyperthyroid (T3) hearts from young adult rats demonstrates that in the normal control state
-MHC
mRNA is 10- to 20-fold more abundant than
-MHC mRNA (Fig. 1). In the hyperthyroid state
this pattern is even more exaggerated because of the repression in
-MHC mRNA abundance; thus the
-MHC mRNA is ~100-fold more
abundant than
-MHC mRNA. Interestingly, the rat heart in the
euthyroid state resembles a heart in a hyperthyroid state with regard
to
-MHC mRNA expression, inasmuch as chronic exposure to
T3 elevates the
-MHC mRNA pool
by only 15% relative to the euthyroid state (unpublished observation).
In hypothyroid animals the relationship between
- and
-MHC mRNA
completely reverses, and in this state
-MHC mRNA accounts for 99%
of the MHC mRNA, with
-MHC mRNA making up the remaining 1% (Fig.
1). These results are typical for young adult animals and are
consistent with previous reports (27).
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Transcriptional regulation of the - and
-MHC genes as measured by absolute reporter gene
activities.
To demonstrate that
- and
-MHC genes are regulated at the
transcriptional level, we initially tested the responsiveness of a
3,500-bp
-MHC firefly luciferase construct and the
-MHC Renilla luciferase construct in the
hearts of normal control, hypothyroid (PTU), and hyperthyroid
(T3) rats. In Fig.
2 the reporter activity in relative light
units per heart per 10 s is shown for both plasmids in the different
thyroid states. The
-MHC gene was upregulated about threefold in
hypothyroid conditions and downregulated about sevenfold in
hyperthyroid conditions compared with the normal control state. The
total transcriptional activity of this gene was downregulated
~20-fold in a condition of hyperthyroidism compared with
hypothyroidism. In contrast to this pattern, the
-MHC gene showed
opposite regulation: this gene was downregulated about threefold in
hypothyroidism and upregulated about threefold in hyperthyroidism
compared with the expression in normal control (euthyroid) hearts. This
suggests that T3 exerts a more
potent effect on the transcriptional activity of the
-MHC promoter
than on the regulation of the
-MHC mRNA pool (Figs. 1 and 2). The difference in gene expression between hypo- and hyperthyroid states was
~10-fold for this gene. These results illustrate that both promoters
were highly sensitive to the presence and absence of thyroid hormone
and that, despite the lack of correction for the variations in
transfection efficiency, the average reporter gene expression resembled
the endogenous expression of the two genes. Within a given thyroid
state, the coefficient of variation for reporter gene expression was
>100%; however, for the
-to-
ratios, the coefficient of
variation was decreased to ~20-30% (Table
2). Furthermore, the results obtained with
the
-MHC promoter construct were much more consistent than the
results obtained in the experiments using the CMV promoter, in which
variation was high with or without correction (data not shown). These
results indicated that the
-MHC promoter was a satisfactory control
expression plasmid for our experiments.
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Deletion analysis of the -MHC promoter in normal
control hearts corrected for
-MHC activity.
In normal control hearts, expression of the
-MHC is relatively
constant. Thus, when different-length
-MHC promoter constructs are
coinjected with the same
-MHC pRL construct, the
-to-
ratio is
a direct function of the
promoter activity. Seven different-length
-MHC promoter fragments were tested in normal control hearts:
3,500,
2,900,
2,500,
2,000,
914,
408, and
215 bp, all extending to +34 bp relative to the
TSS. The
-to-
ratios of reporter gene expression show that all
five of the intermediate promoter segments drive
-MHC expression at
about the same level, in contrast to the long
3,500-bp promoter
fragment, which shows two- to threefold higher
-MHC expression
levels (Fig. 3).
-MHC expression with use of the short
215-bp promoter construct was reduced by
~30% relative to the intermediate-length promoter constructs. We
attribute this latter response to the lack of some critical positive
regulatory elements (e.g.,
e2 and C-rich) contained within
215 to
330 bp of the promoter sequence (42).
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Responsiveness of different-length -MHC promoter
segments to thyroid hormone.
