Departments of Biochemistry and Pediatrics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia
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ABSTRACT |
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K+ depolarization; cell signaling; signal transduction; contraction
Together, these and other studies provided the material to construct a model (84) showing that the degree of Ca2+ sensitivity is a regulated parameter; mechanisms shifting Ca2+ sensitivity to the left and right of a central curve generated in response to stimulation with KCl cause, respectively, Ca2+ sensitization and Ca2+ desensitization (Fig. 1A). What has emerged from research over the past 15 years is that Ca2+ sensitivity plays as important a role in regulation of smooth muscle contraction as does [Ca2+]i (see Refs. 70, 91, 145, 170, 176, and 178 for reviews). Moreover, until recently, regulation of Ca2+ sensitivity has been attributed solely to Ca2+-independent cell signaling events. However, as with many cell signaling systems thought originally to reflect a direct cause-and-effect regulatory pathway and found later to involve cross-talk with other signaling systems, regulation of smooth muscle contraction by [Ca2+]i and by Ca2+ sensitivity may not always be entirely separate systems, but may best be understood as part of an interacting spatiotemporal signaling network (150, 201, 202).
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MECHANISMS REGULATING SMOOTH MUSCLE CA2+ SENSITIVITY |
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Studies done as early as 1984, with the use of intact smooth muscle tissues, showed that GPCR agonists can produce greater increases in force for a given increase in [Ca2+]i than KCl (22, 32, 53, 66, 86, 127, 142, 158, 169). KCl-induced contraction has long been known to be due to membrane depolarization causing Ca2+ entry through voltage-operated Ca2+ channels (VOCCs) (52, 135, 205; see Refs. 20 and 24 for reviews), activation of Ca2+-dependent MLC kinase, and increases in MLC phosphorylation (38, 152). GPCR-induced contraction, on the other hand, is caused by activation of trimeric G proteins linked to Gq and G12/13 (see Ref. 178 for review), leading to generation of multiple cell messengers, including inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate, diacylglycerol, and the low molecular weight GTPase, RhoA (for a general review on RhoA and GPCRs, see Refs. 165, 171, and 208), activation of multiple Ca2+ channel types, and activation of at least two kinases, RhoA kinase (ROK) and protein kinase C (PKC), in addition to Ca2+-dependent MLC kinase (see Refs. 51, 120, 146, 168, and 176 for reviews). While the motor proteins responsible for generation of force reside in the cell interior, most of the upstream signals generated upon GPCR stimulation, including ROK and PKC, are regulated at the plasma membrane.
The smooth muscle plasma membrane can be divided into at least three domains: focal contacts, the dystroglycan complex, and caveolae. Caveolae are small 50100 nm cavelike invaginations of the plasma membrane housing a unique lipid domain that contains high concentrations of cholesterol and sphingolipids (see Ref. 174 for review). The dystrophin complex and caveolae are complementary (i.e., spatially close), whereas caveolae and focal contacts are located in mutually exclusive areas that display an alternating, punctate pattern when viewed with the use of immunohistochemical fluorescence labeling of selected proteins (see Refs. 58, 138, 192, and Fig. 2). Several studies support the hypothesis that GPCR stimulation increases translocation of inactive cytosolic RhoA (bound to RhoA-GDI) to peripheral plasma membrane sites such as caveolae, where RhoA-GTP activates ROK (45, 56, 187), supporting a caveolar role in regulation of Ca2+ sensitization (for review, see Ref. 186). Moreover, the hypothesis that caveolae play an important role in GPCR-induced contraction is supported by data showing that disruption of the caveolar structure with the cholesterol-depleting agent, methyl--cyclodextrin, or by caveolin-1 knockout, reduces the ability of some GPCR stimuli, but not KCl, to produce contraction (36, 37, 78).
