Department of Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0636
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ABSTRACT |
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Madin-Darby canine
kidney (MDCK) cells release ATP upon mechanical or biochemical
activation, initiating P2Y receptor signaling that regulates basal
levels of multiple second messengers, including cAMP (J Biol
Chem 275: 11735-11739, 2000). Data shown here document inhibition of cAMP formation by Gd3+ and niflumic acid,
channel inhibitors that block ATP release. cAMP production is
stimulated via Ca2+-dependent activation of cytosolic
phospholipase A2, release of arachidonic acid (AA), and
cyclooxygenase (COX)-dependent production of prostaglandins, which
activate prostanoid receptors coupled to Gs and adenylyl
cyclase. In the current investigation, we assessed the expression and
functional role of the two known isoforms of COX, COX-1 and
COX-2. Treatment of cells with either a COX-1-selective inhibitor, SC-560, or COX-2-selective inhibitors, SC-58125 or NS-398, inhibited basal and UTP-stimulated cAMP levels. COX inhibitors also decreased forskolin-stimulated cAMP formation, implying this response is in part attributable to an action of AA metabolites. These
findings imply an important role for the inducible form of COX, COX-2,
under basal conditions. Indeed, COX-2 expression was readily detectable
by immunoblot, and treatments that induce or reduce COX-2 expression in
other cells (interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor-
, phorbol
ester, or dexamethasone) had minimal or no effect on the levels of
COX-2 immunoreactivity. RT-PCR using isoform-specific primers detected
COX-2 mRNA. We conclude that COX-2 is constitutively expressed in
MDCK-D1 cells and participates in basal and
P2Y2-mediated signaling, implying a key role for COX-2 in
regulation of epithelial cell function.
adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate; adenosine 5'-triphosphate release; arachidonic acid; prostaglandin E2
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INTRODUCTION |
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CYCLOOXYGENASE (COX) catalyzes the production of eicosanoids, such as prostaglandins and thromboxanes, which are integral to the regulation of many biological responses, including platelet activation, tissue perfusion, and inflammation. Of the known isoforms of COX, COX-1 is constitutively expressed and thereby involved in ambient events in cells, while COX-2 is considered an inducible isoform, which is regulated by cytokines and hormonal mediators and thus thought to be the principal isoform that mediates inflammatory processes (28).
We have recently described a critical regulatory signaling pathway in cells that is dependent on COX (16). Using the well-differentiated renal tubular epithelial cell line Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK), we showed that activation of this pathway is initiated by cellular release of ATP after biochemical or mechanical stimulation. This released ATP helps to establish the basal levels of cellular second messengers via activation of P2Y receptors. MDCK-D1 cells express multiple isoforms of P2Y receptors (18), which couple to the activation of cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) via both Ca2+- and mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase-dependent mechanisms (31). cPLA2 cleaves arachidonic acid (AA) from membrane phospholipids and serves as the rate-limiting step for production of eicosanoids, in particular PGE2, by COX (18, 23). In the current studies, we examined the role of COX-1 and COX-2 to infer which isoform(s) mediate the generation of products involved in regulating basal signaling. Unexpectedly, we found that both COX isoforms, but particularly COX-2, are expressed in a constitutive manner in MDCK-D1 cells and contribute to the generation of basal levels of cAMP and in modulation of cellular response to various hormonal agonists.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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Materials. Cell culture reagents were obtained from Fisher. Cells were routinely cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (endotoxin free and heat inactivated), except where noted. Radiolabeled chemicals were obtained from NEN Life Science Products. Forskolin was obtained from Calbiochem. NS-398 was obtained from Cayman Biochemicals. SC-560 and SC-58125 were generous gifts from Monsanto-Searle. Primary antibody for COX-1 was obtained from Cayman Biochemicals. All other antibodies were obtained from Santa Cruz Biotechnology (Santa Cruz, CA). All other drugs and reagents were obtained from Sigma (St. Louis, MO).
Cell culture. MDCK-D1 cells were grown in DMEM supplemented with 2.5% fetal bovine serum and 7.5% horse serum. Cells were passaged every 3-4 days by trypsinization using trypsin-EDTA. Cells were used for experiments in 24-well plates (Costar) grown to approximately 60-70% confluence. In some experiments, cells were washed and cultured in serum-free DMEM for 24-48 h before assay.