Five different-length
-MHC promoter constructs were tested in vivo
for their responsiveness to thyroid hormone (
3,500,
2,000,
914,
408, and
215 bp). The results
of these experiments are summarized in Fig.
4 and Table 2. The ratios of
- to
-MHC reporter gene expression show clearly that all tested
constructs are highly responsive to thyroid hormone. These findings
suggest that the bulk of the thyroid hormone regulation of the
-MHC
gene is contained within the first 215 bp of the promoter sequence. In
general, ratios of
- to
-MHC reporter gene expression were 10- to
40-fold higher in hypothyroid animals and 10- to 20-fold lower in
hyperthyroid animals than in normal control groups. In contrast to
previous in vivo studies (34), our results therefore indicate that
thyroid hormone regulation of the
-MHC gene takes place to a large
extent at the transcriptional level.
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Effect of a triple base mutation within the putative TRE on
-MHC promoter activity and thyroid responsiveness.
A putative TRE has been proposed to be contained within the basal
-MHC promoter at position
55 to
60 with the sequence GGTGGG (10). This sequence partially overlaps with an E box (CAGGTG).
We were interested in how a mutation in this element would affect the
in vivo
-MHC transcriptional activity and the responsiveness to
thyroid hormone. With the E box left intact, a triple G sequence at
position
54 to
56 was mutated to a triple T. This
mutation was introduced into the
408- and
3,500-bp
-MHC promoter reporter constructs. Injecting the mutant
408-bp
-MHC firefly luciferase construct along with the
-MHC Renilla luciferase construct
resulted in background levels of firefly luciferase activities in all
thyroid states, whereas the Renilla
luciferase activities were unaffected and followed the typical
regulation pattern in a given thyroid state (Fig.
5). Consequently, the
-to-
ratios of
reporter gene activities were essentially zero in each of the three
thyroid states.
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DISCUSSION |
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The effect of thyroid hormone on endogenous expression of the - and
-MHC genes has been well established (20, 27, 32, 33). The
transcriptional regulation of the
-MHC gene in response to thyroid
hormone alteration can be explained by the existence of at least three
positive TREs that are contained in the promoter sequence of the gene
(15, 19, 38). The mechanism of regulation of the
-MHC gene by
thyroid hormone changes is more elusive and not well defined. In the
present study we examined transcriptional regulation of the
-MHC
gene in physiological in vivo settings involving euthyroid animals as
well as animals spanning the spectrum of thyroid states.
Using a gene injection approach, we established an experimental setup
that allows us to study transcriptional activity of the -MHC gene in
vivo. A deletion analysis of the
-MHC promoter revealed the
importance of upstream sequences for full transcriptional activity of
the gene in the euthyroid state and that most of the thyroid hormone
regulation of the gene is contained within the first 215 bp of the
promoter sequence. A mutation in the region of a putative TRE, located
in the basal promoter, annulled transcriptional activity in the context
of a
408-bp promoter segment. When the same mutation was tested
in the context of a long (
3,500-bp) promoter segment, some of
the transcriptional activity and the thyroid responsiveness of the gene
was retained.
Sequence analysis and comparison to published TRE motifs revealed the
existence of four TRE half-sites within the first 215 bp of the
promoter sequence (Fig. 6). The
functional significance of these TREs is not clear, but they could be
the sites of direct action of T3.
It has been reported that several genes that are negatively regulated
by T3 share common features; i.e.,
they contain several TRE half-sites in the basal promoter region, and
there is variable spacing between them (8, 14, 31). These genes include
thyrotropin-releasing hormone (18), thyroid-stimulating hormone-
(
-TSH) (7),
-TSH (9), the epidermal keratin gene family (36),
epidermal growth factor receptors (41), and rat growth hormone (4, 15).