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The proposal that Ca2+ sensitization is caused primarily by inhibition of MLC phosphatase activity has gained widespread support (see Ref. 178 for a review, and for reviews on MLC phosphatase, see Refs. 59, 60, 75). The general model (Fig. 3; and reviewed by Ref. 177) is that GPCR stimulation reduces MLC phosphatase activity by phosphorylation of the MLC phosphatase regulatory subunit MYPT1 and the 17-kDa PKC-activated phosphatase inhibitor CPI-17 (39, 40, 43, 45, 59, 114, 116). Inhibitory activity of CPI-17 causing Ca2+ sensitization is activated by CPI-17-Thr38 phosphorylation (96). MLC phosphatase activity is also regulated independently of CPI-17 by MYPT1-Thr696 and MYPT1-Thr853 phosphorylation. MYPT1-Thr696 phosphorylation inhibits MLC phosphatase activity (42, 71) and MYPT1-Thr853 phosphorylation causes dissociation of MLC phosphatase from myosin, thereby effectively preventing MLC phosphatase from acting on its substrate, phospho-MLC (206). There is growing evidence that GPCR agonists that cause Ca2+ sensitization in smooth muscle act by increasing MYPT1-Thr853 phosphorylation more so than by increasing MYPT1-Thr696 phosphorylation (96,136). Several kinases, including ROK, can phosphorylate MYPT1 and CPI-17 (reviewed by Ref. 75, 178). Whereas GPCR activation can phosphorylate, KCl does not cause phosphorylation of CPI-17 in the tonic femoral artery or phasic vas deferens in the presence of -adrenergic receptor blockade (95, 96).
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ROK AND PKC PARTICIPATE IN ELEVATING CA2+ SENSITIVITY OF MANY SMOOTH MUSCLE TYPES IN RESPONSE TO GPCR STIMULATION |
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Y-27632 and a structurally unrelated ROK inhibitor, HA-1077, have proven invaluable in identification of the relative role that Ca2+ sensitization plays in regulation of contraction of smooth muscles of different organ systems. A recent study (31) documenting the specificity of 28 commercially available kinase inhibitors indicates that Y-27632 and HA-1077 are highly selective for inhibition of ROK when used at appropriate concentrations. Y-27632 and HA-1077 inhibit vascular (200), respiratory (27), ileal (185), stomach (156), bladder (79), and myometrial (106) smooth muscle contractions produced by GPCR stimulation. However, based on the degree to which these agents inhibit force, the extent to which ROK participates in contractions appears to differ in different smooth muscle types. For example, 10 µM Y-27632 modestly reduces spontaneous human myometrial contractions (106) yet abolishes tonic -adrenergic receptor-induced contraction of rabbit aorta (200). Muscarinic receptor stimulation induces a biphasic contraction of ileum, bladder, and chicken gizzard consisting of a phasic component (early peak response), followed by a tonic component that is weaker than the phasic component. In the ileum, ROK blockade by Y-27632 and HA-1077 leaves the phasic component nearly intact and abolishes the tonic component (185), whereas in the bladder, both components are greatly diminished (79). Although GTP
S induces ROK activation and Ca2+ sensitization in chicken gizzard smooth muscle, muscarinic receptor stimulation does not cause ROK-dependent Ca2+ sensitization in this muscle type (6). However, Y-27632 reduces stomach antrum motility in conscious rats (197) and stomach fundus contraction induced by muscarinic receptor activation in vitro (156).
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EVIDENCE THAT KCL CAN ACTIVATE COMPLEX CELL SIGNALING SYSTEMS |
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Prolonged membrane depolarization can maintain [Ca2+]i and force above the basal level by continuous activation of Ca2+ influx through organic Ca2+ channel blocker-sensitive VOCCs (52, 65, 72, 100, 125, 131, 132, 191, 203). However, there is evidence that a portion of the early, phasic phase of a KCl-induced smooth muscle contraction is due also to release of Ca2+ from ryanodine- and caffeine-sensitive intracellular Ca2+ stores (101, 102). In coronary artery, membrane depolarization appears to modulate inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate production (50). Moreover, selectivity for VOCCs of certain organic Ca2+ channel blockers, such as the dihydropyridine, nifedipine, has recently been challenged. Although nonselective actions at high concentrations of organic Ca2+ channel blockers are well known (83), recent studies (104, 109, 209) suggest that low nifedipine concentrations inhibit certain store-operated Ca2+ channels (SOCCs) with an IC50 value equivalent to VOCC inhibition (28, 216). Although additional research is required, these data together support the hypothesis that smooth muscle membrane depolarization by KCl may stimulate more complex Ca2+ signaling systems than simply activation of VOCCs.