Luciferin/luciferase detection of ATP. For luciferin/luciferase detection of ATP, we washed cells with 0.5 ml DMEM buffered with 20 mM Na-HEPES (DMEH, pH 7.4) by carefully aspirating media without tilting the tissue culture plate and then adding fresh media slowly to the side of the well. The cells were then incubated for 60 min (to allow reequilibration and hydrolysis of released ATP) before a small volume of drug (typically 50 µl) was gently applied in a dropwise fashion without agitation of the plate. We collected 100 µl of the medium 5 min later and centrifuged this material to eliminate cell contaminants. An ATP bioluminescence kit containing luciferin/luciferase reagent was used to detect ATP in each sample (ATP bioluminescence assay kit HS II, Roche Molecular Biochemicals), and luminescence was measured in a Monolight 2010 tube-reading luminometer. Bioluminescence controls were performed with each drug solution to eliminate drug effect on luciferase activity as well as to control for ATP contamination. In this and other assays, some cells were subjected to physical perturbation by agitation of the media: five 50-µl squirts of media in an up-and-down fashion with a pipetteman.
Assay of cAMP. Cells were labeled with 1 µCi/well of [3H]adenine in growth media for 90 min to allow incorporation of radiolabel into intracellular ATP pools. Growth medium was removed, and cells were washed extensively and equilibrated for 30 min at 37°C in DMEH. Cells were then incubated for 10 min with either 200 µM 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine or 100 µM Ro-20-1724 (to inhibit phosphodiesterases) along with various drugs of interest. Reactions were terminated by aspiration of medium and addition of 7.5% trichloroacetic acid. Approximately 1,000 cpm of [32P]cAMP internal standard was added to each sample, and the volume was brought to 1 ml with water. [3H]cAMP and [3H]ATP were separated from the supernatant fraction using a chromatography method modified from Ref. 21, as described previously (16).
[3H]AA release in intact cells.
Cells were labeled with [3H]AA by incubation with 0.5 µCi [3H]AA (specific activity 100 Ci · mmol1 · ml
1)
for ~20 h in 24-well plates. Cells were washed three times with serum-free DMEM containing 20 mM HEPES buffer (DMEH, pH 7.4)
supplemented with 5 mg/ml bovine serum albumin (BSA) and allowed to
equilibrate at 37°C for 15 min. This equilibration medium was
aspirated, and drugs of interest were added to the wells and incubated
with cells for 20 min. Assays were terminated by removal of medium and
transferring this medium into tubes containing 50 µl of 55 mM EDTA
with 55 mM EGTA. Two-hundred fifty microliters of 0.5% Triton X-100
were added to each well to solubilize cellular membranes. Liquid
scintillation counting was performed to quantitate released
[3H]AA in media. The results were normalized as a
percentage of incorporated radioactivity measured from
detergent-solubilized cells.
Assay of PGE2 production. Cells were cultured and treated with various drugs, as described above for assay of cAMP. Fifty microliters of media were removed from cells after 10 min of drug exposure and assayed for PGE2 using a commercial monoclonal EIA kit (Cayman Chemical, Ann Arbor, MI) according to manufacturer's instructions. Results were read in a Vmax plate-reading spectrophotometer (Molecular Devices), and data are expressed as picograms of PGE2 per milliliter.
Immunoblot analysis. Whole cell lysates were prepared by scraping cells in lysis buffer (50 mM Tris · HCl, pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, 1% Nonidet P-40, protease inhibitor cocktail), homogenizing with a Polytron, and sonicating. Proteins from whole cell lysates were separated by SDS-PAGE and transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride membranes by electroblotting. Membranes were blocked in 20 mM phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) with 3% nonfat dry milk and incubated with primary antibody (see Materials) overnight at 4°C. Bound primary antibodies were visualized using an appropriate secondary antibody with conjugated horseradish peroxidase (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) and enhanced chemiluminescence reagent (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). The amount of protein per fraction was determined using a dye-binding protein assay (Bio-Rad). In some cases, membranes were stripped using Re-Blot reagent (Chemicon International) and reprobed with another primary antibody.
RT-PCR. Primer pairs were designed to selectively amplify either COX-1 or COX-2 based on published species-conserved sequences. Primer sequences were COX-1, 5'-CGA GCC CAG TTC CAA TAT CG-3' and 3'-ACC CCA TAG TCC CAC CAG CAT AG-5'; COX-2, 5'-AC ATC CTG ACC CAC TTC AAG-3' and 3'-CA GGT CCT CGC TTA TGA TCT-5'. Total RNA and genomic DNA was isolated from subconfluent MDCK-D1 cells using TRIzol reagent (Life Technologies) following the manufacturer's protocol. RNA was reverse transcribed using SuperScript II (Life Technologies) and poly-T priming. Twenty-five cycles of PCR were performed using isoform-specific primers using either cDNA, genomic DNA as a positive control, or non-reverse transcribed mRNA as a negative control. In the case of COX-1 RT-PCR, mouse colon cDNA served as a positive control. PCR products were visualized under UV light after gel electrophoresis in 2% agarose containing ethidium bromide.