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Exact identification of the regions of thyroid hormone responsiveness
of the -MHC promoter has been attempted mainly in tissue culture
systems. Only one publication attributed the strong regulation of the
gene by thyroid hormone to a negative TRE located in the basal promoter
(10). Six nucleotides, located between the TATA box and the CAAT
element, were identified as a putative TRE (10). Mutation of this
element severely inhibited transcriptional activity and abolished
T3 responsiveness of the tested
human
-MHC promoter segment in vitro (10). This particular TRE
sequence is most similar to a half-site TRE described in the human
-TSH gene promoter, which is also located close to the TATA region
(9).
In our hands, a similar, although less severe, mutation of the
corresponding sequence in the rat -MHC promoter nullified transcriptional activity in vivo in any given thyroid state when tested
in a short (
408-bp)
-MHC promoter sequence (Fig. 5). When the
same mutation was tested in the longest (
3,500-bp)
-MHC promoter construct, transcriptional activity was reduced ~100-fold compared with the wild-type construct, yet not nullified. Thus the
presence of upstream regulatory sequences was able to restore some of
the in vivo transcriptional activity that was lost through the
mutation. Interestingly, the thyroid hormone responsiveness was
preserved in the mutated 3,500-bp construct and was similar in relative
magnitude to the wild-type construct, although overall transcriptional
activity was reduced by two orders of magnitude (Fig. 5). Our
data suggest that thyroid hormone regulation of the rat
-MHC
promoter in vivo is contained within the first 215 bp of the promoter
sequence, but the exact location(s) remains to be defined. The data
also indicate that thyroid hormone is able to mask the effect of other
regulatory elements on transcriptional activity of the gene, since the
enhancer properties of the upstream promoter sequences are absent when
the thyroid hormone state of the animal is manipulated. It is
conceivable that T3 binding
interferes with the formation of the activating complex for initiating
transcription, thereby causing the suppression of transcriptional
activity. It has been shown that TREs are repeats of the half-site
consensus motif (A/G)GG(A/T)CA (30). Spacing is critical in determining the specificity of the response, and several other receptors such as
retinoid X and retinoic acid receptors (RXRs and RARs) of
the steroid receptor superfamily share a similar binding motif (31). Thyroid hormone receptors (TRs), liganded or not, can bind to TREs as
monomers, homodimers, or heterodimers (14). They can heterodimerize
with RXRs and RARs (14, 31). These protein-protein interactions
(RAR/RXR-TR) can inhibit or induce the regulation by
T3.
Deletion analysis of the -MHC promoter in normal control hearts
revealed the presence of an enhancer region contained within
2,900 to
3,500 bp of the upstream sequence of the gene.
This upstream enhancer might likely also be the factor that compensates for some of the activity that was lost by mutating 3 bp in an obviously
critical region of the basal promoter. A mechanism in which an upstream
sequence forms a loop and therefore again comes close to some elements
in the basal promoter is not uncommon, and in fact, this is how most
enhancers work (2). This and the above-discussed results point to a
model in which the interaction of transcription factors with sequences
in the basal promoter is brought to full activity in the euthyroid
state by additional interactions with upstream sequences (and possible
proteins bound to those sequences). In the absence of thyroid hormone,
this interaction could become impossible, whereas with an abundance of
thyroid hormone the interaction with upstream sequences might have so little effect that it is not measurable.
In previous studies of the -MHC promoter in which transgenic mice
were used, it was found that 600 bp of promoter sequence were not
enough to confer thyroid responsiveness and, in particular, induction
of
-MHC gene expression on reduction of thyroid hormone levels in
heart muscle (37). However, the same studies also emphasized the
importance of upstream sequences for full transcriptional activity of
the gene (37).
Finally, our results demonstrated that expression of the -MHC gene
in normal control and altered thyroid states is regulated to a great
extent at the transcriptional level. Even though post- and
pretranslational processes undoubtedly play a role in the regulation of
-MHC gene expression, our data underline the critical importance of
the regulation at the transcriptional level.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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This work was supported by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Grant HL-38819 to K. M. Baldwin.
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FOOTNOTES |
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The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. §1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: K. M. Baldwin, Dept. of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697 (E-mail: kmbaldwi{at}uci.edu).
Received 23 November 1998; accepted in final form 14 January 1999.
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