In 1990, the isoquinolinesulfonyl protein kinase inhibitor, H-7, was shown to more potently relax KCl-induced (IC50 4 µM) than phenylephrine-induced (IC50 = 1115 µM) tonic contractions of rabbit renal and femoral arteries (148). Reductions in force correlated with reductions in MLC phosphorylation and the maximum rate of muscle shortening (148). In the rat aorta, H-7 inhibits KCl-induced increases in force more strongly than increases in [Ca2+]i (190). At the time of these studies, H-7 was considered a selective PKC inhibitor (63, 73, 90), and the data suggested involvement of PKC in KCl-induced tonic force maintenance. Another isoquinolinesulfonyl protein kinase inhibitor and potent vasorelaxant, HA-1077 when used at no more than 10 µM, was shown to also strongly inhibit KCl-induced contractions with a minimum inhibition of [Ca2+]i (190). In canine basilar artery, 10 µM HA-1077 abolishes Ca2+ ionophore (ionomycin)-induced contraction, whereas organic Ca2+ channel blockers have no effect, suggesting that the inhibitory effect is due to intracellular antagonism of contraction (189). The Ki for MLC kinase is 36 µM (11), and at 20 µM, HA-1077 inhibits MLC kinase by <10% (31). These data, acquired before the discovery of ROK in 1995 (111), suggested that KCl stimulates a kinase other than MLC kinase that plays an important role downstream from Ca2+ mobilization in the regulation of smooth muscle contraction. It is now clear that H-7 (43) and HA-1077 inhibit ROK with nearly equal potency (200), that the IC50 value is
3 µM for inhibition of GTP
S-stimulated contraction of Ca2+-clamped (
-escin) guinea pig ileum (185), and that HA-1077 is a poor inhibitor of conventional PKC isotypes (31, 185). KCl-induced tonic contraction of rabbit femoral artery is not inhibited by 1 µM of the bisindolymaleimide, GF-109203X (202), an effective and relatively selective inhibitor of conventional and novel PKC isotypes with no inhibitory activity toward ROK at concentrations effective against PKC (31, 40, 49). Thus these data together support the hypothesis that the kinase activated by KCl in smooth muscle is not PKC, but ROK. If KCl activates ROK, then KCl should cause Ca2+ sensitization.
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EVIDENCE THAT KCL CAN CAUSE INCREASES IN CA2+ SENSITIVITY OF SMOOTH MUSCLE CONTRACTION BY ACTIVATION OF ROK |
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However, the argument that a stimulus increases Ca2+ sensitivity if it produces a [Ca2+]i-force curve that is leftward shifted compared with that produced by KCl remains a valid argument, provided that consideration be made for the degree of Ca2+ sensitivity already induced by KCl. For example, the absence of a leftward shift in the [Ca2+]i force curve produced by a novel GPCR agonist compared with the KCl-induced curve does not necessarily mean the absence of Ca2+ sensitization. However, the terminology remains loose, and an exact definition for the midpoint of the Ca2+ sensitivity spectrum representing neither Ca2+ sensitization nor Ca2+ desensitization should probably be eliminated. In its place, the two extremes of Ca2+ sensitivity should be defined and mechanistically equated with well-characterized signaling mechanisms.
Recent studies show that Y-27632 inhibits KCl-induced contraction of most smooth muscle types in many species, including the human myometrium (106), rat caudal artery (121), rat (6, 166) and rabbit aorta (166, 167), rat mesenteric artery (9, 166), rabbit femoral and renal arteries (202), mouse anococcygeus smooth muscle (13), pig and cow airway smooth muscle (77), and sheep ureter (113). KCl-induced contraction of chicken gizzard smooth muscle is not inhibited by 10 µM Y-27632, but this is consistent with the lack of inhibition by Y-27632 of GPCR stimulation in this smooth muscle despite the presence of RhoA and ROK and the ability to induce Ca2+ sensitization with GTPS in Ca2+-clamped tissues (6).