Data presentation and analysis. Data were obtained in triplicate, averaged for each condition in an experiment, and are presented as means ± SE of at least three experiments. A paired t-test was used to determine statistical significance. For concentration-response relationships, the data were fit by nonlinear regression analysis (with variable slope) using Prism by GraphPad (San Diego, CA). EC50 and maximal response are reported as means ± SE of at least three individual experiments. For immunoblot data, a representative image is shown of two or three individual experiments.
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RESULTS |
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We have previously reported that cultured cells release ATP and
other nucleotides during media change or other mechanical manipulation,
resulting in increased levels of multiple second messengers in
MDCK-D1 cells (16). In addition, we found that addition of various agonists, but most prominently UTP, also could enhance ATP release (16). In the present studies, we
tested two anion channel inhibitors as possible inhibitors of the ATP release channel: gadolinium chloride (Gd3+) and niflumic
acid (20, 22). Gentle squirting of cells with media
delivered with a pipetteman activated ATP release from
MDCK-D1 cells, increasing levels of extracellular ATP from
0.3 ± 0.1 to 10.0 ± 1.1 nM. Addition of 2 mM
Gd3+ or 0.5 mM niflumic acid blocked both this stimulated
release and basal release, reducing extracellular ATP concentrations
roughly in half (Fig. 1, A and
B). Basal and forskolin-stimulated cAMP accumulation was
reduced by inclusion of either Gd3+ or niflumic acid (Fig.
1, A and C). We have previously demonstrated that
released nucleotides activate P2Y receptors coupled to an indomethacin-sensitive (cyclooxygenase-dependent) production of prostaglandins, which act via Gs to synergize with
forskolin in stimulating adenylyl cyclase activity (16,
17). Therefore, Gd3+ and niflumic acid appear to
inhibit this synergy with forskolin by blocking the release of
nucleotides to the extracellular space.
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Consistent with this conclusion, 2 mM Gd3+ or 0.5 mM niflumic acid also inhibited basal levels of AA release and PGE2 production (data not shown), implying that the resting levels of these second messengers are also determined, in large part, by the release of ATP via membrane channels. Moreover, the ATP release inhibitors were able to reduce basal cAMP levels to the same extent as did the cyclooxygenase inhibitor indomethacin (1 µM, Fig. 1A) (16).
Recent reports indicate that COX-2, the inducible form of COX, is
constitutively expressed in certain regions of the kidney (6). To investigate which COX isoform(s) might play a role in cAMP generation in response to activation by endogenous ATP or
exogenous nucleotides acting via P2Y receptors, we utilized COX
isoform-selective inhibitors. Concentration dependence and extent of
inhibition of three isoform-selective COX inhibitors were examined.
Cells were treated with various concentrations of SC-560, SC-58125, or
NS-398, and the cAMP response to a maximal concentration of UTP (100 µM) was measured. The COX-1-selective inhibitor, SC-560, maximally
inhibited UTP-stimulated cAMP accumulation 51% with an
IC50 of 0.68 µM (Fig.
2A). The reported
IC50 values for SC-560 are 9 nM for COX-1 and 6.3 µM for
COX-2 (26). The COX-2-selective inhibitor, SC-58125,
maximally inhibited UTP-stimulated cAMP accumulation 84% with an
IC50 of 46 nM (Fig. 2A). The reported IC50 values for SC-58125 are >10 µM for COX-1 and 50 nM
for COX-2 (25). The commercially available COX-2-selective
inhibitor, NS-398, inhibited UTP-stimulated cAMP with similar extent of
inhibition as SC-58125 but with higher potency [IC50 of
2.1 nM, published IC50 values are 75 µM for COX-1 and 1.8 µM for COX-2 (1)]. The relative concentration
dependence and extent of inhibition of both SC-560 and SC-58125 in
inhibiting UTP-stimulated PGE2 production (Fig.