Y-27632 inhibits the tonic phase much more than the early phase of a KCl-induced contraction in rabbit femoral and renal arteries (202) and rat caudal artery (121), whereas 30 µM ML-9, a MLC kinase and ROK inhibitor (15, 200), attenuates both early and tonic force (121). Y-27632 inhibits KCl-induced force without inhibition of KCl-induced increases in [Ca2+]i (77, 106, 121, 166, 202), but with concomitant inhibition of MLC phosphorylation (121, 166, 202). However, in the phasic rat ureter, 1 µM Y-27632 dramatically inhibits VOCC activity to reduce both [Ca2+]i and force produced by electrical field stimulation, whereas action potential-generated force transients in guinea pig ureter are insensitive to Y-27632 (172). Y-27632 (10 µM) has also been shown to modestly inhibit muscarinic receptor-induced increases in [Ca2+]i in guinea pig airway smooth muscle (76). Higher Y-27632 concentrations produce greater inhibition, and further reductions in [Ca2+]i occur in the presence of 1 µM nifedipine, suggesting that non-VOCCs are inhibited. In rat arteries, Y-27632 inhibits nifedipine-insensitive Ca2+ entry induced by -adrenergic receptor activation, but does not inhibit thapsigargin-induced increases in Ca2+, suggesting that ROK can block nonselective cation channels distinct from VOCCs and SOCCs (54). Thus with the caveat that ROK may regulate Ca2+ channels in some smooth muscles (54, 76, 172), these data together indicate that KCl causes Ca2+ sensitization by activating ROK.
There are at least two reasons why these results do not necessarily contradict the original publication in 1997 stating that Y-27632 has little effect on KCl-induced force (200). First, a subsequent report by Sakamoto et al. (166) indicates that even 100 µM Y-27632 inhibits KCl-contracted rabbit aorta by only 45%, and with this minimum included in the calculation, the IC50 value is 1.6 µM, a value comparable to that calculated for tissues activated by GPCR agonists. Thus, in this artery, the tonic phase of a KCl-induced contraction may consist of a Y-27632-resistant and Y-27632-sensitive component. A second reason is that the potency of inhibition of agonist-induced contraction by Y-27632 is dependent on agonist concentration. In rabbit femoral artery, the order of potency for inhibition by Y-27632 of contraction is 0.1 µM phenylephrine >KCl and 1 µM phenylephrine >100 µM phenylephrine (Fig. 4), and in bovine airway smooth muscle, although the IC50 value for inhibition of 0.3 µM methacholine-induced contraction is 2.4 µM, this concentration of Y-27632 fails to inhibit contractions produced by 1 and 3 µM methacholine (130). Interestingly, in the rat aorta (166), 73 mM KCl-induced contraction is more potently (IC50 1 µM) inhibited by Y-27632 than are contractions produced by 1 µM phenylephrine (IC50
2 µM), 30 nM endothelin (IC50
4 µM), and 10 µM PGF2
(IC50
5 µM), which is consistent with the earlier finding that the ROK inhibitor, H-7, produces a more potent inhibition of KCl-induced contraction than of phenylephrine-induced contraction (148).
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POTENTIAL MECHANISMS FOR KCL-INDUCED INCREASES IN CA2+ SENSITIVITY |
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Before publication of Y-27632 as a ROK inhibitor (200), studies using cell-permeable RhoA inhibitors demonstrated attenuation of KCl-induced contractions. For example, Clostridium difficile toxin B reduces the peak of KCl-stimulated phasic contraction of guinea pig intestine by 30% (141), and DC3B (12, 21) significantly inhibits KCl-induced peak contraction of rabbit portal vein by
40% (45). The focus of these studies, however, was on inhibition of GPCR-induced contraction, and inhibition of KCl-induced force was not explored further. Nevertheless, RhoA seems to be involved in KCl-induced ROK activation. Although Ca2+ calmodulin-dependent ras GEFs exist, there are no reports of Ca2+- or depolarization-dependent RhoA GEFs. Thus there is not yet a viable model to explain how KCl might activate RhoA.