2B) were similar to those for inhibition of cAMP formation
(Fig. 2A). UTP (100 µM) stimulated 82.26 pg/ml of
PGE2, and these levels were inhibited a maximal 69% and
88% by SC-560 and SC-58125, respectively. Indomethacin inhibited
UTP-stimulated PGE2 production by 97% (Fig. 2B,
dashed line). Therefore, the COX-2-selective inhibitor inhibits a much
larger proportion of nucleotide-mediated responses than the COX-1
inhibitor. SC-560 and SC-58125 also reduced both basal and
mechanically-stimulated PGE2 production (Fig.
2C).
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cAMP accumulation stimulated by forskolin (0.1 µM) or forskolin plus
the P2Y2 agonist UTP (100 µM) was sensitive to the
pretreatment with either the nonselective COX inhibitor indomethacin or
the selective inhibitors SC-560 or SC-58125 (Fig.
3A). Bradykinin and
-adrenergic receptors, which also stimulate cAMP production in these
cells in a COX-dependent manner (16), were also inhibited by both nonselective and COX-1- and COX-2-selective inhibitors (data
not shown).
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Because these data implied a potentially important role for basally expressed COX-2 in MDCK-D1 cells, we investigated whether serum in standard growth medium (DMEM supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum) might induce the expression of COX-2. We thus replaced growth medium on MDCK-D1 cells with serum-free medium for either 24 or 48 h before assaying for cAMP accumulation (longer periods of serum withdrawal negatively impacted cell viability). In 24- and 48-h serum-starved cells, cAMP accumulation stimulated by forskolin plus UTP (100 µM) was sensitive to both COX-1 (SC-560) and COX-2 (SC-58125) inhibitors, although forskolin-promoted increases in cAMP lost the sensitivity to COX inhibitors at 48 but not 24 h (Fig. 3, B and C). The loss in sensitivity to COX inhibitors of the forskolin response likely does not reflect alterations in ATP release or P2Y receptor expression in cells grown for 48 h in serum-free conditions, since UTP-stimulated cAMP was not decreased, and mechanically stimulated ATP release was unaltered (data not shown). Overall, the data imply that the COX-2 isoform plays the predominant role in the autocrine/paracrine signaling pathway by which nucleotides, in particular UTP active at P2Y2 receptors, regulate levels of cAMP in MDCK-D1 cells.
To confirm the presence of both COX isoforms, immunoblot analysis was
used to detect COX protein in lysates of control and serum-starved
MDCK-D1 cells. COX-2 and COX-1 immunoreactivity was readily
detectable in equal amounts in control cells, 24-h serum-starved cells,
48-h serum-starved cells, and 48-h serum-starved cells that been
returned to serum for 24 h (Fig.
4A, left). Therefore, withdrawal of serum in the growth media did not result in decreased COX-2 expression. Incubation of cells with 10 µM dexamethasone for
24 h also had virtually no effect on the amount of COX-2
immunoreactivity (Fig. 4A, right). COX-2 expression in
various cells is induced on exposure to interleukin (IL)-1, tumor
necrosis factor (TNF)-
, or the phorbol ester, phorbol 12-myristate
13-acetate (PMA; Refs. 4 and 13). Therefore, we exposed
MDCK-D1 cells to either 1 µM IL-1
, 1 µM TNF-
, or
both (Fig. 4B, left) or 1 µM PMA (Fig. 4B, right) for 24 h. Cells exposed to
TNF-
, IL-1
, both, or PMA did not display increased COX-2
immunoreactivity. COX-1 immunoreactivity was also detectable in these
conditions but was also not induced (Fig. 4B). In contrast,
both inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cPLA2
immunoreactivity were induced by the above treatments. These data
indicate that COX-2 is constitutively expressed and, apparently, not
readily subject to induction or deinduction by the types of factors and
hormones that regulate COX-2 in other cells.
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To confirm expression of COX isoforms in MDCK-D1 cells, we
performed RT-PCR using specific primers designed to amplify
species-conserved COX-2 and COX-1 sequences. Using COX-2-specific
primers, a prominent product of the expected size from both cDNA and
DNA (but only minimally noted in the negative control) was evident
after 25 cycles of PCR; sequence analysis of the product confirmed the expression of COX-2 mRNA (Fig.
5A, left). The
sequence of the COX-2 PCR product is shown aligned with the published
human sequence in Fig. 5B. The homology of the canine COX-2
sequence to published COX-2 sequences from other species (including
human, rat, and sheep) ranged from 86 to 91%. COX-1-specific primers
were unable to amplify any MDCK-D1 cell COX-1 product but
did amplify COX-1 from murine colon cDNA (Fig. 5A,
right). Three other COX-1-specific primers, including a
degenerate primer pair, also could not amplify canine COX-1 (data not
shown), likely reflecting sequence divergence among species.