One function of caveolae is to serve as a signalosome (reviewed in Ref. 173), a subcellular compartment acting somewhat like an urban center to concentrate signaling molecules and systems, permitting efficient signal transduction. Caveolae are loci for ROK and RhoA interaction upon GPCR stimulation in smooth muscle (186), and a recent report indicates that caveolin-1 plays a crucial role in regulation of PKC- and ERK-based smooth muscle contraction (78). Whereas GPCR stimuli cause increased ROK and RhoA colocalization with caveolin (187, 188), KCl increases ROK, but not RhoA, colocalization with caveolin in intact rabbit femoral artery (201, 202). The fraction of RhoA colocalized basally with caveolin at the plasma membrane in rabbit artery appears to be substantial (201), and because membrane-bound RhoA is active (the inactive form is bound to Rho-GDI in the cytosol, see Ref. 178 for a review), any ROK that translocates to plasma membrane RhoA may become activated. Moreover, using a pull-down assay, Sakurada et al. (167) found that KCl increases the amount of cellular RhoA in the active (GTP bound) form, and that this stimulation is entirely Ca2+-dependent in rabbit aorta.
These data suggest that KCl may cause Ca2+ sensitization, in part, by increasing the fraction of active ROK at caveolae. However, intact caveolae are not required for KCl-induced contraction, because neither caveolin-1 knockout nor cholesterol depletion causing caveolae collapse alters the ability of KCl to cause contraction (36, 37, 78). Caveolin not only is found in caveolae but also is associated with the -dystroglycan (157) in a plasma membrane domain near caveolae (138, 192). Thus an alternative hypothesis consistent with the data that has not yet been tested is that RhoA and ROK do not require caveolin as a binding partner for activation and that KCl causes an increase in translocation of ROK to the dystroglycan complex located next to, but not within, caveolae. Although
1-adrenergic receptor activation causes Ca2+ sensitization (66, 94) at agonist concentrations greater than the EC50 value (48) and contraction that is sensitive to inhibition by Y-27632 (see Fig. 4), caveolin-1 knockout and caveolar collapse do not inhibit force produced by stimulation of this GPCR (29, 36). Thus, it appears that caveolae are necessary for some but not all stimuli that cause ROK activation and Ca2+ sensitization. A complicating factor in the interpretation of caveolin-1 knockout and caveolar collapse data is that many GPCR-linked signaling molecules other than RhoA and ROK, such as the receptors themselves, G proteins, and PLC
that accumulate in caveolae would likewise be disrupted. For example, cholesterol depletion can reduce the affinity of receptors for their ligands (98). Caveolae also appear to play a dominant role in regulation of membrane potential and Ca2+ signaling (14, 30), especially activation of SOCCs (18, 198), and collapse of caveolae can reduce GPCR-induced Ca2+ entry (18, 37). Thus inhibition of GPCR stimulated contraction may reflect alterations in signaling other than those involved in ROK-induced Ca2+ sensitization. Although KCl doubles the amount of ROK found colocalized with caveolin in the cell periphery in rabbit femoral artery, the increase is from
18% basal colocalization to
35% (202), suggesting that a majority of ROK either is not translocated to peripheral sites or is translocated to other sites. These data together indicate that a major challenge will be to determine precisely what roles peripheral sites play in ROK activation leading to KCl (and GPCR)-induced Ca2+ sensitization.
How KCl causes ROK translocation to peripheral sites also remains to be determined. The directed movement from cytosol to specific plasma membrane locations suggests that ROK is cargo carried by molecular motors along intracellular cables (reviewed by Refs. 33, 80, 207). Microtubules that run along the long axis of the smooth muscle cell can be found near the caveolar membrane domain (Fig. 5 and Ref. 118), and not only do actin cables terminate nearby at focal contacts (192), but caveolae are largely immobilized by linkage to the cortical actin cytoskeleton, at least in certain cell types (196). Myosin II is known to transport vesicles along actin cables in clam oocyte extracts (210), but perhaps more importantly, myosin II colocalizes with cortical actin cables in chromaffin cells where MLC phosphorylation appears necessary for KCl-induced vesicle transport and secretion (133). Neuronal mitochondria are transported by molecular motors along microtubule and actin cables (128), and because of the propinquity of mitochondria, caveolae, microtubules and actin cables in smooth muscle (Fig. 5), it is tempting to speculate that KCl causes Ca2+ sensitization by activating a transport mechanism involving ROK attached to a molecular motor running along an actin or microtubule cable. Interestingly, both the actin polymerization inhibitor, cytochalasin D, and the microtubule disruptor, nocodazole, inhibit the increase in KCl-induced ROK colocalization with caveolin in rabbit artery (Fig. 6), and cytochalasins A, B, and D inhibit tonic but not early, phasic KCl-induced contraction in rat aorta (212). In this scenario, ROK need not be active for transport to occur because Y-27632, while strongly inhibiting KCl-induced tonic force, does not inhibit KCl-induced ROK colocalization with caveolin (202).