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DISCUSSION |
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Our previous work has shown that ATP is released on mild mechanical or biochemical activation and that basal levels of cAMP are substantially determined by this ATP release. The fact that cells can release ATP on activation by specific signals and subsequently respond to extracellular nucleotides implicates this phenomenon as a means of autocrine/paracrine regulation. ATP can be an important physiological signal, influencing ion conductance and volume regulation and contributing to chloride conductance by the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) (3, 11, 24). However, the mechanism for cellular ATP release, which is separate from vesicular exocytosis at synapses and by platelets, remains undefined (24).
The recent widespread clinical usage of COX-2-selective inhibitors
raises the importance of understanding the role of this isozyme in the
regulation of cell function. Some data have suggested that COX-2 may be
constitutively expressed in certain cell types, implying that this
isoform may be involved in signaling pathways regulating other cellular
functions (2, 5, 14, 27). The present studies demonstrate
that COX-2 is expressed in what appears to be a constitutive,
relatively nonregulated fashion in MDCK-D1 cells and that
COX-2 plays a critical role in regulating cAMP levels. cAMP initiates
both rapid actions, such as regulation of ion channels and effects on
carbohydrate, protein, and lipid metabolism, as well as more delayed
effects, such as changes in gene expression, cell growth, and
proliferation. Therefore, we conclude that COX-2 likely participates in
the regulation of such key functions in MDCK-D1 cells and,
by inference, other cells and tissues in which the enzyme is expressed.
Responses in vivo that require induction of COX-2 also depend on
availability of COX substrate (i.e., AA) (7). Increased
cellular ATP release, as well as increases in the ability of cells to
respond to extracellular nucleotides, likely represent an important
mechanism for increased AA release in settings such as inflammation.
Inflammation is characterized by increases in cytokines, such as
IL-1 and TNF-
, and such cytokines can increase expression of both
PLA2s and COX-2 (19, 29, 32).
Many studies have implicated a role for COX-2 expression, particularly
in the kidney (5, 8, 12, 14, 30), but we believe ours is
the first report of constitutive expression of COX-2 in a cell culture
model removed from the influences of circulating hormones and growth
factors. While not all possible regulators of gene expression were
tested, our data show that COX-2 expression in MDCK-D1, in
contrast with results in other cell systems, is only minimally
influenced by common regulators of this gene. IL-1 alone failed to
increase expression of COX-2, while TNF-
produced a very modest
increase in COX-2 expression. In contrast, levels of iNOS were
increased by treatment with these cytokines. Glucocorticoid treatment,
which is well known to inhibit COX-2 expression (15, 32),
failed to decrease COX-2 immunoreactivity in MDCK-D1 cells. Yang and coworkers (33) recently demonstrated that COX-2
immunoreactivity was undetectable in MDCK cells but dramatically
induced on incubation in hypertonic media. Our results contrast with
these findings, perhaps because of the use of different clonal variants
of the parental MDCK cells. These data challenge the prevailing concept that COX-2 is only an inducible isoform and indicate that the differentiated state of some cells may allow the constitutive expression of this isoform.
Renal expression of COX-2 may be important in various physiological functions and pathophysiological states. COX-2 expression increases in macula densa and inner medulla cells on dietary salt restriction, implying a role for this isozyme in salt and water excretion (9, 34). Anti-Thy-1 glomerulonephritis, an in vivo model of mesangial cell injury, is associated with marked increases in COX-2 expression, particularly in glomerular epithelial cells (10). Such findings, together with the current data, implicate an important role for COX-2 in regulation of renal function. We conclude that the ATP release/P2Y receptor/COX-2 signaling pathway we describe here is a key autocrine/paracrine regulator of cell function, particularly in renal epithelia under basal conditions as well as in pathophysiological settings.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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The authors thank Dr. R. Tukey for use of the luminometer, Dr. L. Brunton for iNOS antibody, Dr. L. Eckman for mouse cDNA, J. Truong and L. Pan for technical assistance with cell culture, and K. Hultgren for technical assistance with cAMP assays.
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FOOTNOTES |
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This work was supported by research and training grants from the National Institutes of Health and the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation.
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: P. A. Insel, Dept. of Pharmacology, Univ. of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0636 (E-mail: pinsel{at}ucsd.edu).
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Received 9 January 2001; accepted in final form 2 April 2001.
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