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Perhaps the most interesting model was proposed by Morano (124), who speculated, based on smooth muscle myosin II knockout studies, that KCl-induced tonic bladder contraction in neonatal mice is maintained, at least in part, by ROK-induced activation of nonmuscle myosin (see Ref. 123 for review). However, using the same smooth muscle myosin II-deficient neonatal mice, Lohn et al. (115) showed that KCl elevates [Ca2+]i but not force, whereas PKC activation using phorbol ester produces sustained cerebral artery contraction without elevating Ca2+. Thus nonmuscle myosin does not permit force maintenance in cerebral arteries stimulated with KCl. Moreover, because adult arteries do not express significant amounts of nonmuscle myosin (107), a major role for this motor protein in maintenance of strong KCl-induced tonic force in adult arterial muscle seems unlikely.
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UNRESOLVED ISSUES |
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The use of primary single cell isolates can also eliminate the potential contribution of paracrine stimuli. However, integrin- and elastin-based signaling play important roles in the regulation of cell signaling (Refs. 88, 182, 183, 193, and reviewed in Ref. 217), and the loss of, or dramatic alteration in, focal contact tension on disruption of the extracellular matrix permitting isolation of single smooth muscle cells may dramatically alter cell signaling systems leading to contraction. Another complicating factor would arise if increases in [Ca2+]i produced on membrane depolarization with KCl caused increased production of autocrine hormones such as sphingosine-1-phosphate and arachidonic acid metabolites (3, 110, 140, 144). If generated, autocrine agents could activate GPCRs, leading to Ca2+ sensitization, and this contribution to a KCl-induced response may not be eliminated even by isolation of single cells. These issues will be resolved only by use of appropriate tissue, cell and molecular models and protocol designs including the use of selective receptor blockers or inhibitors of the production of autocrine and paracrine agents.
Another unresolved issue is the precise identity of the molecular links bridging KCl stimulation with ROK activation. The definitive experiments in smooth muscle have not been done, and whether Ca2+ activates a molecular motor or some other system is not known. The binding partners involved in ROK transport and the signals that initiate and terminate translocation are not known. Also, whether Ca2+ or membrane depolarization plays the principal role in KCl-induced Ca2+ sensitization remains to be determined.
In summary, a general model (Fig. 7) for KCl-induced Ca2+ sensitization must at this time include several possible alternative mechanisms, including Ca2+-induced colocalization to plasma membrane site(s) such as caveolae or the dystroglycan complex, activation of ROK by RhoA or by arachidonic acid, activation of GPCRs by the generation of paracrine or autocrine agents, and activation of ROK by membrane depolarization independently of changes in [Ca2+]i. In addition, the contribution made by other Ca2+-dependent and -independent enzymes on MLC kinase and phosphatase activities must also be considered in a comprehensive model describing KCl-induced Ca2+ sensitization.
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SOME FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN KCL-INDUCED CA2+ SENSITIVITY RESEARCH |
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In conclusion, KCl remains a valuable tool as a smooth muscle stimulus. Future studies designed to explore KCl-induced Ca2+ sensitization will undoubtedly provide new insights and a deeper understanding of spatiotemporal cell signaling paradigms involved in regulation of smooth muscle contraction in health and disease.
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GRANTS |
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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Present address for N. H. Urban: Virginia Commonwealth University, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, 1101 E. Marshall St., PO Box 980614, Richmond, VA 23289-0614.
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FOOTNOTES |
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